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DICTIONARY 

OF 

GENERAL     KNOWLEDGE; 


OK, 


Bn  ^rjjlanatioix  ot  ©STorCs  ana  ^^ixiQS 

CONNECTED 

WITH  ALL   THE   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NUMEROUS  WOOD  CUTS. 


BY  GEORGE   CRABB,  A.  M. 

AUTHOR  OF  'ENGLISH  SYNONYMES,'  'TECHNOLOGICAL  DICTIONARY  '  AND 
'HISTORICAL  DICTIONARY.' 


Mercury,  guided  by  Minerva,  bearing  Science  round  the  Woild. 


AMERICAN   EDITION,   WITH    MANY    IMPROVEMENTS. 


I^EW-YORK :  WHITE,  GALLAHER,  AND  WHITE. 
1830. 


V 


DISTHICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  to  wit:  District  Clerk's  Office. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  that  on  the  twenty-ninth  day  of  July,  A.  D.  1830,  in  the  fifty-fifth  year  of 
the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  SAMUEL  G.  GOODRICH  of  the  said  District,  has 
deposited  in  this  OiEcethe  Title  of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  Proprietor  in  the  woi-ds  follow- 
ing, to  wit : 

"A  DICTIONARY  OP  GENERAL  KNOWLEDGE  ;  or  an  Explanation  of  words  and  things.  Con- 
nected with  all  the  Arts  and  Sciences,  illustrated  with  numerous  woodcuts,  by  GEORGE  CRABB,  A.  M, 
Author  of  English  Synonymes,  Technological  Dictiouary,  and  Historical  Dictionary.  American  Edition 
with  many  improvements," 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  An  Act  for  the  encouragement 
of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  co- 
pies during  the  times  therein  mentioned ;"  and  also  to  an  act,  entitled,  "  An  Act  supplementai-y  to  an 
act,  entitled  An  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and 
hooks,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein  mentioned ;  and  extending 
the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designixig,  engraving,  and  etching  historical  and  other  prints.*' 

JNO.  W.  DAVIS, 
Clerk  of  the  District  of  Massachusetta. 


STEllEOTYl'ED  BY  LYMAN  TIIURSTOA  &  Co. 
ii(J&  T  0  N  '. 


PREFACE 

TO     THE     LONDON     EDITION. 


This  volume  contains  definitions  of  all  terms  of  art  and 
science,  with  such  additional  explanations  in  some  cases  as 
serve  to  illustrate  something  more  than  the  bare  meaning 
of  the  word.  It  is  drawn  up  with  special  regard  to  brevity, 
in  order  to  comprehend  within  a  convenient  space  all  words 
on  which  the  reader  may  wish  for  immediate  information. 
To  the  juvenile  and  less  informed  class  of  readers,  a  work 
of  this  kind  cannot  fail  to  he  acceptable,  particularly  as  it 
has  been  so  liberally  supplied  with  illustrations  by  means 
of  engravings.  Although  so  small  in  bulk,  yet  this  book 
will  be  found  to  contain  a  vast  number  of  words  which  are 
not  to  be  met  with  in  any  other  works  whatever,  the  expla- 
nation of  which  is  nevertheless  highly  necessary  for  those 
who  are  not  in  the  constant  habit  of  hearing  them  used  in 
ordinary  discourse.  Of  this  description  are  the  Latin 
phrases  now  adopted  into  our  language,  as  Sine  qua  non, 
Ne  plus   ultra,    and   the   like.     The    historical   essays    on 


each  science,  whioh  have  been  expressly  composed  for  this 
Dictiona;  .  serve  to  show  the  progress  of  the  arts  and 
sciences   irom   the   earliest   periods   to  the   present   time. 


NOTE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

The  present  edition  of  this  work  has  undergone  a  care- 
ful revision,  and  such  alterations,  and  additions  have  been 
made,  as  seemed  necessary  to  render  it  complete,  and  adapt 
it  to  the  United  States.  In  the  English  copy,  there  are 
a  multitude  of  local  references,  proper  in  a  work  designed 
expressly  for  England,  but  useless  to  the  American  reader. 
These  have  been  expunged,  and  their  place  supplied  by 
references  to  our  own  country.  In  the  department  of 
Natural  History,  many  errors  have  been  corrected,  and  many 
articles,  particularly  relating  to  the  Zoology  of  the  Wes- 
tern Hemisphere,  have  been  added.  The  Zoological  ar- 
rangement of  Cuvier,  which  has  nearly  susperseded  that 
of  Linnaeus,  is  here  introduced,  it  having  been  omitted  in  the 
English  copy.  Several  new  engravings  have  been  added, 
while  all  the  original  ones  are  retained.  The  number 
of  them  all  is  now  about  five  hundred.  On  the  whole  it 
is  believed  this  edition  will  be  found  to  possess  all  the 
advantages  of   the  English,   while  in  many  respects  it   is 

essentially  improved 

Boston,  June  10th,  1830. 


DICTIONARY 


GENERAL    KNOWLEDGE. 


ABA 

A,  the  first  letter  of  the  alphabet  in  most 
languages.  It  stands  for  the  indefinite  ar- 
ticle, as,  a  man  ;  for  tlie  sixtli  note  in  the 
gamut ;  for  the  first  of  the  dominical  letters 
in  the  calendar  j  as  a  numeral  for  one,  among 
the  Greeks,  and  500  among  the  E.omans, 
or  with  a  stroke  over  it,  I,  5000j  for  an 
abbreviation,  as  A.  M.  Anno  Mundi,  A.  B. 
Baccalaureus  Artium,  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
A.  C.  Ante  Christum,  A.  D.  Anno  Domini ; 
in  antiquity,  A.  Augustus,  A.  A.  Augusti, 
A.  A.  A.  Aurum,  Argentum,  Ms ;  among 
chymists,  Amalgam. 

AAM.  A  liquid  measure,  used  by  the 
Dutch,  containing  280  pints  English  mea- 
sure. 

ABACUS.  An  instrument  for  calculation, 
consisting  of  a  board  of  an  oblong  figure, 
divided  by  several  lines  or  vvires,  and 
mounted  with  an  equal  number  of  balls 
an-anged  so  as  to  express  units,  tens,  hun- 
dreds, thousands,  &c.  The  ball  on  the 
lowest  Ime  expresses  1 ;  each  of  those  on 
the  second  line,  10,  &c.;  those  in  the  middle 
spaces,  half  as  much  as  those  on  the  lines 
above  them. 


-#— ©- 


10000 
1000 
100 
10 

1 


ABAFT.  The  hinder  part  of  a  ship. 
ABAGI.  A  silver  coin  in  Persia,  vame 
about  thu-ty-six  sols,  French  money. 
1 


ABE 

ABATIS,  or  ABBATIS.  Trees  felled, 
and  laid  so  as  to  impede  the  progress  of 
an  enemy. 

ABBESS.  The  governess  of  an  abbey 
or  convent  of  nuns. 

ABBEY.  A  house  for  religious  persons, 
of  which,  in  England,  490  were  dissolved 
at  the  Reformation,  having  an  annual  rev- 
enue of  235,000Z. 

ABBOT.  The  governor  of  a  religious 
house. 

ABBREVIATION.  The  contracting  of 
a  word  or  sentence,  by  omitting  some  of 
the  letters. 

ABDOMEN.  The  lower  part  of  the 
body ;  the  belly. 

ABDOMINALES.  An  order  of  fishes, 
having  ventral  fins  placed  behind  the  pec- 
toral in  the  abdomen,  as 


ABDUCTION.  The  unlawful  carrying 
away  a  person. 

ABERRATION.  A  small  apparent  mo- 
tion in  the  fixed  stars,  discovered  by  Mr. 
Molyneux  and  Dr.  Bradley  in  the  year 
1725 ;  also  a  deviation  of  the  rays  of  light, 
when  inflected  by  a  lens  or  speculum,  by 


2  ABS 

which  they  are  prevented  meeting  in  the 
same  point. 

ABETTOR.  One  who  instigates  another 
to  commit  a  crime. 

ABEYANCE.  The  expectancy  of  an 
estate,  honour,  or  title. 

ABJURATION.  A  declaration  on  oath, 
that  the  son  of  James  II.  and  his  issue 
have  no  right  to  the  throne  of  Great  Brit- 
ain ;  also  a  voluntary  banishment,  or  leav- 
ing the  realm  on  oath  never  to  return. 

ABLACTATION.  A  sort  of  engrafting 
trees,  by  leaving  the  graft  on  its  proper 
stock,  until  it  be  fully  incorporated  with 
the  new  stock. 

ABLATIVE.  The  sixth  case  of  nouns  in 
gi'ammar. 

ABLUTION.  A  religious  ceremony  of 
washing  the  body,  still  used  by  the  Turks 
and  Mahomedans ;  also  the  washing  away 
the  superfluous  salts  out  of  any  body  in 
chymistry. 

ABOLLA.  A  kind  of  military  garment 
worn  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  soldiers. 

ABOMASUS  ^(in  Comparative  Ana- 
tomy), The  fourth  stomach  of  ruminating 
animals. 

ABORIGINES.  The  ancient  and  origi- 
nal inhabitants  of  Italy,  supposed  to  have 
been  conducted  into  Latium  by  Saturn ; 
also  the  original  inhabitants  of  any  country. 
In  America  we  call  the  native  Indians, 
Aborigines. 

ABOUT.  A  sea  term,  signifying  the  sit- 
uation of  a  ship  immediately  after  she  has 
tacked. 

ABRAUM.  A  kind  of  red  clay  used  by 
cabinet-makers  to  deepen  the  colom'  of 
new  mohogany. 

ABREAST.  Side  by  side  ;  a  sea  term,  ap- 
plied to  two  or  more  ships  ranged  together. 

ABRIDGING  (in  Algebra).  The  re- 
ducing a  compound  equation  to  a  more 
simple  form. 

ABRIDGMENT.  The  bringing  the  con- 
tents of  a  book  within  a  short  compass  ;  in 
Law,  the  shortening  a  count  or  declaration. 

ABSCESS.  An  inflammatory  tumour 
containing  purulent  matter. 

ABSCISSE.  The  part  of  any  diameter 
or  axis  of  a  curved  Une,  cut  off  by  a  per- 
pendicular line,  called  the  ordhiate. 

ABSOLUTION.  The  forgiveness  of 
sins,  which  the  Romish  Church  claims  to 
itself  the  power  of  gianting ;  in  Civil  Law, 
a  sentence  whereby  the  party  accused  is 
declared  innocent  of  the  crime  laid  to 
his  charge. 

ABSORBENTS.  Medicines  that  have 
the  powerofdryingup  redundant  humours: 
also  what  causes  acids  to  effervesce,  as 
quick  lime,  soda,  &c. 


ACC 

ABSORBENT  VESSELS.  Vessels 
which  carry  any  fluid  into  the  blood,  as 
the  inhalent  arteries. 

ABSORPTION  (in  Chymistry).  The 
conversion  of  a  gaseous  fluid  into  a  liquid 
or  solid,  on  being  united  with  some  other 
solid. 

ABSTERGENTS.  Medicines  for  cleans- 
ing the  body  from  impurities. 

ABSTINENCE.  An  abstaining  from 
meat  diet,  as  practised  in  the  Romish 
Church. - 

ABSTRACTION  (in  Logic).  The  intel- 
lectual act  of  separating  accidents  or  qua- 
lities from  the  subjects  in  whicli  they  re- 
side, as  whiteness  from  snow  or  a  wall. 
Sec. ;  animal  from  man  or  the  brutes ;  in 
Chymistry,  the  process  of  drawing  off"  by 
distillation  any  part  of  a  compound,  and 
returning  it  again  any  number  of  times  to 
be  redistilled. 

ABUTMENTS.  The  extremities  of  any 
body  a<ljoining  another,  as  the  extremities 
of  a  bridge  resting  on  the  banks  or  sides 
of  a  river. 

ABYSS.  Any  deep  place  that  is  bottom- 
less, or  supposed  to  be  so,  as  the  deepest 
or  unfathomable  parts  of  the  sea. 

ACACIA.  A  beautiful  shrub,  a  species 
of  which  bears  rose-coloured  flowers.  A 
thorny  shrub  of  this  name  is  common  in 
the  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  pro- 
duces gum  Arabic. 

ACADEMICS.  A  sect  of  ancient  philo- 
sophers ;  the  term  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  followers  of  Socrates  and  Plato. 

ACADEMY.  A  school  or  college  for  the 
improvement  of  arts  and  science,  so  called 
from  the  giove  of  Academus  In  Athens, 
where  Plato  kept  his  school  of  philosophy. 
The  first  modern  school  of  this  name  is 
said  to  have  been  established  by  Charle- 
magne at  the  instance  of  Alcuin,  an  Eng- 
lish monk.  This  was  followed  by  the 
Academia  Secretorum  Naturse,  established 
at  Naples  by  Baptista  Porta  in  1560,  and 
the  Academia  Lyncei  at  Rome,  &c. 

ACANTHUS  (in  Botany).  Bearsbreech, 
or  Brank  Ursine,  a  plant,  the  leaves  of 
which  resemble  those  of  the  thistle;  in 
Architecture,  an  ornament  representing 
the  leaves  of  the  ancient  acanthus,  and 
used  in  the  capitals  of  the  Corinthian  and 
Composite  orders. 

ACCELERATION.  Increased  velocity 
of  motion,  particularly  applied  to  falling 
bodies  tending  towards  the  centre  of  the 
earth  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

ACCENT.  The  raising  or  lowering  of 
the  voice  in  pronouncing  certain  worda  or 
syllables;  also  the  marks  on  the  words  or 
syllables,  as  the  acute  accent  marked  thus 


ACE 

('),  the  grave  accent  thus  ('),  the  circum- 
flex thus  C'). 

ACCEPTANCE.  The  signing  or  s-ub- 
scribing  a  bill  of  exchange  with  tlie  word 
'  accepted,'  and  one's  name,  by  which  the 
acceptor  obliges  himself  to  pay  the  con- 
tents of  the  bill. 

ACCESSARY,  or  ACCESSORY  (in 
Law).  One  guilty  of  an  offence,  not  prin- 
cipally, but  by  participation. 

ACCIDENCE.  The  rules  of  the  inflex- 
ions of  nouns  and  conjugations  of  verbs 
arranged  in  grammatical  order. 

ACCIDENT.  That  which  belongs  acci- 
dentally, not  essentially,  to  a  thing,  as 
sweetness,  softness,  &cc.;  in  Grammar,  the 
termination  of  words. 

ACCIPITRES.  The  first  order  of  birds, 
having  an  angular  toothlike  process  on  the 
upper  mandible,  as  the  vulture,  falcon, 
owl,  &c. 


ACT 


3 


ACCLAMATION.  A  shouting  in  con- 
cert, which  was  practised  among  the  Ro- 
mans as  a  token  of  applause,  particularly  in 
the  theatres.  This  consisted  in  the  chant- 
ing or  repetition  of  certain  words  in  a 
modulated  tone,  so  as  to  make  a  kind  of 
harmony. 

ACCOMPANIMENT.  An  instrumen- 
tal part  added  to  any  piece  of  music. 

ACCOMPLICE.  The  same  as  Acces- 
sary. 

ACCOUNT,  or  ACCOMPT.  The  reck- 
oning or  bill  of  a  tradesman;  the  statement 
of  a  merchant's  dealings  and  affairs  drawn 
out  in  regular  order  in  his  books,  and  called 
collectively  Merchants'  Accounts;  also  the 
books  in  which  these  accounts  are  kept. 

ACCOUNTANT.  One  obliged  to  ren- 
der an  account  to  another. 

ACCOUNTANT  GENERAL.  An 
ofiicer  in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  England, 
who  receives  all  moneys  lodged  in  court. 

ACCUSATIVE.  The  fourth  case  in 
Latin  nouns. 

ACETATES.    A  kind  of  salts  formed 


by  the  combination  of  acetic  acid  with  a 
salifiable  base,  as  the  acetate  of  potash. 

ACETIC  ACID.  Radical  vinegar,  or 
the  strongest  acid  of  vinegar. 

ACHROMATIC.  Colourless;  a  term 
applied  to  telescopes  which  were  first  con- 
trived by  Dr.  Bevis,  to  remedy  the  aberra- 
tions of  colour. 

ACIDIFIABLE.  An  epithet  signifying 
capable  of  being  converted  into  an  acid  by 
an  acidifying  principle  ;  an  acidifiable  base 
or  radical  is  any  substance  that  is  capable 
of  uniting  with  such  a  quantity  of  oxygen 
as  to  become  possessed  of  acid  properties. 

ACIDS.  Substances  which  are  in  taste 
sour,  change  blue  vegetable  colours  to  red, 
and  combine  with  all  the  alkalis,  and  most 
of  the  metallic  oxides  and  earths,  so  as  to 
form  the  compounds  called  salts.  Acids  are 
distinguished  according  to  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  which  they  contain,  by  the  termina- 
tions ic  and  ous,  as  nitric  acid,  and  nitrous 
acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  sulphurous  acid, 
the  former  of  which  denotes  the  larger  dose 
or  portion  of  oxygen,  and  the  latter  the 
smaller ;  when  the  syllable  hypo  is  added 
to  either  of  these,  it  denotes  a  degree  below 
it  in  point  of  oxidizement,  as  hyposulphuric 
acid,  an  intermediate  between  the  sulphur- 
ic and  the  sulphurous  acid. 

ACONITE,  Wolfsbane,  or  Monks- 
hood. A  plant,  the  flower  of  which  resem- 
bles the  hood  of  a  monk ;  it  is  a  violent 
poison. 

ACOUSTICS.  That  branch  of  science 
which  treats  of  the  nature  and  modifica- 
tions of  sound. 

ACQUITTAL.  A  deliverance  or  setting 
free  from  the  suspicion  of  guilt,  as  where 
a  person,  on  the  verdict  of  a  jury,  is  found 
not  guilty. 

ACaUITTANCE.  A  written  discharge 
for  a  sum  of  money  that  has  been  paid. 

ACRE.  A  measure  of  land  containing 
four  square  roods,  or  160  square  poles  of 
5  yards  and  a  half,  or  4840  square  yards. 
The  French  acre  is  equal  to  one  and  a 
quarter  of  an  English  acre. 

ACROSTICK.  Asetofverses,thefirst 
letters  of  which  compose  some  name,  title, 
or  motto. 

ACTION  (in  Physics).  The  pressure  or 
percussion  of  one  body  against  another. 
By  a  law  of  nature,  action  and  reaction 
are  equal ;  that  is,  the  resistance  of  the 
body  moved  is  always  equal  to  the  force 
communicated  to  it. 

ACTION  (in  Rhetoric).  The  carriage 
and  motion  of  the  body,  and  the  modula- 
tion of  the  speaker's  voice  in  delivering 
an  address. 


4  ADJ 

ACTION  (in  Law).  The  same  as  Law- 
suit. 

ACTIVE.  An  epithet  for  what  commu- 
nicates action  or  motion  to  another  thing. 

ACTOR.    One  who  acts  a  part;  a  player. 

ACTS  OF  PARLIAMENT.  Statutes  or 
laws  passed  by  the  two  houses  of  parlia- 
ment, and  assented  to  by  the  king.  They 
are  distinguished  into  Public  General  Acts, 
which  are  judicially  taken  notice  of  as  such 
by  all  judges  and  justices  ;  Local  and  Per- 
sonal Acts,  which  may  be  especially  plead- 
ed in  courts  of  law,  or  elsewhere,  and  be 
judicially  taken  notice  of;  Private  Acts 
which  are  printed,  and  Private  Acts  which 
ai-e  not  printed. 

ACTUARY.  A  clerk  that  registers  the 
Acts  of  Convocation,  or  that  compiles  mi- 
nutes of  the  proceedings  of  any  public 
company. 

ACUMEN.  Acuteness  or  sharpness  of 
talent. 

ACUPUNCTURATION.  A  method  of 
bleeding,  in  use  among  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese,  by  making  punctures  or  pricks 
with  a  gold  or  silver  needle  in  any  part  of 
the  body.  It  is  chiefly  employed  in  head- 
aches, convulsions,  lethargies,  &;c. 

A.  D.  Anno  Domini,  In  the  Year  of  our 
Lord. 

ADAGIO.  Softly,  leisurely ;  a  term  in 
music  books,  denoting  the  lowest  time  ex- 
cept the  grave,  as    adagio,  adagio.' 

ADAMANT.  The  hardest  sort  of  dia- 
mond. 

ADAMANTINE  SPAR.  A  sort  of  earth 
brought  from  India  and  China,  that  is  of 
the  hardness  of  adamant. 

ADDER.  A  small  poisonous  serpent 
with  plaits  on  the  belly,  and  scales  under 
the  tail ;  it  is  not  rare  in  Britain. 

ADDITION.  The  first  of  the  four  fun- 
damental rules  in  arithmetic,  whereby  sev- 
eral small  sums  are  added  or  collected  into 
one  that  is  larger. 

ADHESION.  The  property  of  certain 
bodies  to  attact  other  bodies  to  themselves, 
or  the  force  by  which  they  adhere  to  each 
other.  Adhesion  denotes  a  union  to  a  cer- 
tain point  between  two  distinct  bodies ; 
cohesion,  the  union  of  the  parts  of  the  same 
body  so  as  to  form  one  mass. 

AD  INFINITUM.  Indefinitely,  or  to 
infinity. 

ADIPOCERE.  A  substance  resembling 
spermaceti,  which  is  formed  from  an  ani- 
mal in  its  progi'ess  towards  decomposition. 

ADIT.  The  shaft  or  entrance  into  a 
mine. 

ADJECTIVE.  A  part  of  speech  in  gram- 
mar, which  is  added  to  a  noun  to  qualify 
its  signification,  as  bitter,  sweet,  &c. 


ADV 

ADJUTANT.  One  who  assists  a  supe- 
rior officer  in  a  regiment;  the  adjutant-gen- 
eral assists  the  general  with  his  counsel 
and  personal  service.  Also  a  very  large 
bird  of  the  heron  species,  common  in  India 
and  New  Holland. 

AD  LIBITUM.     At  pleasure. 

ADMEASUREMENT  (in  Law.)  A  writ 
against  those  who  usurp  more  than  their 
own  share,  as  the  Admeasurement  of  Pas- 
ture, or  the  Admeasurement  of  Dower. 

ADMINISTRATOR  (in  Law).  The 
person  to  whom  the  estate  and  effects  of 
an  intesta.te  are  committed,  for  which  he 
is  to  be  accountable  when  required. 

ADMIRAL.  An  officer  of  the  first  rank 
and  command  in  a  fleet.  The  Lord  High 
Admiral  has  the  government  of  the  king's 
navy.  The  admiral  of  the  fleet  is  the  high- 
est officer  in  the  command  of  a  fleet. 
There  are  besides  two  gradations  of  admi- 
rals, namely,  the  vice  admiral  and  the 
rear  admiral,  each  of  which  is  distinguish- 
ed into  three  classes  by  the  colour  of  their 
flags,  as  white,  blue,  and  red. 

ADMIRALTY.  The  office  of  the  Lord 
High  Admiral,  whether  discharged  by  one 
person,  or  by  several  commissioners  called 
Lords  of  the  Admiralty. 

ADMONITIO  FUSTIUM.  A  punish- 
ment among  the  Romans,  which  consisted 
in  beating  the  offender  with  vine  branches. 

ADONAI.  The  name  of  Jehovah 
among  the  Jews. 

ADONIS.  A  beautiful  youth,  the  fa- 
vourite of  Venus,  who  was  killed  by  a 
wild  boar. 

ADOPTION.  A  practice  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  of  making  a  person 
one's  heir,  and  investing  him  with  all  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  a  son. 

ADORATION.  Amodeof  reverence  or 
worship  anciently  shown  to  the  gods  by 
raising  the  right  hand  to  the  mouth,  and 
gently  applying  it  to  the  lips;  also,  in  gen- 
eral, any  outward  sign  of  worship,  by 
kissing  the  hand  or  feet,  walking  barefoot, 
and  the  like. 

AD  VALOREM.  According  to  the 
value. 

ADVANCE  (in  Commerce).  Money 
paid  before  goods  are  delivered,  work 
done,  or  any  consideration  given. 

ADVANCED-GUAIID,  or  Van-guard 
(in  tlie  Military  Art).  The  first  line  or 
division  of  an  army  ranged  or  uiarching 
in  order  of  battle. 

ADVENT.  The  coming  ofour  Saviour; 
also  the  festival  couimcmorativc  of  the 
Advent,  which  falls  about  a  month  before 
Christmas, 

ADVERB.    A  p-art  of  spocch  in  gram- 


AER 

mar,  added  to  a  verb  to  complete  its  sig- 
nification, as  largely,  neatly,  &c. 

ADVERSARIA.  A  term  among  literary 
men  for  a  common-place  book,  wherein 
they  enter  whatever  occurs  to  them  in 
reading  or  conversation  that  is  worthy  of 
notice. 

ADVERTISEMENT.  Any  printed  pub- 
lication of  circumstances,  either  of  public 
or  private  interest,  particularly  that  inser- 
ted in  the  newspapers. 

ADULT  (in  Civil  Law).  Any  person  be- 
tween the  ages  of  fourteen  and  twenty- 
five. 

ADULTERATION.  The  debasing  of 
the  coin  by  the  mixture  of  impure  metals  ; 
also  the  debasing  and  corrupting  any  arti- 
cle of  trade  by  putting  improper  ingredients 
in  it,  as  is  done  very  frequently  by  bakers, 
brewers  and  other  traders. 

ADVOCATE.  A  pleader  in  civil  or 
ecclesiastical  causes.  The  Lord  Advocate 
is  an  officer  of  state  in  Scotland,  who 
pleads  in  all  causes  of  the  crown,  or  where 
the  king  is  concerned. 
,  ADVOWSON  (in  Law).  A  right  of  pre- 
sentation to  a  vacant  church  or  benefice. 
He  who  possesses  this  right  is  called  the 
patron  of  the  living. 

^DILE.  A  Roman  magistrate  who  had 
the  charge  of  all  public  buildings,  partic- 
ularly temples  and  theatres,  also  of  all 
streets,  highways,  &c. 

.^GIS,  A  shield,  particularly  Jupiter's 
shield. 

^NEID.  The  title  of  Virgil's  poem,  in 
which  he  celebrates  the  adventures  of 
^neas. 

^OLIAN  HARP.  A  number  of  strings 

so  disposed  as  to  produce  a  set  of  musical 

tones  by  the  action  of  the  wind  upon  them. 

iEOLIC  DIALECT.   One  of  the  five 

dialects  of  the  Greek  tongue. 

iEOLIPILE.  A  hollow  metal  ball  with 
a  slender  pipe,  used  to  show  the  converti- 
bility of  water  into  steam. 

iERA,  or  ERA.  Any  date,  period,  or 
event  from  v/hich  a  calculation  of  years  is 
made  to  commence.  The  principal  sras 
are  the  vulgar,  or  Christian  cera,  dated 
from  the  birth  of  our  Saviour;  the  cera  of 
the  creation,  dated  by  Usher  and  most 
chronologists  4004  years  before  the  vulgar 
Eera ;  the  ssra  of  the  Olympiads,  dated  about 
776  years  before  the  vulgar  asra ;  the  asra 
of  the  building  of  Rome,  according  to  Var- 
ro,  is  753  years  before  Christ ;  the  asra  of 
Nabonassar,  so  dated  from  Nabonassar 
the  first  king  of  Babylon,  747  years  before 
Christ;  the  sera  of  the  Hegira,  or  the  Ma- 
hometan sera,  dated  from  the  hegira  or 
flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca,  dated 
1* 


AER 


5 


about  622  years  after  Christ,  or  the  vulgar 
sera. 

AEROLITES.  Air  stones,  or  meteoric 
stones  falling  from  the  atmosphere.  These 
are  semimetallic  substances,  the  descent  of 
which,  though  mentioned  several  times  in 
history,  has  not  been  authenticated  until 
these  few  years.  The  fact  is,  however,  by 
recent  and  frequent  observations  now  put 
beyond  all  doubt.  Two  showers  of  stones 
are  recorded  by  Livy  and  Julius  Obsequens 
to  have  happened  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of 
Tullus  Hostilius,  and  during  the  consulate 
of  C.  Martins  and  M.  Torquatus  ;  a  shower 
of  iron,  in  Lucania,  mentioned  by  Pliny, 
and  a  shower  of  mercury  by  Dion.  Among 
the  moderns,  Carden  speaks  of  about  19,000 
stones,  one  ofl20  lbs.  another  of  60  lbs.  that 
fell  at  Padua  in  Italy,  in  1510 ;  Gassendi, 
of  a  stone  of  59  lbs.  on  Mount  Vaiser  in 
Provence ;  Muschenbrock  of  two  large 
stones  in  Ireland  ;  St.  Amand  de  Baudin 
and  others  of  a  great  shower  of  stones  in 
the  environs  of  Agen,  in  1790  ;  the  earl  of 
Bristol  of  twelve  stones  at  Sienna  in  Tus- 
cany, in  1794 ;  captain  Topham  of  a  stone 
of  56  lbs.  at  Wold  Cottage  in  Yorkshire, 
in  1795 ;  Dr.  Southey  of  a  stone  of  10  lbs. 
in  Portugal,  in  1796  ;  Philosophical  Maga- 
zine, of  a  mass  of  iron  70  cubic  feet,  in 
America,  in  1800 ;  and  M.  Fourcroy  of 
several  stones  from  10  lbs.  to  17  lbs.  that  fell 
near  L'Aigle  in  Normandy,  besides  other 
instances  equally  well  attested.  The  larger 
sort  of  these  stones  have  been  seen  as  lumi- 
nous bodies  to  move  with  great  velocity, 
descending  in  an  oblique  direction,  and 
frequently  with  a  loud  hissing  noise,  re- 
sembling that  of  a  mortar  shell  when  pro- 
jected from  a  piece  or  ordnance.  About 
the  year  1807,  a  luminous  body  of  this 
kind  passed  over  Connecticut,  and  explo- 
ded with  a  loud  noise  like  thunder,  and 
large  masses  of  stones  fell  in  Weston  in 
that  state,  specimens  of  which  are  in  the 
Cabinet  of  Yale  College.  Though  differ- 
ent from  every  other  known  terrestrial  sub- 
stance, yet  these  stones  perfectly  resemble 
each  other,  having  the  same  appearance 
of  semimetallic  matter,  coated  on  the  out- 
side with  a  thin  black  incrustation,  and 
being  in  their  chymical  composition  very 
similar.  The  stone  which  fell  at  L'Aigle 
in  France,  in  1803,  was  found  to  contain 
of  silica  54  parts,  oxyde  of  iron  36,  mag- 
nesia 9,  oxyde  of  nickel  3,  sulphur  2,  lime 
1 ;  their  specific  gravity  is  also  nearly  the 
same,  being  about  3  and  a  half  that  of  com- 
mon water.  i 
AERONAUT.  One  who  sails  or  floats 
in  the  air  in  a  balloon.  ' 
AEROSTATION.  The  modem  art  of 


6 


AEROSTATIOxN. 


raising  bodies  into  and  navigating  the  air, 
by  means  of  n.retied  air  collected  within 
an  envelope,  coramonlj'  called  a  balloon 
(see  Balloon). 

AEROSTATION,  History  of.  This 
art  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  any 
body  which  is  specifically  lighter  than  the 
atmospheric  air  will  be  buoj^ed  up  by  it 
and  ascend  ;  a  principle  which  had  doubt- 
less long  been  known,  although  the  appli- 
cation of  it  to  any  practical  purpose  is 
altogether  a  modern  invention.  It  is  true 
that  v/e  read  of  the  attempt  which  was 
made  by  Daedalus  and  his  son  Icarus  to 
pass  through  the  air  ^  means  of  artiiicial 
wings,  in  which  the  former  is  said  to  have 
succeeded,  but  this  is  commonly  reckoned 
among  the  fables  of  the  ancients.  Dr.Black, 
in  his  lectures  in  1767  and  1768,  was  the 
first  who,  after  Mr.  Cavendish's  discovery 
of  the  specific  gravity  of  inflammable  air, 
threw  out  the  suggestion  that  if  a  bladder, 
sufiiciently  light  and  thin,  were  filled  with 
air,  it  would  form  a  mass  lighter  tlian  the 
same  bulk  of  atmospheric  air,  and  rise  in 
it .  But  want  of  leisure  prevented  him  from 
trying  the  experiment,  the  honour  of  which 
belonged  to  Mr.  Cavallo,  vA\o  communi- 
cated the  result  to  the  Royal  Society,  on 
the  20th  of  June  in  that  year.  After  having 
made  several  unsuccessful  experiments 
with  bladders  and  skins,  he  succeeded  at 
length  in  making  soap  balls,  which  being 
inflated  with  inflammable  air,  by  dipping 
the  end  of  a  small  glass  tube,  connected 
with  a  bladder  containing  the  air,  into  a 
tliick  solution  of  soap,  and  gently  compres- 
sing the  bladder,  ascended  rapidly.  These 
were  the  first  sort  of  inflammable  air  bal- 
loons that  were  made.  But  while  philoso- 
phers in  Britain  were  thus  engaged  in  ex- 
periments on  this  subject,  two  brothers,  in 
France,  Stephen  and  John  Montgolfier,  pa- 
per manufacturers  of  Annonay,  had  made 
rapid  advances  towards  carrying  the  pro- 
ject into  execution.  Their  idea  was  to  form 
an  artificial  cloud  by  enclosing  smoke  in  a 
fine  silk. bag;  and  having  applied  burning 
paper  to  an  aperture  at  the  bottom,  the 
air  thus  became  rarefied,  and  the  bag  as- 
cended to  the  height  of  70  feet.  This  ex- 
periment was  made  at  Avignon,  about  the 
middle  of  the  year  1782,  and  was  followed 
by  otlier  experiments,  all  tending  to  prove 
the  practicability  of  the  scheme.  An  im- 
mense bag  of  linen,  lined  with  paper,  and 
containing  upwards  of23,000  cubic  ft.,  was 
found  to  have  a  power  of  lifting  al)out  500 
pounds,  including  its  own  weight.  Burning 
chopped  straw  and  wool  under  the  aperture 
of  the  machine  caused  it  to  swell  and  ascend 
in  the  space  of  ten  minutes  to  the  height  of 


6000  feet :  when  exhausted,  it  fell  to  the 
ground  at  the  distance  of  some  thousand 
feet  from  the  place  where  it  ascended.  In 
an  experiment  tried  before  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  a  large  balloon  was  made  to 
lift  eight  persons  from  the  ground,  who 
would  have  been  carried  away  had  the 
machine  not  been  kept  down  with  force. 
On  tlie  repetition  of  the  experiment  before 
the  king  at  Versailles,  with  a  balloon  near 
60  feet  high  and  43  in  diameter,  a  sheep, 
a  cock,  a,nd  a  duck,  the  first  animals  that 
ever  ascended  in  a  balloon,  were  carried 
up  about  1440  feet,  and  after  remaining  in 
the  air  about  eight  minutes,  came  to  the 
gi-ound  in  perfect  safety,  at  the  distance  of 
10,200  feet  from  the  place  of  ascent.  Em- 
boldened by  this  experiment,  M.  Pilatre 
de  Rozier  ofiered  himself  to  be  the  first 
aerial  adventurer.  A  new  machine  wag 
accordingly  prepared,  with  a  gallery  and 
grate,  &.c.  to  enable  the  person  ascending 
to  supply  the  fire  with  fuel,  and  thus  keep 
up  the  machine  as  long  as  he  pleased.  On 
the  15th  of  October,  1783,  M.  Pilatre  took 
his  seat  in  the  gallery,  and,  the  machine 
being  inflated,  he  rose  to  the  height  of  84 
feet,  and,  after  keeping  it  afloat  about  four 
minutes  and  a  half,  he  gently  descended  : 
he  then  rose  again  to  the  height  of  210  feet, 
and  the  third  time  252.  In  the  descent,  a 
gust  of  wind  having  blown  the  machine 
over  some  large  trees,  M.  Pilatre  extricated 
himself  by  throwing  straw  and  wool  on  the 
fire,  which  raised  him  at  once  to  a  suffi- 
cient height,  and  in  this  manner  he  found 
himself  able  to  ascend  or  descend  to  a  cer- 
tain height  at  pleasure.  Some  time  after, 
he  ascended  with  M.  Girond  de  Vilette  to 
the  height  of  330  feet,  hovering  over  Paria 
at  least  nine  minutes,  in  sight  of  all  the 
inhabitants,  and  the  machine  keeping  all 
the  while  a  steady  position.  In  1783,  he 
undertook  a  third  aerial  voyage  with  the 
Marquis  d'Arlandes,  and  in  the  space  of 
twenty-five  minutes  went  about  five  miles. 
In  this  voyage  they  met  with  several  difl^er- 
ent  currents  of  air,  the  effect  of  which  was 
to  give  a  very  sensible  shock  to  the  machine 
They  were  also  in  danger  of  having  the 
machine  burnt  altogether,  if  the  fire  had 
not  been  quickly  extinguished  by  means  of 
a  sponge.  After  this  period  aerostatic  ma- 
chines were  elevated  by  inflammable  air  en- 
closed, instead  of  fire,  with  which  Messrs. 
Roberts  and  Charles  made  the  first  experi- 
ment. In  this  case  the  bag  was  composed 
of  lutestring,  varnished  over  with  a  solu- 
tion of  elastic  gum,  called  caoutchouc,  an  J 
was  about  13  Englisli  feet  in  diameter. 
After  being  filled  with  considerable  diffi- 
culty, it  was  found  to  be  35  pounds  lighter 


AEROSTATION. 


than  an  equal  bulk  of  common  air.  With 
this  the}'  ascended,  and  in  three  quarters 
of  an  hour  traversed  fifteen  miles.  Their 
sudden  descent  was  occasioned  by  a  rup- 
ture which  happened  to  the  machine  when 
it  was  at  its  greatest  height.  On  a  subse- 
quent day  the  same  gentlemen  made  an 
ascent  in  a  balloon  filled  with  inflammable 
air.  This  machine  was  formed  of  gores  of 
siik,  covered  with  a  varnish  of  caoutchouc, 
of  a  spherical  figure,  and  measuring  27  feet 
,6  inclies  in  diameter.  A  net  was  spread 
over  the  upper  hemisphere,  and  fastened 
to  a  hoop  which  passed  round  the  middle 
of  the  balloon.  To  this  a  sort  of  car  was 
suspended,  a  few  feet  below  the  lower  part 
of  the  balloon ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  the 
bursting  of  the  machine,  a  valve  was  placed 
in  it,  by  opening  of  which  some  of  the  in- 
flammable air  might  be  allov/ed  to  escape. 
In  the  car,  which  was  of  basket-work,  and 
covered  with  linen,  the  two  adventurers 
took  their  seats  in  the  afternoon  of  the  1st 
of  December,  1783.  At  the  time  the  bal- 
loon rose  the  barometer  was  at  30''.  18'. 
and  it  continued  rising  until  the  barometer 
fell  to  27°,  from  which  they  calculated  that 
they  had  ascended  GOO  yards.  By  throw- 
ing out  ballast  occasionally  they  found  it 
practicable  to  keep  nearly  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  earth  during  the  rest  of  their 
voyage,  the  mercury  fluctuating  betv/een 
27°  and  27°  65',  and  the  thermometer  be- 
tween 53°  and  57^  the  whole  time.  They 
continued  in  the  air  an  hour  and  three 
quarters,  and  alighted  at  the  distance  of 
27  miles  from  Paris,  having  suffered  no 
inconvenience,  nor  experienced  any  of  the 
contraiy  cun-ents  described  by  the  marquis 
d'Arlandes.  M.  Roberts  having  alighted, 
and  much  of  the  infiamniaWe  gas  still  re- 
maining, M.  Charles  determined  on  taking 
another  voyage.  No  sooner  therefore  was 
the  balloon  thus  lightened  of  130  pounds  of 
its  weight,  than  it  arose  with  immense  ve- 
locity, and  in  20  minutes  was  9000  feet 
above  the  earth,  and  out  of  sight  of  all  ter- 
restrial objects.  The  globe,  which  had  be- 
come flaccid,  now  began  to  swell,  and 
when  M.  Charles  drew  the  valve,  to  prevent 
the  balloon  from  bursting,  the  inflammable 
gas,  which  was  much  warmer  than  the 
external  an-,  for  a  time  diffused  a  warmth 
around,  but  afterwards,  a  considerable 
change  was  observable  in  the  temperature. 
His  fingers  were  benumbed  with  cold, 
which  also  occasioned  a  pain  in  his  right 
ear  and  jaw,  but  the  beauty  of  the  prospect 
compensated  for  these  inconveniences. 
The  sun,  which  had  been  set  on  his  ascent, 
became  again  visible  for  a  short  time,  in 
consequence  of  the  height  which  he  had 


reached.  Ke  saw  for  a  few  seconds  vapours 
rising  from  the  valleys  and  rivers.  The 
clouds  seemed  to  rise  from  the  earth,  and 
collect  one  upon  the  other ;  only  their  col- 
our was  gray  and  obscure  from  the  dimness 
of  the  light.  By  the  light  of  tlie  moon  he 
perceived  that  the  machine  was  turning 
round  with  him,  and  that  there  were  con- 
traiy currents  which  brought  him  back 
again :  he  also  observed  with  sui-prise,  that 
the  wind  caused  his  banners  to  point  up- 
wards, although  he  v/as  neither  rising  nor 
descending,  but  moving  horizontally.  On 
alighting  in  a  field  about  three  miles  distant 
from  the  place  v/liere  he  set  out,  he  calcu- 
lated that  he  had  ascended,  at  this  time 
not  less  than  10,500  feet.  Hitherto  all  ex- 
periments of  this  kind  had  been  unattended 
with  any  evil  consecpiences,  but  an  attempt 
which  was  made  to  put  a  small  aerostatic 
machine  with  rarefied  air  under  an  inflam- 
mable air  balloon,  proved  fatal  to  the  adven- 
turers, M.  Pilatre  de  Rozier  and  M.  Ro- 
maine.  Their  inflammable  air  balloon  was 
about  37  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  power  of 
the  rarefied  air  one  was  equivalent  to  about 
60  pounds.  They  were  not  long  in  the  air 
when  the  inflammable  air  balloon  was  seen 
to  swell  considerably,  and  the  aeronauts 
were  observed,  by  means  of  telescopes,  to 
be  very  anxious  to  descend,  and  busied  in 
pulling  tlie  valve  and  giving  eveiy  possible 
facility  of  escape  to  the  inflammable  air, 
but,  in  spite  of  all  their  endeavours,  the 
balloon  took  fire  without  any  explosion, 
and  the  unfortunate  gentlemen  were  pre- 
cipitated to  the  earth  at  the  height  of  about 
three  quarters  of  a  mile.  M.  Pilatre  seem- 
ed to  have  been  dead  before  he  came  to  the 
ground  ;  but  RI.  Romaine  was  found  to  be 
alive,  although  he  expired  immediately 
after.  The  ill  success  of  this  experiment, 
which  had  been  made  for  the  purpose  of 
diminishing  the  expense  of  inflating  the 
machine  with  gas,  did  not  interrupt  the 
progress  of  aerostation.  Aerial  voyages 
continued  to  be  made  on  the  old  scheme. 
The  first  trial  in  England  was  made  by 
Vincent  Lunardi,  an  Italian,  on  the  1.5th 
of  September,  178-1.  His  balloon,  the  di- 
ameter of  which  was  33  feet,  was  made  of 
oiled  silk,  painted  in  alternate  stripes  of 
blue  and  red.  From  a  net,  which  went 
over  about  two  thirds  of  the  balloon,  de- 
scended 45  cords  to  a  hoop  hanging  below 
it,  and  to  which  the  gallery  was  attached. 
Instead  of  a  valve,  the  aperture  at  the  neck 
of  the  balloon,  which  was  in  the  shape  of 
a  pear,  served  for  admitting  or  letting  out 
the  inflammable  air.  The  air  for  filling 
tlie  balloon  was  produced  from  zinc,  by 
means  of  diluted  vitriolic  acid.  M.  Lunardi 


8 


AFF 


ascended  from  the  Artillery  Ground,  at  two 
o'clock,  having  with  him  a  dog,  a  cat,  and 
a  pigeon.  He  was  obliged  to  throw  out 
some  of  his  ballast,  in  order  to  clear  the 
houses,  when  he  rose  to  a  considerable 
height,  proceeding  first  N.  W.  by  W.  and 
then  nearly  N.  About  half  after  three  he 
descended  very  near  the  earth,  and  landed 
the  cat,  which  was  half  dead  with  the  coldj 
he  then  reascended  by  throwing  out  some 
more  of  his  ballast,  and  ten  minutes  past 
four  he  alighted  in  a  meadow  near  Ware, 
in  Hertfordshire.  His  thermometer  stood 
in  the  course  of  liis  voyage  as  low  as  29^. 
and  he  observed  that  the  drops  of  water 
collected  round  the  balloon  were  frozen. 
The  second  aerial  voyage  in  England  was 
performed  by  Mr.  Blanchard,  on  the  16th 
of  October  in  the  same  year,  in  which  he 
was  accompanied  by  Mr.  Shelden,  profess- 
or of  anatomy  at  the  Royal  Academy,  the 
first  Englishman  that  adventured  in  such 
an  excursion.  They  ascended  a  few  minutes 
past  12  o'clock,  and  after  proceeding  about 
14  miles  beyond  Chelsea,  Mr.  Blanchard 
landed  Mr.  Sheldon,  reascended  alone,  and 
finally  landed  near  Humsey,  in  Hampshire, 
about  75  miles  from  London,  which  was  at 
the  rate  of  about  20  miles  an  hour.  Mr. 
Blanchard  ascended  so  high,  that  he  felt  a 
difficulty  in  breathing;  and  apigeon,  which 
flew  from  tlie  boat,  laboured  for  some  time 
to  sustain  itself,  but  was  at  length  compel- 
led to  return  and  rest  on  the  boat. 

Aerial  voyages  now  became  frequent  in 
England  and  elsewhere,  and  afforded  no- 
thing worthy  of  notice  before  the  ascent  of 
M.  Garnerin,  in  1802,  who  undertook  the 
singular  and  desperate  experiment  of  de- 
scending by  means  of  a  parachute.  (See 
Parachute.)  In  tliis  descent  it  was  ob- 
served that  the  parachute,  with  the  appen- 
dage of  cords  and  the  basket  in  wiiich  M. 
Garnerin  had  seated  himself,  vibrated  like 
the  pendulum  of  a  clock,  and  at  times  the 
vibrations  were  so  violent,  that  more  tiian 
once  the  parachute  and  the  basket  seemed 
to  be  on  the  same  level,  or  quite  horizon- 
tal, which  presented  a  terrific  spectacle  of 
danger  to  the  spectator.  They  diminish- 
ed, however,  as  M,  Garnerin  approached 
the  earth,  and  he  was  landed  in  safety, 
though  strongly  affected  with  the  violent 
shocks  that  his  frame  had  experienced. 
Various  excursions  have  since  been  made 
by  Mr.  Sadler,  Mr.  Green,  and  others. 

AETITES,  or  Eagle-stone.  A  stone  so 
called,  because  it  was  originally  found  in 
eagles'  nests.    It  is  a  sort  of  ore  of  a  kid- 
ney shape,  imbedded  in  iron-shot  clay. 
AFFECTUOSO.  In  an  affecting  style  : 


AGE 

a  term  in  music  books  at  the  beginning  of 
a  movement. 

AFFIDAVIT.  An  oath  in  writing,  taken 
before  some  person  who  is  legally  author- 
ized to  administer  the  same. 

AFFINITY  (in  Civil  Law).  The  rela- 
tionship in  which  each  of  the  parties  mar- 
ried stand  to  the  kindred  of  the  other. 

AFFINITY  (in  Chymistry).  The  attrac- 
tive power  observable  in  the  different  parts 
of  bodies,  by  which  they  combine  ;  as  the 
affinity  of  sulphuric  acid  for  potash  and 
lime. 

AFFIRMATION  (in  Law).  The  con- 
firming the  sentence  of  an  inferior  court ; 
as  when  the  decree  of  the  Lord  Chancellor 
is  affirmed  by  the  House  of  Lords  :  also  the 
simple  declaration  of  a  duaker  to  the  truth 
of  a  matter,  which  is  taken  in  the  place  of 
an  oath. 

AFFRAY.  A  skirmish  or  fighting  be- 
tvi^een  two  or  more. 

AGARIC.  An  excrescence,  or  sort  of 
mushroom,  which  grows  on  trees. 

AGATE.  A  precious  stone,  first  found  in 
Sicily  ;  it  is  a  mineral  composed  of  various 
substances,  as  chalcedony,  cornelian,  jas- 
per, &c.  5  also  a  stone  of  the  agate  kind 
engraven  by  art,  v/hich  constitutes  among 
antiquarians  a  species  of  gems. 

AGE.  A  certain  period  or  limit  of  time, 
marked  for  the  convenience  of  chronology 
and  history  by  some  remarkable  events. 
Chronologers  commonly  reckon  seven  such 
ages,  namely,  1.  From  the  creation  to  the 
deluge.  2.  From  the  deluge  to  the  birth  of 
Abraham.  3.  From  the  birth  of  Abraham 
to  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  out  of 
Egj'pt.  4.  From  the  departure  of  the  Is- 
raelites to  the  building  of  the  temple  by 
Solomon.  5.  From  the  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  the  temple  to  the  reign  of  Cyrus  in 
Babylon.  6.  From  the  reign  of  Cyrus  to 
the  coming  of  Christ.  7.  Since  the  birth 
of  our  Saviour.  Chronologers  are  generally 
agreed  as  to  the  dividing  the  time  from  the 
creation  into  seven  ages,  but  they  differ 
materially  as  to  the  time  contained  in  these 
periods.  The  poets  distinguished  the  period 
of  the  world  into  four  ages  ;  namely,  into 
the  golden  age,  or  the  age  of  simplicity 
and  happiness ;  the  silver  age,  which  was 
inferior  to  the  golden  age  in  enjoyments;  in 
this  age  man  began  to  till  the  gi-ound  for 
their  sustenance.  In  the  brazen  age  strifes 
and  contentions  began,  which,  in  the  iron, 
were  carried  to  the  utmost  extent,  and 
accompanied  with  eveiy  evil  that  afflicts 
mankind.  It  is  most  probable  that  this  no- 
tion of  the  four  ages  was  taken  from  the 
history  of  the  golden  image,  seen  by  Neb- 


AGR 

uchadnezzar  in  a  dream,  mentioned  in 
Daniel,  by  wliicli  the  first  monarchy  was 
denoted  the  golden  one,  the  second  silver, 
the  third  brazen,  and  the  fourth  iron.  The 
Greeks,  who  derived  their  mythology  from 
the  Egyptians,  doubtless  gathered  this  idea 
from  the  same  source,  and  wrought  it  into 
a  fable  by  the  ingenuity  of  their  poets. 

AGE.  A  term  in  law  for  those  special 
times  which  enable  men  and  women  to  do 
that  which  they  could  not  do  before  ;  thus, 
in  England,  a  man  may  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  at  twelve  years  of  age,  is  at  the 
age  of  discretion  at  fourteen  to  choose  his 
guardian  and  contract  a  marriage,  and  is 
at  full  age  at  twenty-one.  A  woman  at 
the  age  of  nine  is  dow^able,  at  twelve  may 
confirm  her  consent  to  marriage,  at  four- 
teen may  receive  her  land  into  her  own 
hands,  and  at  twenty-one  may  alienate 
her  lands  and  tenements.  The  laws  in 
the  United  States,  are  similar. 

AGENT  (in  Law).  A  person  empow- 
ered to  act  for  another. 

AGENT  (in  Physics).  Any  thing  having 
the  power  to  act  on  another  object,  as  cold 
or  heat. 

AGGREGATE.  An  order  of  plants  in 
the  Linnsean  system,  having  compound 
flowers  with  separate  anthers. 

AGGREGATION  (in  Chymistry).  The 
adhesion  of  parts  of  the  same  kind ;  as 
pieces  of  sulphur  united  by  fusion  form  an 
aggregate. 

AGIO.  A  term  used  chiefly  in  Holland 
and  Venice,  to  denote  the  difference  be- 
tween the  bank  money  and  the  current 
money,  or  cash;  as  when  a  merchant  stipu- 
lates to  receive  for  his  goods  100  livres 
bank  money  or  105  cash,  or  current  money, 
tlie  agio  is  said  to  be  5  per  cent. 

AGRICULTURE.  The  art  of  tilling  the 
land  according  to  certain  rules  of  experi- 
ence and  science. 

AGRICULTURE,  History  of.  As  the 
ground  was,  by  divine  appointment,  to  fur- 
nish subsistence  for  man,  and  after  his  fall 
he  was  doomed  to  procure  it  by  labour, 
husbandry,  or  the  practical  part  of  agricul- 
ture, was  of  necessity  the  first  and  most 
important  occupation  of  the  descendants  of 
Adam;  wherefore  we  learn  from  Scripture, 
that  his  two  sons,  Abel  and  Cain,  were 
both  employed  in  this  manner,  the  former 
being  a  keeper  of  sheep,  and  the  latter  a  til- 
ler of  the  ground.  With  what  implements 
this  work  of  tillage  was  carried  on,  and 
what  degree  of  art  was  employed  in  produ- 
cing the  fruits  of  the  earth,  is  left  to  con- 
jecture ;  but  writers  on  those  early  periods 
are  generally  agreed  that  the  antediluvians 
were  in  possession  of  many  arts  and  inven- 


AGR  9 

tions  which  were  in  process  of  time  lost, 
or  at  least  but  imperfectly  retained  among 
the  different  nations  that  were  scattered 
abroad  after  the  confusion  of  tongues. 
Agriculture  was  one  of  the  arts  which  Noah 
and  his  posterity  retained;  for  we  find  that 
he  cultivated  the  vine.  Those  of  the  line 
of  Shem  appear  to  have  followed  the  breed- 
ing and  feeding  of  cattle  :  but  those  of  the 
line  of  Ham,  who  took  possession  of  Egypt, 
applied  themselves  to  the  tilling  of  the 
ground,  and  with  so  much  ingenuity,  in- 
dustiy,  and  success,  that,  owing  to  the  in- 
undations of  the  Nile,  and  the  consequent 
fertility  of  the  soil,  Egypt  was  enabled  in 
the  time  of  Abraham,  and  still  more  so  in 
the  time  of  Joseph,  to  supply  its  neighbours 
with  corn  during  a  period  of  famine.  Nor 
were  the  inhabitants  backward  in  assisting 
the  liberality  of  nature:  they  busied  them- 
selves in  embanking,  irrigation,  and  drain- 
ing, in  order  to  derive  all  the  benefits  which 
the  benignant  river  was  capable  of  afford- 
ing them.  These  works  are  said  to  have 
been  carried  on  with  particular  spirit  under 
the  a.u3pices  of  Sesostris,  1800  years  before 
the  Christian  a;ra.  So  sensible  were  the 
Egj'ptians  of  the  blessings  which  agi'icul- 
ture  afl'orded,  that,  in  the  blindness  of  their 
zeal,  they  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  art 
to  their  god  Osiris,  and  the  culture  of  bar- 
ley and  wheat  to  their  goddess  Isis. 

The  Pelasgi,  or  aboriginal  inhabitants  of 
Greece,  were  among  the  number  of  those 
w^ho  lost  all  the  primeval  arts,  and  fed  upon 
acorns  and  wild  fruits,  until  they  v\-ere  led 
by  the  Egyptians,  with  whom  they  had  an 
early  communication,  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  ground.  Like  them,  too,  they  placed 
their  benefactress  Ceres,  to  whom  they 
ascribed  the  introduction  of  corn,  among 
the  number  of  their  deities;  a  goddess  v^'hom 
authors  agree  was  no  other  than  the  Egj?p- 
tian  Isis.  In  tire  time  of  Homer,  agricul- 
ture was  in  such  esteem  that  King  Laertes 
laid  aside  his  royal  dignity,  that  he  might 
cultivate  a  few  fields.  Ilesiod,  the  contem- 
porary of  this  author,  has  devoted  a  whole 
poem  to  the  labours  of  the  field  in  the  dif- 
ferent seasons  of  the  year.  Of  other  writ- 
ings, among  the  Greeks,  on  agriculture  lit- 
tle remains,  except  a  treatise  by  Xenophon 
on  rural  affairs,  and  scattered  notices  on 
the  subject  in  the  works  of  Aristotle  and 
Theophrastus ;  but  we  learn  from  Varro, 
that  there  were  in  his  time  not  less  than 
fifty  Greek  authors  to  be  consulted  on 
agricultural  matter. 

The  Jews,  as  Scripture  informs  us,  ap- 
plied themselves,  when  they  came  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
.  soil,  having  each  their  temtory  allotted  to 


10 


AGRICULTURE. 


them.  We  may  also  infer,  from  the  fre- 
quent allusions  to  this  subject  in  different 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  that  husbandry 
formed  their  principal  occupation.  The 
laws  of  Moses  have,  many  of  them,  for 
their  object  the  regulation  of  their  flocks, 
their  herds,  and  their  fields.  David  culti- 
vated his  own  land,  having  officers  to  take 
charge  of  his  flocks,  his  herds,  his  camels, 
his  asses,  and  his  warehouses  of  wine  and 
oil,  &c.  Elisha  was  in  the  field  with 
twelve  yoke  of  oxen  when  Elijah  found 
him.  Besides  the  frequent  mention  of 
husbandry  business  in  different  parts  of 
the  sacred  writings,  as  the  digging  of 
wells,  the  planting  of  vineyards,  the  leas- 
ing, gathering  in,  threshing,  sifting,  and 
winnowing  of  corn,  with  a  number  of 
other  things  of  the  like  kind. 

That  the  Carthaginians  did  not  neglect 
agriculture  is  evident  from  this,  that  they 
had  writers  on  the  subject,  of  whom  a  fa- 
mous general,  Mago,  was  one,  who  is  quo- 
ted by  Varro.  He  wrote  no  less  than  twen- 
ty-eight books.  It  is  probable  that,  under 
the  auspices  of  these  people,  agriculture 
flourished  in  Sicily,  which  was  afterwards 
the  granary  of  Rome. 

No  subject  engaged  the  attention  of  the 
Romans  more  than  agriculture,  theoretical- 
ly as  well  as  practically.  They  divided  their 
time  between  war  and  husbandry ;  their 
greatest  men,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  re- 
public, being  employed  alternately  in  the 
one  and  the  other.  Cincinnatus  was  taken  [ 
from  the  plough  to  fill  the  office  of  dictatorj 
and  Regulus  besought  the  senate  that  he 
might  return  to  his  little  farm  for  a  short 
time,  to  prevent  it  from  being  ruined.  Pliny 
observes,  that  the  Romans  ploughed  their 
fields  with  the  same  diligence  that  they 
pitched  their  tents,  and  sowed  their  corn 
with  as  much  care  as  they  raised  their 
armies.  When  riches  had  introduced  lux- 
ury, and  artificial  manners  and  habits,  the 
labours  of  the  field  were  performed  by  their 
slaves;  but  there  remained  many  among 
them  of  the  higher  orders  who  directed 
their  personal  attention  to  the  subject.  The 
writings  of  Cato  the  Censor,  Varro,  Pliny, 
Columella,  and  Palladius,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  poet  Virgil,  abound  with  practical 
and  useful  observations  on  the  whole  round 
of  farming  business.  At  the  same  time  they 
all  agree  in  lamenting  that  agriculture  was 
not  pursued  with  the  same  zeal  as  formerly. 
The  great  among  the  Romans  had  town 
houses  as  well  as  villas,  and  living  more  in 
the  former  than  in  the  latter,  the  manage- 
ment of  their  farms  was  left  to  their  bailiffs 
or  servants.  The  ox,  which  was  the  prin- 
cipal beast  of  burden  among  the  Egyptians, 


the  Jews,  and  Grecians,  was  also  highly 
esteemed  among  the  Romans.  Many  direc- 
tions for  the  breeding,  breaking,  feeding, 
and  working  this  animal  are  to  be  found 
in  the  writers  abovementioned  ;  as  also  in 
regard  to  the  management  of  bees,  which 
were  highly  prized.    As  to  the  implements 
of  husbandry  used  among  the  Romans,  the 
description  of  them  not  being  illustrated  by 
any  representation,  it  is  not  easy  to  speak 
precisely  of  them;  but  it  is  clear  that  they 
used  the  plough  with  and  without  wheels, 
with  and  without  boards,  with  and  without 
coulters,  also  with  shares  of  different  con- 
structions. A  reaping  machine  is  likewise 
spoken  of  both  by  Pliny  and  Palladius, 
which  was  driven  by  an  ox ;  but  for  the 
most  part  they  cut  their  corn  with  the  hand, 
either  with  the  hook  close  to  the  ground, 
or  only  the  ears  with  a  curved  stick  and  a 
saw  attached  to  it,  or  otherwise  they  cut 
the  stalks  in  the  middle,  leavingthe  stubble 
to  be  afterwards  mowed.    They  threshed 
either  with  a  machine  composed  of  rollers, 
or  with  rods  or  flails,  or  they  trod  it  out 
with  their  feet.  Haymaking  was  performed 
among  the  Romans  much  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  at  present.    Harrowing  the  corn  was 
particularly  recommended  by  the  Roman 
writers;  who  also  speak  of  hoeing,  weed- 
ing, watering,  draining,  and  fallowing  the 
ground,  which  was  universal  among  them. 
Agriculture  shared  the  fate  of  all  the  other 
arts  on  the  decline  of  the  empire:  from  the 
time  of  Pliny  to  the  fifteenth  century,  there 
is  no  work  extant  on  the  subject,  except 
the  Geoponics,  which  was  published  by 
Constantine  Pogonatus,  and  probably  col- 
lected by  the  emperor  himself.  Crescenzio, 
a  writer  of  Bologna,  was  the  first  who  called 
the  attention  of  his  countrymen  to  this  sub- 
ject after  this  long  interval.  His  little  work, 
which  was  collected  from  the  Roman  wri- 
ters, was  followed  by  some  other  Italian 
productions :  but  probably  nothing  contri- 
buted more  to  give  an  importance  to  agri- 
cultural pursuits  than  the  introduction  of 
the  feudal  system,  which  gave  to  every 
man  a  rank  and  distinction  according  to  th© 
quantity  of  land  he  either  possessed  or  oc- 
cupied; for  not  only  the  great  lord,  who  was 
the  owner  of  the  soil,  or  reaped  the  fruits 
of  it,  but  also  his  tenants,  who  cultivated 
it,  were  invested  with  political  privileges 
that  were  enjoyed  by  no  other  members  of 
the  community  ;  and  although  the  feudal 
burdens  and  restraints  have  ceased,  yet  the 
privileges  and  advantages  attached  to  the 
possession  of  landed  property  still  give  it 
a  paramount  advantage.    Hence  it  is,  that 
since  the  revival  of  the  arts,  the  science  of 
agriculture  has  been  zealously  cultivated 


AIR 

by  the  higher  orders.  The  writers  likewise 
on  this  subject  have  within  the  last  centu- 
ry been  more  numerous  than  at  any  former 
period;  and  every  effort  has  been  made 
by  experiments,  inventions,  and  improve- 
ments to  render  the  land  productive.  Nor 
have  these  efforts  been  without  effect,  for, 
notwithstanding  the  immense  increase  in 
the  population,  there  has  been  no  such 
scarcity  as  we  read  of  in  former  times. 

AGUE.  An  intermitting  fever,  with  hot 
and  cold  fits  alternately. 

AGOUTI.  A  South  American  animal, 
resembling  a  guineapig,  having  the  charac- 
ters of  the  rat  kind,  and  the  hair  and  voice 
of  the  hog.  When  provoked,  it  raises  all 
the  hair  of  its  back  upright,  and  strikes  the 
earth  with  its  hinder  feet. 


ALA 


11 


AID-DE-CAMP.  An  officer  that  always 
attends  on  each  of  the  generals  in  his  camp, 
to  receive  and  carry  orders. 

AILANTHUS.  A  Chinese  tree,  called 
the  tree  of  heaven,  on  account  of  its  lofty 
growth ;  it  rises  with  a  straight  trunk  for- 
ty or  fifty  feet  high. 

AIR.  A  subtle,  invisible,  elastic  fluid, 
suiTounding  the  globe  of  the  earth  :  it  was 
formerly  supposed  to  be  an  element,  or  a 
simple  principle,  but  it  is  now  known  to 
be  a  compound  of  two  gases,  namely,  oxy- 
gen and  azote. 

AIR  (in  Music).  Any  melody  that  comes 
within  the  reach  of  vocal  expression. 

AIR-BALLOON.     Vide  Balloon. 

AIR-GUN.  A  gun  constructed  so  as  to 
propel  bullets  solely  by  means  of  conden- 
sed air ;  which  is  effected  without  causing 
any  explosion. 


by  persons  who  cannot  swim,  to  support 
them  in  the  water. 

AIR-PLANT.  A  singular  plant,  which 
grows  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  a  room, 
and  derives  its  nutriment  from  the  air. 
The  first  plant  of  this  kind  which  has  blown 
in  England  is  to  be  seen  at  Claremont  the 
seat  of  Prince  Leopold.  It  is  common  in 
America. 

AIR-PUMP.  A  machine  for  exhausting 
the  air  out  of  vessels,  in  the  same  manner 
as  water  is  drawn  up  by  a  pump.  This 
celebrated  machine  was  invented  by  Otto 
de  Guericke,  consul  of  Magdeburgh,  who 
exhibited  his  first  public  experiments  with 
this  instrument  before  the  Emperor  and 
States  of  Germany,  at  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Imperial  Diet  at  Ratisbon,  in  the  year 
1654;  but  his  description  of  the  machine 
was  first  published  in  1G72,  at  Amsterdam, 
under  the  title  of  Experimenta  nova  Mag- 
deburgica  de  Vacuo  Spatio.  Before  this 
publication,  it  appears  that  Mr.  Boyle,  who 
had  particularly  directed  his  attention  to 
the  study  of  pneumatics,  also  conceived  a 
similar  idea,  which  led  Mr.  Hooke  to  as- 
cribe the  invention  to  him ;  but  Mr.  Boyle 
himself,  in  a  letter  to  his  nephew.  Lord 
Dungarvon,  expresses  his  acknowledgment 
for  the  discovery  of  this  useful  machine 
from  what  he  had  heard  reported  of  it,  al- 
though, as  he  adds,  he  had  not,  at  that  time, 
perused  the  account  of  it.  On  his  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  machine,  he  made 
many  improvements  upon  it ;  as  did  after- 
wards Mr.  Hooke  and  many  others. 


AIR-JACKET.  Ajacket  made  of  leath- 
er, in  which  are  several  bags  or  bladders 
of  the  same  material,  communicating  with 
each  other,  arid  fitted  to  receive  air  by 
means  of  a  brass  tube.    This  jacket  is  used 


AIR-SHAFTS  (in  Mining).  Holes  or 
shafts  let  down  from  the  open  air  to  dis- 
charge the  foul  vapours. 

AIR-VESSELS.  Spiral  ducts  or  canals 
in  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  plants, 
which  are  supposed  to  supply  them  with 
air,  after  the  manner  of  lungs  in  animals. 

ALABASTER.  A  soft  kind  of  marble , 
which  is  of  a  granular  texture,  and  of  a 
v'hite  colour,  and  has  a  certain  degree  of 
transparency.    It  is  found  in  Germany, 


12 


ALG 


France,  and  Italy,  and  is  used  by  sculptors 
for  statues. 

ALBATROSS,  or  Man  of  War  Bird. 
A  large  water  fowl,  which  inhabits  most 
seas  between  the  tropics. 

ALBINOS.  The  white  Moors,  so  called 
by  the  Portuguese  ;  they  have  flaxen  hair, 
blue  rolling  eyes,  and  a  pale  livid  white- 
ness. 

ALBUMEN,  The  white  of  an  egg,  and 
any  viscous  fluid  without  taste  or  smell  that 
is  like  it,  as  the  serous  part  of  the  blood. 

ALBURNUM.  The  soft  white  substance 
In  trees  next  to  the  liber,  or  inner  bark. 

ALCHEMY.  That  obsolete  branch  of 
chymistry  which  had  for  its  object  the 
transmutation  of  metals  into  gold ;  the 
finding  the  panacea,  or  universal  remedy  j 
and  some  other  things  equally  ridiculous. 

ALCOHOL.  Commonly  called  spirit  of 
wine,  but  obtained  by  distillation  in  a  state 
more  ardent  and  purified  than  that  liquor. 
It  is  chiefly  employed  in  preparing  var- 
nishes, and  dissolving  gums,  resins,  &c. 
Its  antiseptic  power  makes  it  useful  in  pre- 
serving anatomical  preparations. 

ALCOR.  A  small  star,  adjoining  the 
bright  one  in  the  middle  of  the  tail  of  Ursa 
Major. 

ALCORAN.     See  Koran. 

ALDEBARAN,  or  The  Bull's  Eye. 
A  star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  the  con- 
stellation Taurus. 

ALDER.  A  tree  which  thrives  partic- 
ularly in  moist  places.  The  principal  sorts 
of  alder  are  the  round  leaved,  or  common 
alder,  the  long-leaved,  and  the  dwarf  alder. 

ALDERMAN.  A  superior  judge,  who 
In  England  sat  with  the  bishop  in  the  coun- 
ty courts  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  The 
alderman  is  now  a  magistrate  next  to  the 
mayor  in  a  city  or  borough. 

A-LEE.  A  sea  term,  signifying  to  the 
leeside,  or  side  which  the  wind  blows 
upon. 

ALEMBIC.  A  vessel  formerly  used  for 
distilling ;  in  the  place  of  which  retorts  are 
now  mos'tly  in  use. 

ALEXANDRINE.  A  verse  in  modern 
poetry  consisting  of  ten,  twelve,  or  thnteen 
syllables. 

ALG^.  A  natural  order  of  plants  in  the 
Linnean  system,  containing  flags,  sea- 
weeds, and  other  marine  plants,  whose 
root,  leaf,  and  stem  are  one. 

ALGEBRA.  The  science  of  computing 
abstract  quantities  by  means  of  symbols  or 
Bigns.  It  is  called  Specious  Arithmetic  by 
Vieta,  and  Universal  Arithmetic  by  New- 
ton. The  first  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  i, 
e,  d,  &c.  are  made  to  represent  known 
quantities ;  and  the  last  letters  x,  y,  z,  to 


ALG 

represent  those  that  are  unknown.  The 
operations  with  these  letters  are  performed 
by  means  of  the  characters  {-\-)  for  addi- 
tion, ( — )  for  subtraction,  ()^)  for  multipli- 
cation, (-1-)  for  division,  (=)  for  equality. 
ALGEBRA,  History  of.  The  term 
algebra  is  of  Arabic  original,  and  is  deri- 
ved by  some  from  algeabar  almocabaleh, 
signifying  restitution  and  comparison,  or 
resolution,  which  properly  expresses  the 
nature  of  the  thing :  others  have  derived 
it  from  Geber,  a  celebrated  mathematician. 
This  science  is  not  of  very  ancient  date, 
although  it  is  not  possible  to  fix  the  exact 
period  of  its  commencement.  The  earliest 
treatise  on  this  subject  now  extant  is  that 
of  Diophantus,  a  Greek  author  of  Alexan- 
dria, who  flourished  about  the  year  350, 
and  wrote  thirteen  books  of  Arithmetico- 
rum,  of  which  six  only  are  preserved. 
These  books  do  not  contain  the  elementary 
parts  of  algebra,  only  some  difficult  pro- 
blems respecting  square  and  cube  numbers, 
and  the  properties  of  numbers  in  general, 
to  which  the  writings  of  the  more  ancient 
authors,  as  Euclid,  Archimedes,  and  Apol- 
lonius  might  naturally  be  supposed  to  have 
given  birth.  Whether  the  Arabians  took 
their  hints  from  this  and  similar  works 
among  the  Greeks,  and  drew  out  the  sci- 
ence of  algebra  for  themselves,  or  whether 
they  more  immediately  derived  it,  as  they 
did  their  notation,  from  the  Hondoos,  is  a 
matter  of  doubt.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  the  science  was  first  transmitted  by 
the  Arabians  or  Saracens  to  Europe,  about 
the  year  1100 ;  and  that  after  its  introduc- 
tion the  Italians  took  the  lead  in  its  culti- 
vation. Lucas  Paciolus,  or  Lucas  de  Burgo, 
was  one  of  the  first  who  Avrote  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  has  left  several  treatises,  published 
between  the  years  1470  and  1509.  In  his 
principal  work,  entitled  Summa  Arithme- 
ticaj  et  Geometrias  Proportionumque  Pro- 
portionalitatum,  published  first  in  1494,  he 
mentions  several  writers,  and  particularly 
Leonardus  Pisanus,  otherwise  called  Bo- 
nacci,  an  Italian  merchant,  who,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  used  to  trade  to  the  sea- 
ports, and  thence  introduced  the  science  of 
algebra  into  Italy.  After  Lucas  de  Burgo, 
many  other  Italian  writers  took  up  tlie 
subject,  and  treated  it  more  at  large,  as 
Scipio  Ferreus,  who  found  out  a  rule  for 
resolving  one  case  of  a  compound  cubic 
equation  ;  but  more  especially  Hieronymus 
Cardan,  who,  in  ten  books  published  in 
1539-45,  has  given  the  whole  doctrine  of 
cubic  equations  ;  for  part  of  which,  howev- 
er, he  was  indebted  to  Nicholas  Tartalea, 
or  Tartaglea,  of  Brescia,  a  contemporary 
of  Cardan's,  who  published  a  book  on  cubic 


ALGEBRA, 


13 


equations,  entitled  auesite  Invenzioni  di- 
verse, which  appeared  in  1593.  Cardan 
often  used  the  literal  notation  of  «,  b,  c,  d, 
&c.,  but  Tartalea  made  no  alteration  in  the 
forms  of  expression  used  by  Lucas  de  Bur- 
go,  calling  the  first  power  of  the  unknown 
quantity  in  his  language  cosa,  the  second 
censa,  the  third  cubo,  &c.  writing  the 
names  of  all  the  operations  in  words  at 
length,  without  using  any  contractions, 
except  the  initial  R,  for  root,  or  radical- 
ity.  About  this  time  the  science  of  alge- 
bra also  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Ger- 
mans, among  whom  we  find  the  writers 
Stifelius  and  Scheubelius.  Stifelius,  in 
his  Arithmetica  Integra,  published  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1544,  introduced  the  characters 
-U,  — ,  and  ^ ,  for  plus,  minus,  and  radix, 
or  root,  as  he  called  it ;  also  the  initials  1^ , 
5,  >)o,  for  tlie  power  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  and  the 
numeral  exponents  0,  1,  2,  3,  &c.  which 
lie  called  by  the  name  of  exponens  expo- 
nent. He  likewise  uses  the  literal  no- 
tation, A,  B,  C,  D,  &c.  for  the  unknown 
or  general  quantities.  John  Scheubelius, 
who  wrote  about  the  same  time  as  Car- 
dan and  Stifelius,  treats  largely  on  surds, 
and  gives  a  general  rule  for  extracting 
tlie  root  of  any  binomial  or  residual, 
azh^j  where  one  or  both  parts  are  surds. 
These  writers  were  succeeded  by  Robert 
Recorde,  a  mathematician  and  physician 
of  Wales,  who  in  his  works,  in  1552  and 
1557,  on  Arithmetic,  showed  that  the  sci- 
ence of  algebra  had  not  been  overlooked 
in  England.  He  first  gave  rules  for  the 
extracting  of  the  roots  of  compound  alge- 
braic quantities,  and  made  use  of  the  terms 
binomial  and  residual,  and  introduced  the 
sign  of  equality,  orzzz,  Peletarius,  a  French 
algebraist,  in  his  work,  which  appeared  at 
Paris  in  1558,  made  many  improvements 
on  those  parts  of  algebra  which  had  alieady 
been  treated  of.  He  was  followed  by  Peter 
Ramus,  who  published  his  Arithmetic  and 
Algebra  in  1560  ;  Raphael  Bombelli,  whose 
Algebra  appeared  at  Bologna  in  1579  ;  and 
Simon  Steven,  of  Bruges,  who  published 
his  Arithmetic  in  1585,  and  his  Algebra  a 
little  after.  This  latter  invented  a  new  cha- 
racter for  the  unknown  quantity,  namely,  a 
small  circle  (o)?  within  which  he  placed 
the  numeral  exponent  of  the  power ;  and 
also  denoted  roots,  as  well  as  powers,  by 
numeral  exponents.  The  algebraical  works 
of  Vieta,  the  next  most  distinguished  alge- 
braist, appeared  about  the  year  1600,  and 
contain  many  improvements  in  the  methods 
of  working  algebraical  questions.  He  uses 
the  vowels  A,  E,  I,  O,  Y,  for  the  un- 
known quantities,  and  the  consonants,  B, 
C,  D,  &c.  for  the  known  quantities ;  and 


introduced  many  terms  which  are  in  pre- 
sent use,  as  coefficient,  affirmative  and 
negatiye,  pure  and  adfected,  (fcc:  also  the 
line,  or  vinculum,  over  compound  quanti- 
ties (AtB).  Albert  Girard,  an  ingenious 
Flemish  mathematician,  was  the  first  per- 
son who,  in  his  Invention  Nouvelle  en 
I'Algebre,  &c.  printed  in  1629,  explained 
the  general  doctrine  of  the  formation  of 
the  coefficients  of  the  powers  from  the 
sums  of  their  roots,  and  their  products. 
He  also  first  understood  the  use  of  negative 
roots,  in  the  solution  of  geometrical  pro- 
blems, and  first  spoke  of  imaginary  roots, 
&.C.  The  celebrated  Thomas  Harriot,  whose 
work  on  this  subject  appeared  in  1631,  in- 
troduced the  uniform  use  of  the  letters  a, 
b,  c,  &c. ;  that  is  the  vowels  a,  e,  and  0 
for  the  unknown  quantities,  and  the  con- 
sonants, 6,  c,  d,  &c.  for  tlie  known  quan- 
tities ;  these  he  joins  together  like  the 
letters  of  a  word,  to  represent  the  multipli- 
cation or  product  of  any  number  of  these 
literal  quantities,  and  prefixing  the  numeral 
coefficient,  as  is  usual  at  present,  except 
being  separated  by  a  point,  thus  5.bbc. 
For  a  root  he  sets  the  index  of  the  root 
after  the  mark^ ,  as ^3  for  the  cube  root, 
and  introduces  the  characters  \  and  <^^ 
for  gi-eater  and  less  ;  and  in  the  reduction 
of  equations  he  arranged  the  operations  in 
separate  steps  or  lines,  setting  the  expla- 
nations in  the  margin,  on  the  left  hand, 
for  each  line.  In  this  manner  he  brought 
algebra  nearly  to  the  form  which  it  nov.' 
bears,  and  added  also  much  information 
on  the  subject  of  equations.  Oughtred,in 
his  Clavis,  which  was  first  published  in 
1631,  set  down  the  decimals  without  their 
denominator,  separating  them  thus  21(56. 
In  algebraic  multiplications  he  either  joins 
the  letters  which  represent  the  factors,  or 
connects  them  with  the  sign  of  multiplica- 
tion -J^,  which  is  the  first  introduction  of 
this  character.  He  also  seems  to  have  first 
used  points  to  denote  proportion,  as  7  .  9  :: 
28  .  36 ;  and  for  continued  proportion  has 
the  mark  ~ .  In  his  work  we  likewise 
meet  with  the  first  instance  of  applying 
algebra  to  geometry,  so  as  to  investigate 
new  geometrical  properties :  which  latter 
subject  is  treated  at  large  by  Descartes,  in 
his  work  on  Geometrj-,  published  in  1637, 
and  also  by  several  other  subsequent  wri- 
ters. Wallis,  in  his  Arithmetica  Infinito- 
rum,  first  led  the  way  to  infinite  series, 
particularly  to  the  expression  of  the  qua- 
drature of  the  circle  by  an  infinite  series. 
He  also  substituted  the  fractional  exponents 
in  the  place  of  radical  signs,  wliich  in  many 
instances  facilitate  the  operations.  Huy- 
gens,  Ean-ow,  and  other  mathematicians, 


14 


ALL 


emplo3'ed  the  algebraical  calculus  in  resol- 
ving many  problems  which  had  liitherto 
baffled  mathematicians.  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton, in  his  Arithmetica  Universalis,  made 
many  improvements  in  analytics,  which 
subject,  as  well  asthe  theory  of  infinite  se- 
ries, was  further  developed  by  Halley,  Ber- 
noulli, Taylor,  Maclaurin,  Nicole,  Stirling, 
De  Moivre,  Clairaut,  Lambert,  Waring, 
Euler,  &c. 

ALGOL.  A  fixed  star  of  the  second 
magnitude  in  the  constellation  of  Perseus, 
or  Medusa's  Head. 

ALGORITHM.  An  Arabic  word,  fre- 
quently used  to  denote  the  practical  rules 
of  algebra. 

ALIAS  (in  Law).  A  word  signifying, 
literally,  otherwise  ;  and  employed  in  de- 
scribing the  defendant,  who  has  assumed 
other  names  besides  his  real  one. 

ALIBI  (in  Law).  A  term  signifying, 
literally,  elsewhere ;  and  used  by  the  de- 
fendant in  a  criminal  prosecution,  when 
he  wishes  to  prove  his  innocence,  by  show- 
ing that  he  was  in  another  place,  or  else- 
where, when  the  act  was  committed. 

ALICONDA.  An  Ethiopian  tree,  from 
the  bark  of  which  Mx  is  spun. 

ALIEN  (in  Law).  One  born  in  a  foreign 
country.  An  alien  is  incapable  of  inheriting 
lands  until  he  is  naturalized  by  an  act  of 
the  legislature.  He  has  likewise  no  right 
to  vote  at  elections,  or  to  enjoy  any  office, 
nor  to  be  returned  on  any  jury ,  unless  where 
an  alien  is  to  be  tried. 

ALIMONY  (in  the  Civil  Law).  The 
allowance  made  to  a  married  woman  upon 
her  separation  from  her  husband. 

ALiaUANT  PARTS.  Such  numbers  in 
arithmetic  as  will  not  divide  or  measure  a 
whole  number  exactly,  as  7,  which  is  the 
aliquant  part  of  16. 

ALiaUOT  PARTS.  Such  part  of  a 
number  as  will  divide  or  measure  a  whole 
number  exactly,  as  2  the  aliquot  part  of  4, 
3  of  9,  and  4  of  16. 

ALKALI  or  ALCALI.  A  perfectly  pure 
salt,  which  combines  with  acids  so  as  to 
neutralize  or  impair  their  activity,  and 
produces  salt3.  Besides,  alkalies  change 
the  purple  colour  of  many  vegetables  to  a 
green,  the  reds  to  a  purple,  and  the  yellows 
to  a  brown.  Some  alkalies  are  called  fixed, 
because  they  remain  fixed  in  the  fire,  as 
potash  and  soda;  others  are  volatile,  as 
ammonia. 

ALL  All.  The  Arabian  name  of  God. 

ALLEGIANCE  (in  Law).  The  faithful 
obedience  which  every  subject  owes  to  his 
prince  ;  the  oath  of  allegiance  is  that  which 
every  person  is  required  to  take  before  he 
enters  on  any  office. 


ALL 

ALLEGORY.  A  series  or  chain  of  me- 
taphors continued  through  a  whole  dis- 
course ;  thus  the  prophets  represent  the 
Jews  under  the  allegory  of  a  vine,  planted, 
cultivated,  and  watered  by  the  hand  of  God. 

ALLEGRO.  An  Italian  word  used  in 
music,  to  denote  that  the  part  is  to  be  play- 
ed in  a  brisk  and  sprightly  manner. 

ALLIGATION.  A  rule  in  arithmetic, 
teaching  how  to  compound  several  ingre- 
dients for  any  design  proposed.  It  is  either 
medial  or  alternate.  Alligation  medial  is 
the  method  of  finding  the  rate  or  quality  of 
the  composition  from  having  the  rates  or 
qualities  of  the  several  ingi-edients,  as  to 
find  the  value  of  brandy  per  gallon,  which 
is  composed  of  10  gallons  at  24s.  per  gal- 
lon, 12  at  305.  per  gallon,  &c.  Alligation 
alternate  is  the  method  of  finding  the  quan- 
tities of  ingredients  necessary  to  form  a 
compound  of  a  given  rate,  as  to  find  how 
gold  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  that  is 
of  19,  21,  and  23  carats  fine,  &c.  may  be 
mixed  together  so  that  the  mixture  may 
be  20  carats  fine.  Questions  of  this  kind 
are  better  solved  by  algebra. 

ALLIGATOR.  An  amphibious  animal, 
abounding  in  both  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica in  the  torrid  zone,  and  sometimes 
grows  to  the  length  of  18  or  20  feet.  The 
Alligator  is  found  in  the  lower  parts  of 
the  Mississippi,  but  it  is  more  common 
in  the  large  rivers  of  South  America. 
It  is  called  Cayman  by  the  Indians. 
It  resembles  the  Crocodile  of  Africa  and 
Asia,  but  it  never  gi-ows  as  large,  and  is 
beside,  different  in  formation,  and  in  its 
habits. 


ALLITERATION.  A  repeating  or  play- 
ing upon  the  same  letter  in  a  succession  o€ 
words. 

ALLODIAL.  An  epithet  for  lands  held 
without  any  acknowledgment  to  a  lord  or 
superior,  in  opposition  to  feudal  lands. 
Allodial  lands  are  exempt  from  rent  or 
services. 

ALLOY,  or  ALLAY.  A  proportion  of 
any  baser  metal  mixed  with  one  that  is 
finer,  thus  the  gold  coin  has  an  alloy  of 
silver  and  copper,  as  silver  has  of  copper 


ALM 

alone :  the  proportion  in  the  former  case 
■for  standard  gold  is  2  carats  of  alloy  in 
a  pound  weight,  or  22  carats  fine ;  in  the 
latter  case,  for  the  silver,  there  are  18  dwts. 
of  alloy  in  11  oz.  2  dwts.  fine. 

ALL  SAINTS.  A  festival  observed  by 
some  Christians  on  the  first  day  of  Novem- 
ber, in  commemoration  of  all  the  saints. 

ALLSPICE,  or  the  Pimento  Tree.  A 
beautiful  tree  of  Mexico  and  the  West  In- 
dies, the  fruit  of  which  is  highly  aromatic. 
The  tree  is  about  30  feet  in  height,  and  2 
in  circumference 


ALT 


15 


ALLUVION.  A  gradual  increase  ofland 
washed  to  the  shore  by  inundations.  Al- 
luvial formations  are  also  to  be  found  in 
valleys  and  plains,  by  the  deposit  of  gi-avel, 
loam,  clay,  or  other  earths  washed  down 
from  the  mountains. 

ALMAGEST.  The  name  of  a  celebrated 
book  on  astronomy,  composed  by  Ptolemy. 

ALMA  MATER.  The  name  given  to  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  En- 
gland, by  their  several  members  who  have 
passed  their  degrees  in  each  of  these  uni- 
versities. The  same  is  done  by  the  Am- 
erican Colleges. 

ALMANAC.  A  calendar  or  table  con- 
taining a  list  of  the  months  and  days,  with 
gn  account  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  and  other  incidental  mat- 
ters. The  English  Nautical  Almanac,  or 
Astronomical  Ephemeris,  is  a  kind  of  na- 
tional almanac,  begun  in  1767,  under  the 
direction  and  by  the  advice  of  the  astrono- 
mer royal,  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Haskelyne. 
Besides  most  things  essential  to  general 
use,  which  are  found  in  other  almanacs,  it 
contains  many  new  and  important  matters, 
particularly  the  distance  of  the  moon  from 
the  sun  and  fixed  stars,  computed  to  the 


meridian  of  Greenwich,  for  every  three 
hours  of  time,  for  the  purpose  of  computing 
the  longitude  at  sea.  This  almanac  is 
generally  computed  a  few  years  forward, 
for  the  convenience  of  ships  going  out  upon 
long  voyages.  A  similar  work  is  published 
in  the  United  States.  The  American  Al- 
manac, first  published  at  Boston  in  1830, 
embraces  a  great  mass  of  statistical  know- 
ledge, beside  that  usually  given  inanalma^ 
nac. 

ALMOND.  The  fruit  of  the  almond  tree, 
which  is  a  nut,  and  is  either  sweet  or  bit^ 
ter. 

ALMOND  TREE.  A  tall  tree,  resem- 
bling the  peach  tree,  which  flourishes  in 
Asia  and  the  southern  parts  of  Europe.  It 
is  one  of  the  first  trees  that  bloom  in  Spring. 

ALMONER.  In  England  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal officer  of  the  king,  appointed  to  distrib- 
ute the  king's  alms  to  the  poor  every  day. 

ALOE.  A  tree  which  originally  came 
from  India,  is  remarkable  for  a  bitter  juice, 
called  aloes,  which  is  extracted  from  its 
leaves,  and  is  very  useful  in  medicine. 
The  aloe  soccotrina  is  a  European  species 
much  cultivated  in  Spain. 

ALPHA.  The  first  letter  in  the  Greek 
alphabet,  which  with  the  second  letter,  be- 
ta, forms  the  word  alphabet. 

ALPHABET.  A  series  of  the  several 
letters  in  a  language,  which  vary  in  num- 
ber in  difierent  languages.  The  Hebrew 
contains  22  letters,  as  also  the  Chaldee, 
Samaritan,  Syriac,  Persian,  ^thiopic,  Sa/. 
racen,  &c. ;  but  the  Irish,  which  is  the  same 
as  the  Pelasgian,  or  Scythian,  still  retains 
only  17 ;  the  Greek  alphabet,  which  was 
brought  by  Cadmus  into  Greece  from  Phoe- 
nicia, and  was  also  Pelasgian  in  its  origin- 
al, consisted  of  16  or  17,  to  which  were  af- 
terwards added  7  or  8  more,  to  make  up  24. 
The  ancient  Arabic  alphabet  consisted  of 
24,  to  which  4  more  letters  have  since  been 
added  ;  the  Coptic  alphabet  consists  of  32, 
the  Turkish  of  33,  the  Georgian  of  36,  the 
Russian  of  39,  the  Spanish  of  27,  the  Ital- 
ian of  20,  the  Latin  of  22,  the  French  of  23, 
and  the  English  of  26.  See  more  on  this 
subject  under  the  head  of  Writing.  The 
Chinese  have  no  proper  alphabet,  unless 
we  reckon  as  such  their  keys  to  classes  of 
words,  distinguished  by  the  number  of 
strokes  combined  in  each,  of  which  they 
have  214  in  number.  As  to  the  written 
characters  of  these  alphabets,  see  Writing. 

ALT.  That  part  of  the  great  scale  of 
sounds  lying  between  F  above  the  treble 
clift^note,  and  G  in  altissimo. 

ALTAR.  Atable  orraised  place  on  which 
any  offering  was  made  to  the  Almighty. 
The  first  altar  mentioned  is  that  built  by 


16 


ALT 


Noah  after  the  flood.     The  two  principal 
altars  of  the  Jews  were  the  altar  of  burnt 


offerings  and  the  altar  of  incense. 


ALTERNATION.  A  rule  in  arithmetic 
showing  the  different  ways  in  which  any 
number  of  quantities  may  be  changed  or 
combined. 

ALTIMETRY.  The  art  of  measuring 
altitudes  or  heights. 

ALTITUDE.  The  height  of  an  object, 
or  its  elevation  above  that  plane  to  which 
the  base  is  referred ;  thus  in  mathematics 
the  altitude  of  a  figure  is  the  perpendicular 
or  nearest  distance  of  its  vertex  from  the 
base.  The  altitude  of  an  object  is  the  ele- 
vation of  an  object  above  the  plane  of  the 
horizon,  or  a  perpendicular  let  fall  to  that 
plane,  as  a  perpendicular  let  fall  from  a 
tower. 

Altitudes  are  either  accessible  or  inacces- 
sible. An  accessible  altitude  of  an  object 
Is  that  whose  base  we  can  have  access  to, 
so  as  to  measure  the  distance  between  it 
and  the  station  ft-om  which  the  measure  is 
to  be  taken. 

Inaccessible  altitude  is  when  tlie  base  of 
the  object  cannot  be  approached.  Inacces- 
sible altitudes  may  be  measured  either  by 


AMA 

geometry,  trigonometry,  optical  reflection, 
or  by  the  barometer.  The  altitudes  of 
mountains  may  be  determined  best  by  the 
barometer,  for  as  the  weight  of  the  atmos- 
phere diminishes  as  we  rise,  the  fall  of  the 
barometer  determines  the  elevation  of  any 
place.  The  altitude  of  the  pyramids  in 
Egypt  was  measured  in  the  time  of  Thales, 
by  means  of  their  shadow  and  a  pole  set 
upright  beside  them,  making  the  altitudes 
of  the  pole  and  pyramid  to  be  proportional 
to  the  length  of  their  shadows.  The  in- 
struments now  commonly  used  in  measur- 
ing altitudes  are  the  geometrical  square, 
the  quadrant,  and  theodolite. 

ALTITUDE  (in  Optics).  The  height  of 
an  object  above  a  line  drawn  parallel  to 
the  horizon  from  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

ALTITUDE  OF  THE  EYE  (in  Per_ 
spective).  The  perpendicular  height  of  the 
eye  above  the  geometrical  plane. 

ALTITUDE  OF  A  STAR,  &c.  (in  As- 
tronomy). The  height  of  any  star,  &c- 
above  the  horizon,  or  an  arc  of  a  verticls 
circle,  intercepted  between  the  star  and  the 
horizon.  This  altitude  is  either  true  or  ap- 
parent, according  as  it  is  reckoned  from  the 
rational  or  sensible  horizon,  and  the  differ- 
ence between  these  two  is  termed  by  as- 
tronomers the  parallax  of  altitude. 

ALTO  ( in  Music  books).  Italian  for  the 
upper  or  counter  tenor,  and  is  common  in 
music  of  several  parts. 

ALUM.  A  mineral  salt,  composed  of 
sulphuric  acid ,  potash,  alumina,  and  water- 
It  is  of  a  white  colour,  and  of  an  astringent 
acid  taste ;  natural  alum,  which  was  well 
known  to  the  ancients,  is  a  kind  of  whitish 
friable  stone,  formerly  found  in  the  island 
of  Melos,  Macedonia,  Egypt,  &c.  Facti- 
tious alum  is  commonly  made  of  a  stone, 
of  seaweed,  and  of  urine.  It  is  known  by 
the  names  of  rock  or  English  alum,  which 
is  colourless  ;  and  Roman  alum,  which  is 
of  a  reddish  colour. 

ALUM  EARTH.  The  earth  from  which 
alum  is  extracted. 

ALUMINA,  or  ALUMINE.  The  earth 
of  alum,  an  argillaceous,  soft,  and  insipid 
sort  of  earth,  which  is  the  base  of  alum, 
being'  the  principal  part  of  clay. 

ALUM  WATER.  A  preparation  used 
by  painters  in  water  colour,  prepared  by 
dissolving  alum  in  water. 

A.  M.  An  abbreviation  for  Anno  Mundi, 
the  year  of  I  lie  world,  and  Magister  Artiuni, 
master  of  arts. 

AMALGAM,  or  AMALGAMA.  The 
mixture  of  mercury  with  some  other  metal- 
Amalgams  are  used  either  to  render  a  metal 
fit  to  bo  spread  on  some  works,  as  in  gilding,^ 


AME 

or  else  to  reduce  the  metal  to  a  subtle 
powder.  An  amalgam  of  tin  and  mercury 
is  used  for  looking  glasses. 

AMALGAMATION.  The  operation  of 
mixing  quicksilver  with  some  other  metal, 
by  fusing  the  metal,  and  in  that  state  add- 
ing a  portion  of  mercury  to  it.  Gold  of 
all  metals  unites  best  with  mercury,  next 
to  that  silver,  then  lead,  tin,  and  every 
other  metal,  except  iron  and  copper,  the 
last  of  which  admits  scarcely  any  of  such 
amalgamation. 

AMANUENSIS.  A  slave  among  the 
Romans,  who  used  to  be  employed  in 
writing  for  his  master  5  also  any  one  among 
the  moderns  who  is  employed  to  transcribe 
for  another. 

AMARANTH.  A  plant  which  flourishes 
in  the  Indies  and  South  America,  remark- 
able for  the  lasting  beauty  of  its  flowers. 

AMATEUR,  One  who  follows  a  parti- 
cular art  or  profession  not  for  gain  but  for 
pleasure. 

AMBASSADOR.  One  appointed  by  a 
sovereign  power  to  represent  him,  and  su- 
perintend his  aftairs  at  a  foreign  court. 

AMBER.  A  hard,  brittle,  tasteless  sub- 
stance, mostly  semitransparent,  or  opaque, 
and  of  a  glossy  surface.  It  is  highly  elec- 
tive, and  if  a  piece  be  kindled  it  burns  to 
the  end  with  pungent  white  vapours,  with- 
out melting. 

AMBERGRIS.  A  solid  sebaceous  or  fat 
substance,  found  floating  in  the  sea,  near 
the  coasts  of  various  tropical  countries.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  the  excrement  of  the 
spermatic  whale,  having  frequently  been 
met  with  in  the  intestines  of  that  fish. 

AMBER  TREE.  A  shrub,  the  beauty 
of  whicli  lies  in  its  small  evergreen  leaves^ 
these  grow  as  close  as  heath,  and  when 
rubbed  emit  a  fragrant  odour. 

AMBIDEXTER.  A  person  who  can  use 
both  hands  with  equal  facility. 

AMBUSCADE.  A  place  where  soldiers 
lie  concealed,  in  order  to  surprise  an  enemy. 

AMENDE.  A  pecuniary  punishment  im- 
posed, according  to  the  customs  of  France, 
by  a  judge,  for  any  false  prosecution  or 
groundless  appeal. 

AMENDE  HONORABLE.  An  Infa- 
mous kind  of  pimishment  formerly  inflicted 
in  France  on  traitors,  parricides,  or  sacri- 
legious persons,  who  were  to  go  naked  to 
the  shkt,  with  a  torch  in  their  hand,  and 
a  rope  about  their  neck,  into  a  church  or 
a  court,  to  beg  pardon  of  God,  the  court, 
and  the  injured  party. 

AMENTACE^.  A  natural  order  of 
plants,  bearing  catkins,  as  the  poplar,  ha- 
zel, beech,  &c. 

AMERCEMENT.    A  pecuniary  punish- 
2* 


AMP 


17 


meat  imposed  on  offenders  at  the  mercy 
of  the  court ;  it  is  contracted  from  the  Latin 
words  a  misericordia,  which  signify  lite- 
rally/ro?re  or  at  the  mercy.  Amercements 
differ  from  fines,  in  as  much  as  the  latter 
are  defined,  and  the  former  are  proportion- 
ed to  the  fault,  or  more  properly  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  coui-t. 

AMERICAN  ELK.  A  noble  animal  of 
the  deer  kind. 

AMETHYST.  A  gem  of  great  hardness 
and  brilliancy,  and  of  various  colours,  but 
mostly  purple  or  violet.  It  comes  from 
India,  and  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  as» 
tringent. 

AMIANTHUS.  An  incombustible  mine- 
ral flax,  which  may  be  drawn  into  threads 
and  wove  into  cloth.  It  is  mostly  fbund 
among  rocks. 

AMMON.  The  title  under  which  Jupiter 
was  worshipped  in  Libya,  where  a  temple 
v/as  erected  to  him,  from  which  oracles 
were  delivered  for  many  ages. 

AMMONIA.  A  volatile  alkali,  which, 
when  in  its  purest  state,  exists  only  in  the 
form  of  a  gas.  It  forms  a  liquid  when 
cooled,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  harts- 
horn, because  it  is  obtained  from  distilling 
the  horn  of  the  hart.  It  may  also  be  ob- 
tained from  urine  and  camel's  dung  by 
distillation. 

AMMONIAC,  or  GUM  AMMONIAC. 
A  resinous  substance  brought  from  the 
East  Indies  in  drops  or  granules.  The 
best  kind  is  of  a  yellowish  colour  without 
and  white  within, 

AMMONITJ3  SNAKE  STONE.  A 
sort  of  fossil  shells,  made  up  of  small  cir- 
cles, like  those  of  a  snake  rolled  up. 


AMMUNITION.  A  general  term  for 
all  warlike  stores,  but  more  especially 
powder,  balls,  guns,  &c. 

AMNESTY.  An  act  of  pardon  granted 
by  a  prince  to  his  subjects  for  former  offen- 
ces, as  the  amnesty  granted  by  Charles  II, 
at  the  Restoration. 

AMPHIBIA.  A  class  of  animals  which 
live  equally  well  in  air  or  water,  such  as 
the  phocce,  or  seal  tribe,  frogs,  lizards, 
crocodiles,  eels,  water  sei-pents,  snakes. 
They  are  remarkable  for  their  tenacity  of 


18 


ANA 


life  J  some  will  continue  to  move  even 
wlien  the  head  is  cut  oft'. 

AMPHISCII.  A  name  applied  by  geogra- 
phers to  the  inhabitants  of  the  torrid  zone. 

AMPHITHEATRE.  A  circular  building 
among  the  ancients,  having  seats  entirely 
around,  and  an  area  in  the  middle,  where 
spectacles  were  exhibited.  Some  of  these, 
as  the  Colisosum  in  Rome,  could  contain 
from  50,000  to  80,000  persons. 

AMPLIFICATION(withRhetoricians). 
An  amplifying  or  enlarging  upon  an  argu- 
ment, either  by  aggravating  or  extenuating 
a  crime,  heightening  an  eulogium,  or  en- 
larging a  narration,  by  an  enumeration  of 
circumstances,  so  as  to  excite  proper  emo- 
tions in  the  audience. 

AMPLITUDE.  An  arch  of  the  horizon, 
Intercepted  between  the  east  or  west  points 
and  the  centre  of  the  sun  or  stars  at  their 
rising  and  setting.  It  is  called  orti^e,  or 
eastern  amplitude,  when  the  star  is  rising ; 
and  occiduous,  or  western,  when  the  star 
is  setting. 

AMPLITUDE  MAGNETICAL.  Is  an 
arc  of  the  horizon,  contained  between  the 
sun  or  a  star  at  its  rising  and  setting,  and 
the  magnetical  east  or  west  point  of  the  hori- 
zon, indicated  by  the  magnetical  compass, 
or  the  amplitude  or  azimuth. 

AMPUTATION  (in  Surgery).  The  cut- 
ting off  a  limb  or  other  part  of  the  body 
with  an  instrument. 

AMULET.  A  supposed  charm  or  pre- 
servative against  witchcraft,  mischief,  or 
diseases.  Amulets  consist  of  stone,  metal, 
simples,  or  whatever  else  the  fancy  sug- 
gested ;  sometimes  words  or  sentences 
might  be  employed  in  this  manner. 

AMZEL.  A  bird  of  the  blackbird  kind, 
belonging  to  the  same  genus,  morula,  in 
the  Linnfean  system.  The  ring-amzel  is 
remarkable  for  having  a  fine  broad  white 
ring  at  the  lower  part  of  its  throat. 

ANA.  A  name  given  to  amusing  mis- 
cellanies, consisting  of  anecdotes,  traits  of 
character,  and  incidents  relating  to  any 
person  or  subject. 

ANABASIS.  The  title  of  Xenophon's 
description  of  the  younger  Cyrus's  expedi- 
tion against  his  brother,  in  which  the  wri- 
ter bore  a  principal  part. 

ANACHRONISM.  An  error  in  chrono- 
logy, as  when  an  event  is  related  to  have 
happened  in  tlie  reign  of  a  certain  prince, 
which  happened  either  before  or  after. 

ANACLASTICS.  Another  name  for 
dioptrics,  or  that  branch  of  optics  which 
relates  to  refracted  light. 

ANACREONTIC  VeRSE.  A  sort  of 
verse  so  called  from  the  Greek  poet  Anac- 
reon,  by  whom  it  was  first  used.    It  con- 


ANA 

sists  of  three  feet,  generally  spondees  and 
iambic.  It  is  adapted  to  soft  and  tender 
subjects. 

ANAGRAM.  The  transposition  of  the 
letters  of  one  word  so  as  to  form  another, 
as  amor  changed  into  Roma. 

ANALEMMA.  A  projection  of  the  sphere 
on  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  orthographi- 
cally  made  by  straight  lines  and  ellipses, 
the  eye  being  supposed  at  an  infinite  dis- 
tance, in  an  equinoctial  point. 

ANALEMMA.  Is  also  an  instrument,  a 
kind  of  astrolabe,  made  either  of  brass  or 
wood,  with  an  horizon  fitted  to  it ;  it  is 
used  for  finding  the  time  of  the  sun's  rising 
or  setting,  the  length  of  the  longest  day, 
&c.  The  most  ancient  treatise  on  this  in- 
strument was  written  by  Ptolemy,  and 
published  in  1562,  with  a  Commentary 
by  Commandine.  Other  authors,  as  Aqui- 
lonius,  Jacquet,  Deschales,  &c.  have  since 
written  on  the  same  instrument. 

ANALOGY.  The  relation  which  things 
bear,  or  are  supposed  to  bear,  to  each  other, 
from  their  resemblance  or  proportion  to  one 
another ;  as  the  analogy  between  animals 
and  plants,  from  which  a  similar  treatment 
of  them  in  many  cases  may  be  inferred. 
Analogy  is  one  of  the  principal  grounds  of 
reasoning  in  matters  of  experience. 

ANALYSIS  (in  Logic).  The  resolution 
or  unfolding  of  any  thing,  so  as  to  discover 
its  component  parts  as  opposed  to  synthesis. 
Analysis  is  the  method  of  finding  out  truth, 
and  synthesis  is  the  method  of  explaining 
that  truth  to  others.  Amongmathematicians 
it  is  the  art  of  discovering  the  truth  or  false- 
hood of  a  proposition,  by  supposing  the 
question  to  be  solved,  and  then  examining 
the  consequences,  till  some  truth  is  disco- 
vered, or  the  absurdity  and  impossibility  of 
the  proposition  is  discovered.  The  analysis 
of  finite  quantities  is  properly  called  spe- 
cious arithmetic,  or  algebra ;  the  analysis  of 
infinite  quantities  is  tJie  method  of  fluxions 
or  ditt'erential  calculus. 

ANALYSIS  (in  Chymistry).  Is  the  de- 
composition of  bodies,  as  vegetables  and 
minerals,  to  discover  their  component  parts. 

ANALYTICS.  A  name  given  to  algebra, 
being  nothing  else  but  a  general  analysis 
of  pure  mathematics ;  or  else  because  it 
teaches  how  to  solve  questions,  and  demon- 
strate theorems,  by  searching  into  the  fun- 
damental nature  and  frame  of  the  thing, 
wliich  is,  as  it  were,  resolved  into  parts, 
or  taken  to  pieces,  and  tlien  put  together 
again. 

ANAMORPHOSIS  (in  Perspective  and 
Painting).  A  monstrous  projection,  or  re- 
presentation of  an  image  on  a  plane  or 
curve  surface,  which  beheld  at  a  certain 


ANA 

distance  shall  appear  regular  and  in  pro- 
portion. 


ANA 


19 


k# 

?^ 

m 

9,^ 

^ 

M 

^ 

^. 

ANAPAEST.  A  metrical  foot,  having  the 
two  first  short  and  the  last  long  ("  ""  ~),  as 
pietas. 

ANARCHY.  A  society  without  a  govern- 
ment, or  where  there  is  no  supreme  gov- 
ernor. 

ANATHEMA.  In  the  general  sense,  a 
religious  curse ;  in  the  particular  sense, 
ecclesiastical  excommunication. 

ANATOMY.  The  act  of  dissecting  bo- 
dies for  the  purpose  of  examining  their 
etnicture,  and  the  nature,  uses,  and  func- 
tions of  their  several  parts  ;  also  the  know- 
ledge of  the  human  body  derived  from  such 
dissections  and  examinations  ;  when  ap- 
plied to  animals  it  is  termed  Comparative 
Anatomy.  In  the  science  of  anatomy,  the 
body  is  divided  into  the  head,  trunk,  and 
extremities,  and  is  composed  of  solids  and 
fluids.  The  solids  are  the  integuments, 
bones,  cartilages,  ligaments,  membranes, 
vessels,  muscles,  nerves,  and  glands.  The 
principal  fluids  are  the  blood,  the  chyle,  the 
lymph,  and  the  bile.  Anatomy,  from  the 
names  of  the  parts  treated  of,  is  divided  into 
osteogeny,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  growth  of 


the  bones  ;  osteology,  the  doctrine  of  the 
bones  in  the  adult  subject ;  chondrology, 
the  doctrine  of  the  cartilages  ;  syndesmo- 
logj',  the  doctrine  of  the  ligaments ;  my- 
ology, the  doctrine  of  the  muscles  ;  bursas 
log}',  the  doctrine  of  the  bursas  mucosee ; 
splanchnology,  the  doctrine  of  the  viscera ; 
angeiology,  the  doctrine  of  the  vessels ; 
adenology,  the  doctrine  of  the  glands ; 
neurolog}',  the  doctrine  of  the  nerves,  &e. 
Anatomy,  taken  absolutely,  applies  only  to 
the  dissection  of  human  subjects  ;  the  dis- 
section and  examination  of  brutes  is  called 
Comparative  Anatomy. 

ANATOMY,  History  of.  The  science 
of  anatomy  was  doubtless  coeval  with  that 
of  medicine,  for  the  connexion  between 
the  two  studies  would  naturally  suggest  to 
the  inquirer  into  the  diseases  of  the  human 
body  the  necessity  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  its  component  parts.  In  Egj-pt,  the 
practice  of  embalming  rendering  it  neces- 
sary to  open  the  body,  led  them  first  to 
make  observations  on  the  structure  of  the 
human  frame,  which  was  afterwards  en- 
couraged by  their  kings,  who  ordered  dead 
bodies  to  be  regularly  dissected  for  the 
perfection  of  the  art  5  but,  judging  from 
some  specimens  which  have  been  preserved 
of  their  anatomical  observations,  the  sci- 
ence did  not  make  any  considerable  progress 
among  them.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt, 
but  they  laid  the  foundation,and  the  Greeks, 
who  derived  their  earliest  information  from 
them,  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  the  sci- 
ence by  their  researches.  Hippocrates,  who 
lived  about  400  years  before  Christ,  is  the 
first  who  expressly  wrote  on  this  subject ; 
and  the  first  anatomical  dissection  recorded 
was  made  by  his  friend  Democritus,  of 
Abdera.  In  Aristotle's  works  there  are 
many  minute  particulars  on  this  subject, 
which  show  that  he  had  made  the  animal 
body  his  particular  study.  From  tlie  Greeks 
this  science,  after  an  interval  of  several 
centuries,  passed  again  into  Egypt,  where, 
by  the  fostering  care  of  the  Ptolemies,  it 
was  revived  and  made  great  advances. 
Erastratas,  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Theo 
phrastus  and  Herophilus,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  famous  school  of  anatomy  at 
Alexandria,  which  v/as  for  many  centuries 
in  such  high  repute  that  no  one  Avas  sup- 
posed qualified  for  the  medical  art,  who 
had  not  studied  at  Alexandria.  Herophi- 
lus is  said  to  have  dissected  not  less  than 
700  bodies,  and  among  the  rest  some  living 
subjects,  but  probably,  as  such  a  monstrous 
piece  of  cruelty  must  have  defeated  its  own 
purpose,  this  latter  part  of  the  story  is  only 
an  exaggeration.  The  Romans  learned  from 
the  Greeks  the  science  of  anatomy,  as  they 


20 


ANATOMY 


did  most  other  arts  and  sciences ;  for  the 
first  rudiments  were  tauglit  to  them  by 
Archagathus,  a  Greek  physician,  who  first 
established  hmiself  at  Rome,and  afterwards 
by  Asclepiades,  who  flourished  in  the  time 
of  Ponipey,  and  gained  sucli  repute  that 
he  was  looked  upon  as  a  second  Hippo- 
crates. He  was  succeeded  by  Cassiue,  who 
was  supposed  to  be  the  disciple  of  Ascle- 
piades, Celsus,  Rufus,  Pliny,  Coelius  Aure- 
lianus,  and  Aratseus,  whose  works  abound 
with  anatomical  observations,  and  prove 
that,  although  their  researches  were  not 
deep,  their  attention  was  drawn  towards 
the  subject.  This  is  also  still  more  evident 
from  the  works  of  Galen,  who,  in  point 
of  accuracy  and  minuteness  of  detail,  sur- 
passed all  that  went  before  him,  and  also 
all  that  followed  him  until  within  the  last 
three  centuries.  The  Arabians  and  Sara- 
cens, on  the  decline  of  the  empire,  took 
the  place  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  sciences,  but  as  by  the 
tenets  of  their  religion  they  were  prohibited 
from  touching  dead  bodies,  and  conse. 
quently  could  not  practice  dissection,  they 
were  obliged  to  content  themselves  with 
commenting  upon  Galen.  To  eftect  this 
object,  we  find  that  Abdollatiph,  a  teacher 
of  anatomy  in  the  thirteenth  century,  ex- 
amined and  demonstrated  the  structure  of 
the  bones  by  going  to  the  burying  grounds  ; 
and  by  that  means  he  detected  some  errors 
In  Galen.  Although  the  Europeans  were  not 
under  the  same  restrictions,  yet  during  the 
middle  ages  it  is  certain  that  the  science  of 
anatomy  made  no  advances.  The  best  trea- 
tise then  extant,  which  gained  the  author 
great  repute,  and  was  the  standard  book 
ill  the  schools,  was  that  of  Mundinus,  which 
appeared  in  1315,  yet  this  was  nothing  but 
an  abstract  of  Galen.  On  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors,  the  prejudice  against  dissec- 
tion abated,  and  copies  of  the  Greek  authors 
having  found  their  way  into  Europe  after 
tlie  sacking  of  Constantinople,  the  study  of 
anatomy  revived  considerably  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Among  the  Italians,  Achil- 
linus  Benedictus,  Berengarius,  and  Massa 
added  to  the  stock  of  anatomical  knowledge 
by  discoveries  of  their  own  from  dissections. 
But  the  most  distingviished  names  among 
the  anatomists  of  that  period.are  tliose  who 
flourished  in  the  following  century, namely, 
Vesalius,  a  native  of  Brussels,  Sylvius  in 
France,  Columbus,  Fallopius,  and  Eusta- 
chius  in  Italy,  wlio,  contrary  to  tlie  prac- 
tice of  Galen,  drew  their  observations  from 
the  human  body,  rather  than  from  that  of 
the  brutes.  Vesalius  gave  the  names  to  the 
muscles,  most  of  wliich  are  retained  to  this 
day.    Gabriel  Fallopius,  in  his  treatise  en- 


titled Observationes  Anatomicoe,  published 
in  1561,  improved  upon  the  descriptions  of 
Vesalius.  The  Opuscula  AnatomicaofBar- 
tliolomffius  Eustachius,  published  in  1563, 
have  ever  been  admired  for  the  correctness 
and  exactness  of  their  descriptions.  His 
plates,  which  were  intended  for  a  large 
and  complete  work  on  the  subject,  were 
not  published  until  150  years  after,  when 
being  found  in  an  old  cabinet,  they  were 
edited  by  Lancisi,  the  pope's  physician,who 
added  a  short  explanatory  text,  because 
that  of  Eustachius  could  not  be  found.  The 
next  in  the  list  of  distinguished  anato- 
mists must  be  reckoned  Harvey,  who,  after 
having  studied  in  Italy  under  Fabricius  ab 
Aquapendente,  was  led  by  the  writings  of 
his  master  to  consider  the  manner  in  which 
the  blood  was  circulated  over  the  whole 
body,  and  the  offices  of  the  several  vessels. 
Fabricius  published  an  account  of  the  valves 
which  he  discovered  in  the  veins.  This 
discovery  affected  the  established  doctrine 
of  all  ages,  that  the  veins  carried  the  blood 
from  the  liver  to  all  parts  of  the  body  for 
nourishment ;  and  Harvey  was  led  by  this 
to  consider  more  narrowly  the  functions 
of  the  heart  and  the  vascular  system.  The 
result  of  his  investigation  was,  that  the 
heart  is  the  gi-and  reservoir  of  the  blood, 
that  the  arteries,  which  had  hitherto  been 
considered  as  air  vessels,  were  the  channels 
by  whicli  it  was  conveyed  to  all  parts  of 
the  body,  and  the  veins  were  the  channels 
by  which  it  was  carried  back  to  the  heart. 
His  doctrine  at  first  met  with  considerable 
opposition,  but  farther  researches  put  it  at 
length  beyond  all  question,  and  led  to  other 
discoveriesof  considerable  importance.  The 
lacteals,  or  vessels  which  carry  the  chyle 
to  the  intestines,  were  discovered  by  As- 
celius,  an  Italian ;  the  thoracic  duct  by 
Pecquet,  in  1651 ;  the  lymphatics  by  Tho- 
mas BartJioline,  a  Danish  anatomist ;  be- 
sides numerous  other  discoveries  which 
were  made  by  the  help  of  magnifying  glas- 
ses. These  were  first  brought  into  use  by 
Malpighi,  after  by  Laurentius  Bellinus,  a 
distinguished  anatomist  of  Italy,  Swam- 
merdam.  Van  Horn,  De  Graaf,  and  other 
Dutch  anatomists,  particularly  Antonius 
Liewenhoeck,  of  Delft,  who  improved  on 
Malpighi's  use  of  microscopes,  and  succeed- 
ed in  discovering  globules  in  the  blood, 
animalculae  in  the  semen,  and  many  other 
particulars  which  had  hitherto  escaped  no- 
tice. From  this  time  the  science  of  anato- 
my made  prodigious  advances  towards  ac- 
curacy, so  that  each  particular  part  has  fur- 
nished matter  for  the  labours  of  celebrated 
anatomists.  The  figures  ofthe  bones  have 
been  given  in  four  large  folio  volumes,  by 


AND 

Albinus,  Cheselden,  Trews,  &c. ;  those  of 
the  muscles  are  given  in  two  large  folios, 
by  Cowper  and  Albinus,  the  latter  of  which 
are  particularly  admired  for  their  correct- 
ness. Haller  has  published  a  folio  on  the 
blood  vessels,  Dr.  Munro,  junior,  on  the 
nerves,  Albinus,  Roederer,  and  Hunter  on 
the  gravid  uterus,  Weibrecht  and  others 
an  the  joints  and  fresh  bones,  Soemmering 
on  tlie  brain,  Zinn  on  the  eye,  Cotunnius 
Mickel,  junior,  and  others  on  the  ear, 
Walter  on  the  nerves  of  the  thorax  and 
abdomen,  Munro  on  the  bursEe  mucosae, 
besides  the  several  systems  of  anatomy 
from  the  pens  of  Albinus,  Keil,  Cheselden, 
Hunter,  Munro,  Douglas,  Fife,  Winslow, 
&c. 

ANCESTRY.  The  line  of  ancestors  or 
forefathers  from  which  any  person  is  de- 
scended, 

ANCHOR.  An  instrument  for  holding 
a  ship  in  the  place  where  she  should  ride. 


ANG 


21 


ANCHORAGE.  The  ground  that  is  fit 
for  holding  the  anchor ;  also  the  duty  taken 
of  ships  for  the  use  of  the  haven  where 
they  cast  anchor. 

ANCHORET.  A  hermit,  or  one  who 
retired  from  the  world,  and  lived  in  per- 
fect solitude. 

ANCHOVY.  A  small  seafish  much  used 
in  sauce ;  it  is  so  like  the  common  sprat, 
that  the  latter  is  often  pickled  and  sold 
tinder  its  name. 


ANDANTE  (in  Music).  Italian  for  ex- 
act and  just  time  in  playing,  so  as  to  keep 
the  notes  distinct  from  each  other. 

ANDROIDES  (in  Mechanics).  A  term 
used  to  denote  an  automaton  in  the  figure 
of  a  man,  which,  by  means  of  certain 
springs  and  other  mechanical  contrivances, 
is  enabled  to  walk,  and  perform  other 
actions  of  a  man.  The  most  celebrated  of 
these  automatons  which  have  been  exhib- 
ited in  modern  times  are  the  flute-player  of 


M.  Vancanson,  exhibited  at  Paris,  the  chess- 
player of  M.  de  Kemplin  of  Presburg,  and 
the  chess-player  who  lately  performed  won- 
ders in  that  game  in  London.  The  con- 
struction of  these  automatons  is  at  present 
a  secret. 

ANDROMEDA.  A  small  northern  con- 
stellation consisting  of  sixty-three  stars, 

ANEMOMETER.  An  instnmient  used 
for  measuring  the  force  and  velocity  of  the 
wind. 

ANEMONE.  A  ■beautiful  flower  origi- 
nally brought  from  the  east,  but  now  much 
cultivated  in  our  gardens.  The  word  sig- 
nifies properly  wind-flower,  because  it  was 
supposed  that  it  opened  only  when  the 
wind  blew. 

ANEMOSCOPE,  A  machine  showing 
from  what  point  of  the  compass  the  wind 
blows. 

ANEURISM.  A  diseased  swelling  of 
an  artery,  attended  with  a  continued  pulsa- 
tion. 

ANGEL.  Literally,  a  messenger ;  par- 
ticularly, the  heavenly  messengers  sent  by 
God  as  ministers  to  execute  his  commands. 

ANGEL.  A  gold  coin,  in  value  ten  shil- 
lings, having  the  figure  of  an  angel  stamped 
upon  it,  in  commemoration  of  the  saying 
of  Pope  Gregory,  that  the  English  were  so 
beautiful  that  they  would  be  Angeli,  not 
Angli,  if  they  were  Christians, 

ANGIOSPERMIA.  A  term  in  the  Lin- 
nsean  system  for  such  plants  of  the  class 
Didynamia  as  have  their  seeds  enclosed  in 
a  capsule  or  seed-vessel, 

ANGLE,  The  inclination  of  two  lines 
meeting  one  another  in  a  point,  which 
lines  are  called  the  legs  ;  when  the  lines 
meet  perpendicularly  it  is  a  right  angle,  as 
A,  B,  C  5  when  they  meet  so  as  to  make 


the  angle  less  than  a  right  angle,  it  is  called 
acute,  as  A,  B,  D  ;  and  when  they  make 
the  angle  gi-eater,  it  is  called  an  obtuse  an- 
gle, as  A,  B,  E. 

ANGLER,  A  singular  fish,  also  known 
at  present  by  the  name  of  the  fishing  frog, 
from  the  resemblance  which  it  bears  to 
that  animal  in  the  state  of  a  tadpole, 

ANGLICAN  CHURCH,  That  form  of 
doctrine  and  discipline  which  is  established 
in  England,  and  serves  for  the  government 


22 


ANN 


of  the  whole  Christian  church  in  that  coun- 
try. Its  doctrines  are  comprehended  within 
thirtjr-nine  articles,  and  its  government, 
which  is  episcopal,  consists  of  two  arch- 
bishops and  twenty-four  bishops,  together 
with  the  different  orders  of  inferior  clergj^ 
The  same  Church  is  established  in  Anieri- 
ca,  but  is  independent  of  that  of  England. 
The  members  of  this  church  are  called 
Episcopalians. 

ANGLICISM.  An  idiom  or  manner  of 
speech  peculiar  to  the  English,  and  tlieir 
descendants. 

ANGLING.  The  art  of  fishing  with  a 
rod,  to  which  are  attached  a  line,  hook, 
and  bait.  Anglers  look  for  breams  in  the 
deepest  water,  for  eels  under  banks,  for 
chub  in  deep  shaded  holes,  for  perch  and 
roach  in  ponds,  and  for  trout  in  quick 
streams.  The  best  months  for  angling  are 
from  April  to  October ;  the  time  of  the  day 
early  in  the  morning,  or  in  the  evening  of 
hot  days.  Fish  bite  freely  in  cloudy  warm 
weather,  but  not  at  all  when  it  is  cold  and 
stormy.  Fish  ought  to  be  fed  on  corn  boil- 
ed soft,  garbage,  worms  chopped  to  pieces, 
or  grains  steeped  in  blood.  If  you  fish  in 
a  stream,  it  is  best  to  cast  in  the  grains 
above  the  hook. 

ANIMAL.  A  living  body  endued  with 
sensation  and  spontaneous  motion  ;  in  its 
limited  sense,  any  irrational  creature,  as 
distinguished  from  man. 

ANIMALCULE.  Animals  so  minute 
OS  not  to  be  the  immediate  object  of  our 
senses.  They  are  seen  only  by  the  help  of 
the  microscope. 

ANIMAL  KINGDOM.  One  of  the  three 
principal  divisions  into  which  all  organized 
bodies  are  divided  by  Linnasus.  It  com- 
prehends six  classes  of  animals;  namely, 
Mammalia,  or  such  as  suckle  their  young, 
mostly  quadrupeds  ;  Aves,  birds ,  which  aj-e 
oviparous ;  Amphibia,  amphibious  ani- 
mals ;  Pisces,  fishes,  such  as  live  only  in 
water,  and  are  covered  with  scales ;  Insec- 
ta,  insects,  which  have  few  or  no  organs 
of  sense,  and  a  bony  coat  of  mail ;  Vermes, 
worms,  which  have  mostly  no  feet. 

ANIME,  or  GUM  ANIME.  A  resinous 
substance  imported  from  New  Spain  and 
the  Brazils. 

ANNALS.  A  species  of  histor}',  in  which 
events  are  related  in  the  exact  order  of 
chronology. 

ANNEALING.  The  process  of  heating 
steel  and  other  metal  bodies,  and  then 
suffering  them  to  cool  again  gradually. 

ANNOTTO.  A  kind  of  red  dye  brought 
from  the  West  Indies.    It  is  procured  from 
the  pulp  of  the  seed  capsules. 
ANNUAL.     An  epithet  for  whatever 


ANT 

happens  every  year,  or  lasts  a  year.  An 
annual,  in  Botany,  is  a  plant  wliich  dies 
within  the  year. 

ANNUITY.  The  periodical  payment  of 
money,  either  yearly,  half  yearly,  or  quar- 
terly ;  for  a  determinate  period,  as  ten, 
fifty,  or  a  hundred  years ;  or  for  an  inde- 
terminate period,  dependant  on  a  certain 
contingency,  as  the  death  of  a  person ;  or 
for  an  indefinite  term,  in  which  latter  case 
they  are  called  perpetual  annuities  . 

ANNULET.  A  small  square  member  in 
the  Doric  capital. 

ANNUNCIATION.  The  deliveiy  of  a 
message,  particularly  the  angel's  message 
to  the  Virgin  Mary,  concerning  the  birth 
of  our  Saviour.  The  festival  in  commeni- 
oration  of  that  event  is  called  Lady  Day. 

ANODYNES.  Medicines  so  called  be- 
cause they  ease  pain  and  procure  sleep, 
such  as  the  medicinal  preparations  of  the 
poppy. 

ANOMALISTICAL  YEAR  (in  Astro- 
nomy). The  time  that  the  earth  takes  to 
pass  through  her  orbit. 

ANOMALOUS  VERBS  (in  Grammar). 
Verbs  which  are  not  conjugated  regularly. 

ANOMALY.  In  a  general  sense,  irregu- 
larity ;  in  Astronomy,  the  irregularity  in 
the  motion  of  a  planet. 

ANSER.  A  star  of  the  fifth  magnitude 
in  the  milky  way. 

ANSERES.  The  third  order  of  birds  in 
the  Linneean  system,  including  such  as 
have  the  bill  somewhat  obtuse,  covered 
with  a  skin,  and  gibbous  at  the  base,  as 
the  goose,  duck,  swan,  &c. 


^^^^^^^^^^ 


ANT.  A  gi'egarious  and  proverbially 
industrious  tribe  of  insects,  which  are  di- 
vided into  males,  females,  and  neutrals- 
Their  houses  are  curiously  constructed, 
and  divided  into  chambers,  magazines,  &c. 

ANTxlRCTlC  (in  Astronomy).  The 
name  of  a  circle  of  the  sphere,  which  is 
opposite  to  the  arctic  or  northern  pole.  It 
is  nearly  23  and  a  half  degi-ees  distant  from 


ANT 

the  south  pole,  which  is  also  called  the  an- 
tarctic pole. 

ANT-EATER.  An  animal  of  South 
America,  that  has  a  large  slender  tongue, 
which  it  allows  to  get  covered  with  ants, 
ajid  then  quickly  draws  it  in. 

ANTECEDENT.  The  word  in  grammar 
to  which  the  relative  refers ;  as  God,  whom 
we  adore,  the  word  God  is  the  ante- 
cedent. 

ANTEDATE.  A  date  that  precedes  the 
real  one ;  as  the  antedate  of  a  bill,  that 
which  is  earlier  than  the  time  when  it  is 
drawn. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.  Persons  living  be- 
fore the  deluge. 

ANTELOPE.  A  beautiful  quadruped, 
of  which  there  are  many  varieties.  Ante- 
lopes are  singularly  swift  in  their  motion, 
and  in  general  natives  of  hot  climates, 
particularly  in  Africa  and  Asia.  Europe 
has  but  two  species,  and  America  but  one  ; 
it  is  called  the  Prong-horned  Antelope. 


AOR 


23 


ANTENNAE.  The  horns  or  feelers  of 
insects  which  project  from  their  ;  heads, 
and  serve  them  in  the  sense  of  feeling  and 
seeing. 

ANTHEM.  A  sacred  composition  used 
as  a  part  of  Christian  worship. 

ANTHER.  A  part  of  the  stamen  of  a 
flower  which  is  at  the  top  of  the  filament. 
It  contains  the  pollen  or  farina,  which  it 
emits  or  explodes  when  ripe. 

ANTHOLOGY.  A  collection  of  choice 
poems,  particularly  a  collection  of  Greek 
epigrams  so  called. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI.  Another  name 
for  cannibals,  or  men  eaters. 

ANTIDOTE.  A  counterpoison,  or  any 
medicine  generally  that  counteracts  the 
effects  of  what  has  been  swallowed. 

ANTIMONY.  A  metallic,  solid,  heavy, 
brittle  substance,  which  is  very  seldom 
found  pure,  but  mostly  mixed  with  other 
metals.  In  its  pure  state  it  is  called  the 
regulus  of  antiinony.  Crude  antimony,  in 
commerce,  is  a  metallic  ore,  consisting  of 


the  metal  called  antimony  combined  with 
sulphur. 

ANTINOMIANS.  An  ancient  sect,  who 
maintained  that  faith,  without  good  works, 
was  sufficient  for  salvation.  This  sect  has 
been  revived  since  the  Reformation. 

ANTIPODES.  Persons  so  named  in 
geography,  who  live  diametrically  opposite 
to  one  another,  as  it  were  feet  to  feeL 
They  have  equal  latitudes,  the  one  north^ 
and  the  other  south ;  but  opposite  longi- 
tudes, consequently  when  it  is  day  to  the 
one  it  is  night  to  the  other,  and  when 
summer  to  the  one  winter  to  the  other. 

ANTiaUARY.  One  who  searches  after 
the  remains  of  antiquity.  The  monks  who 
were  employed  in  making  new  copies  of 
old  books  were  formerly  called  antiquariL 

ANTISCII  (in  Geography).  People  who 
live  on  different  sides  of  the  equator,  and 
have  their  shadows  at  noon  fall  directly 
opposite  ways. 

ANTISEPTICS.  Substances  which  re. 
sist  putrefaction. 

ANTITHESIS.  A  figure  of  speech,  in 
which  contraries  are  put  in  contrast  with 
each  other,  as,  He  gained  by  losing,  and  by 
falling  rose. 

ANTOECI  (in  Geography).  People  who 
live  under  the  same  meridian,  east  or  west, 
but  under  opposite  parallels  of  latitude  ; 
they  have  their  noon  or  midnight  at  the 
same  hour,  but  their  seasons  contrarj'. 

ANVIL.  An  iron  instrument,  on  which 
smiths  hammer  their  work.  It  is  usually 
mounted  on  a  wooden  block. 


AORTA,  otherwise  called  Magna  Ar- 
TERiA.  The  great  artery  proceeding  from 
the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  from  which 
all  the  other  arteries  proceed  mediately 
or  immediately.    It  is  distinguished  into 


24 


API 


the  descending  or  ascending,  according  to 
tlie  manner  in  which  it  runs. 

APATITE.  Phosphate  of  lime  ;  a  mine- 
ral which  occurs  in  tin  veins,  and  is  found 
in  Cornwall  and  Germany. 

APE.  The  name  of  a  tribe  of  animals 
of  the  monkey  kind  which  are  without 
tails,  imitative,  chattering,  full  of  gesticu- 
lations, thievish,  and  mischievous. 


APERIENTS.    Opening  medicines. 

APETALOUS  ( in  Botany).  A  term  for 
plants  whose  flowers  have  no  flower  leaves 
or  corolla  5  as  the  hippuris,  or  fox  tail 
grass. 

APEX.  A  little  woollen  tuft  on  the  cap 
of  the  flamen,  or  high  priest,  among  the 
ancients. 

APEX  (in  Mathematics).  The  angular 
point  of  a  cone  or  conic  section. 

At  P.  G.  An  abbreviation  for  Professor 
of  Astronomy  in  Gresham  College,  Eng- 
land. 

APHiERESIS  (in  Grammar)  The 
taking  away  a  letter  or  syUable  from  a 
word. 

APHELION.  That  point  at  which  the 
earth,  or  any  planet,  is  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance from  the  sun. 

APHIS.  The  plant  louse  ;  an  extensive 
geiius  of  the  hemiptera  order. 

APHORISM.  A  brief  sentence  in 
science,  comprehending  some  experimen- 
tal trutli,  as  the  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates, 
&c. 

APIARY.  A  place  where  bees  are  kept, 
which  should  be  selected  with  great  care, 
observing  that  it  face  the  south,  be  defen- 
ded from  high  winds,  and  not  within  the 
sphere  of  offensive  smells,  or  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  hornets,  or  any  other  hostile 
vermin. 

APIS.  The  bee  ;  a  genus  of  insects  of 
the  order  hymenoptera. 

APIS.  An  Egyptian  deity,  worshiped 
under  the  form  of  an  ox. 


APO 

APOCOPE  ( in  Grammar).  Tlie  cutting 
off"  the  last  letter  or  syllable  of  a  word. 

APODAL.  The  first  order  of  fishes  in 
the  Linntean  system,  having  no  ventral 
fins,  as  the  eel,  the  wolf  fish,  the  sword 
fish,  the  lance,  &c. 


APOGEE.  That  point  of  the  orbit  at 
which  the  sun,  moon,  or  any  planet  is 
most  distant  from  the  earth.  This  term, 
as  well  as  the  perigee,  was  most  in  use 
among  the  ancients  ;  modern  astronomers, 
making  the  sun  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
mostly  use  the  terms  aphelion  and  perihe- 
lion. 

APOLLO.  The  god  of  medicine,  music, 
poetiy,  and  the  fine  arts.  He  was  the  son 
of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  born  in  the  island 
of  Delos,  and  is  commonly  represented 
naked,  with  his  lyre  or  bow. 


APOLOGUE.  An  instructive  fable,  or 
a  feigned  relation,  intended  to  teach  some 
moral  truth  ;  as  the  Fables  of  Esop. 

APOPHTHEGM.  A  brief  and  pithy 
saying,  particularly  of  some  distinguished 
person. 

APOPLEXY.  A  disorder  which  sud- 
denly surprises  the  brain,  and  takes  away 
all  sense  and  motion. 

APOSTATE.  One  who  has  forsaken 
his  religion  ;  particularly  one  who  has  de- 
serted the  Cliristian  profession. 

A  POSTERIORI.    A  term  employed  in 


APP 

demonstrating  a  truth  ;  as  when  a  cause  is 
proved  from  an  eftect. 

APOSTLES.  Properly  messengers  or 
ambassadors,  a  term  applied  now  particu- 
larly to  the  twelve  disciples  commis- 
sioned by  our  Saviour  to  preach  the  gospel 
to  all  nations. 

APOSTROPHE.  A  figure  of  speech, 
by  which  the  orator  turns  from  his  subject 
to  address  a  person  either  absent  or  dead, 
as  if  he  were  present. 

APOSTROPHE  (in  Grammar).  A  mark 
of  contraction  in  a  word ;  thus,  lov'd  for 
loved. 

APOTHECARY.  Properly  the  keeper 
of  a  medicine  shop ;  but  more  generally 
one  who  practises  the  art  of  pharmacy,  or 
of  compounding  medicines.  In  London, 
apothecaries  are  one  of  the  city  companies, 
and  are  exempted,  by  stat.  9  Geo.  I.  from 
serving  upon  juries  or  in  parish  offices. 
They  are  obliged  to  make  up  their  medi- 
cines according  to  the  formulas  prescribed 
in  the  college  dispensatory,  and  are  liable 
to  have  their  shops  visited  by  the  censors 
of  the  college,  who  are  empowered  to  des- 
troy such  medicines  as  they  do  not  think 
good. 

APOTHEOSIS.  Deification,  or  the  cer- 
emony of  placing  among  the  gods,  which 
was  frequent  among  the  ancients.  This 
honour  was  conferred  on  several  of  the 
Roman  emperors  at  tlieir  decease. 

APPANNAGE,  or  APPENNAGE. 
Lands  set  apart  as  a  portion  for  the  king's 
younger  children  in  France. 

APPARATUS.  A  set  of  instruments  or 
utensils  necessary  for  practising  any  art, 
as  a  surgeon's  apparatus,  a  chymist's  appa- 
ratus. 

APPARENT  (among  Mathematicians). 
A  term  applied  to  things  as  they  appear  to 
us,  in  distinction  from  what  they  are  in 
reality  ;  as  the  apparent  distance,  magni- 
tude, place,  figure,  &c.  of  any  heavenly 
body,  as  distinguished  from  tlie  real  or  true 
distance,  &c. 

APPARITION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
becoming  visible.  The  circle  of  apparition 
is  an  imaginary  line,  within  which  the 
stars  are  always  visible  in  any  given 
latitude. 

APPEAL  (in  Law).  The  removal  of  a 
cause  from  an  inferior  to  a  superior  court. 

APPEARANCE  (in  Law).  The  defend- 
ants appearing  before  the  court  to  plead  in 
any  prosecution ;  there  are  four  ways  for 
defendants  to  appear  to  actions  ;  in  person, 
or  by  attorney,  for  persons  of  full  age  ;  by 
guardians,  or  next  friends,  for  infants. 

APPEARANCE  (in  Perspective).  The 
projection  of  a  figure  or  body  on  the  per- 


APP 


25 


spective  plane ;  in  Astronomy,  the  same  as 
p}ii?Bnomenon,  or  phasis. 

APPELLANT,  or  APPELLOR.  One 
who  makes  or  brings  an  appeal ;  it  was 
formerly  much  used  for  one  who  brought 
an  appeal  in  a  criminal  prosecution. 

APPELLATIVE  (in  Grammar).  A 
noun  or  name  applicable  to  a  whole  spe- 
cies or  kind,  as,  a  man,  a  horse. 

APPENDANT  (in  Law).  Any  thing 
inheritable  that  belongs  to  a  more  worthy 
inheritance,  as  an  advowson,  or  common, 
which  may  be  appendant  to  a  manor;  or 
land  to  an  ofiice :  but  land  cannot  be  ap- 
pendant to  land,  both  being  corporeal,  and 
one  thing  corporeal  may  not  be  appendant 
to  another. 

APPLE.  A  well  known  fruit,  from 
which  cider  is  made. 

APPLICATION.  The  bringing  one 
thing  nearer  to  another  for  the  purpose  of 
measuring  it ;  thus  a  longer  space  is  meas- 
ured by  the  application  of  a  less,  as  a  yard 
by  a  foot  or  an  inch. 

APPOSITION  (in  Grammar).  The 
placing  two  or  more  substantives  together, 
without  any  copulative  between  them,  as, 
Cicero  the  orator. 

APPRAISING.  The  valuing  or  setting 
a  price  on  goods.  An  appraiser  is  one 
sworn  to  value  goods  fairly. 

APPREHENSION.  The  first  power  of 
the  mind,  by  which  it  simply  contemplates 
things,  without  pronouncing  any  thing  up- 
on them. 

APPRENTICE.  Ayoung  person  bound 
by  indentures  or  articles  of  agreement  to  a 
tradesman,  or  artificer,  to  learn  his  trade 
or  mystery.  By  the  stat.  5  Eliz.  no  per- 
son can  exercise  any  trade  in  any  part  of 
England,  without  having  served  a  regular 
apprenticeship  of  at  least  seven  years.  No 
trades,  however,  are  held  to  be  within  the 
statute  but  such  as  were  in  being  at  the 
making  of  the  same  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth. No  such  law  exists  in  the  United 
States. 

APPROACHES  (in  Fortification).  The 
works  thrown  up  by  the  besiegers,  in  order 
to  get  nearer  a  fortress  without  being  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy's  cannon. 

APPROPRIATION.  The  annexing  a 
benefice  to  the  proper  and  perpetual  use  of 
a  religious  house,  bisliopric,  college,  &c. 
so  that  the  body  or  house  are  both  patron 
and  person,  and  some  one  of  the  number 
was  appointed  to  officiate.  At  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  monasteries,  the  appropriations, 
being  more  than  one  third  of  all  the  parishes 
in  England,  were  given  to  laymen,  whence 
sprung  most  of  the  lay  impropriations  ex- 
isting at  present :  for  what  is  called  an  ap- 


26  AQU 

propriation  in  the  hands  of  religious  per- 
sons, is  usually  called  an  impropriation  in 
the  hands  of  laity.  It  is  computed  that 
there  are  in  England  three  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  forty-five  impropriations. 

APPROVER  (in  Law).  One  wlio,  being 
indicted  of  treason  or  felony,  confesses  him- 
self guilt}',  and  accuses  others  to  save  him- 
self: this  is  vulgarly  called  turning  king's 
evidence. 

APPROXIMATION.  In  general  a  get- 
ting near  to  an  object  j  in  mathematics,  a 
continual  approach  to  a  root  or  quantity 
sought,  but  not  expected  to  be  found, 

APPULSE  (in  Astronomy).  The  ap- 
proach of  a  planet  towards  a  conjunction 
with  the  sun  or  any  of  the  fixed  stars. 

APPURTENANCES  (in  Law).  Things 
corporeal  and  incorporeal  that  appertain  to 
another  thing  as  principal ;  as  hamlets  to 
a  chief  manor.  Outhouses,  yards,  orch- 
ards, gardens,  &c.  are  appurtenant  to  a 
messuage. 

APRICOT.  A  fine  sort  of  wall  fruit, 
which  requires  much  sun  to  ripen  it. 

APRIL.  The  second  month  of  Romulus' 
year,  and  the  fourth  of  Numa'syear,  which 
began  as  it  does  now,  in  January. 

A  PRIORI.  A  mode  of  reasoning  by 
proving  the  effect  from  the  cause. 

APROPOS.    Just  in  time. 

APSIDES.  The  two  points  in  the  orbit 
of  a  planet,  at  the  greatest  and  least  dis- 
tance from  the  sun. 

APTERA.  The  seventh  order  of  insects, 
having  no  wings,  including  spiders,  fleas, 
earwigs,  &c. ;  also  lobsters,  crabs,  prawns, 
and  sJirimps. 


AaUAFORTIS.  A  weak  and  impure 
nitric  acid,  commonly  used  in  the  arts.  It 
is  made  of  a  mLxture  of  purified  nitre,  or 
saltpetre,  vitriol,  and  potter's  earth,  in 
equal  parts,  and  is  distinguished  into  sin- 
gle and  double,  the  former  of  which  is  on- 
ly half  the  strength  of  the  latter. 

AaUA  REGIA.  Nitro-muriatic  acid  ; 
composed  of  a  mixture  of  the  nitric  and 
muriatic  acids,  which  dissolves  gold. 

ACIUARIUS.  The  water-bearer,  a  con- 
stellation, and  the  eleventh  sign  in  the  zo- 
diac, commonly  marked  thus  {:z). 


ARC 

AQUATICS.  Trees  or  plants  which 
grow  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  marshes 
and  watery  places. 

AaUA-TINTE.  A  method  of  etching, 
which  is  made  to  resemble  a  fine  drawing 
in  water  colours. 

AQUEDUCT.  A  conduit  for  water  by 
pipes.  In  the  time  of  the  emperor  Nerva 
there  were  nine,  which  emptied  themselves 
through  13,594  pipes  of  an  inch  diameter. 
That  constructed  by  Louis  XIV.  for  carry- 
ing the  Bucq  to  Versailles,  is  7000  fathoms 
long,  with  2560  fathoms  of  elevation,  and 
contains  242  arcades. 

AQUEOUS  HUMOUR.  The  watery 
humour  of  the  eye,  the  first  and  outermost, 
which  is  less  dense  than  the  crystalline. 

ARABIC,  or  GUM  ARABIC.  A  trans- 
parent kind  of  gum  brought  from  Arabia, 
which  distils  from  a  plant  of  the  acacia 
species.  It  is  used  for  painting  in  water 
colours,  and  also  by  calico  printers  and 
other  manufacturers,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
procure  it  genuine.  That  which  is  in  small 
pieces,  and  of  a  perfectly  white  colour,  is 
reckoned  the  best. 

ARABIC  FIGURES,  or  CHARAC- 
TERS. The  numeral  characters  now  used 
in  our  arithmetic,  which  were  introduced 
into  England  about  the  eleventh  century 

ARBITER  (in  Civil  Law).  A  judge 
appointed  by  the  magistrate,  or  chosen  by 
the  parties  to  decide  any  point  of  differ- 
ence. An  arbiter  must  judge  according  to 
the  usages  of  law  5  but  an  arbitrator,  who 
is  a  private  extraordinary  judge,  chosen  by 
the  mutual  consent  of  parties,  is  allowed  a 
certain  discretionaiy  power. 

ARBITRATION.  A  mode  of  deciding 
controversies  by  means  of  arbiters  or  arbi- 
trators.    (See  Arbitek). 

ARBOR  VIT^.    An  evergreen  shrub. 

ARBUTUS.  The  strawberry-tree,  A 
beautiful  shrub,  bearing  a  red  roundish 
berry, 

ARC.  Any  part  of  a  curve  line,  as  of  a 
circle,  ellipse,  &c. 

ARC,  or  ARCH  DIURNAL  (in  Astro- 
nomy). That  part  of  a  circle  described  by 
a  heavenly  body,  between  its  rising  and 
setting.  The  nocturnal  arch  is  that  which 
is  described  between  its  setting  and  rising. 

ARCH  (in  Architecture).  That  part  of  a 
building  which  derives  its  name  from  its 
curved  form.  Some  arches  are  semicircu- 
lar, wliich  are  called  Saxon  arches ;  otiiers 
pointed,  which  are  called  Gothic. 

ARCH  OF  EQUILIBRIUM  (in  Bridge 
building).  That  which  is  in  equilibrium  in 
all  its  parts,  and  therefore  equally  strong 
throughout,  having  no  tendency  to  break 
in  one  part  more  than  another. 


ARC 

ARCHBISHOP.  The  chief  prelate, 
having  authority  over  other  bishops.  There 
are  two  archbishops  in  England  ;  namely, 
that  of  Canterbury,  who  has  twenty-one 
bishops  under  him ;  and  that  of  York,  who 
has  four. 

ARCHDEACON.  An  officer  in  the 
church  of  England,  who  acts  for  the  bishop, 
having  a  superintendant  power  over  the 
clergy  within  his  district. 

ARCHDUKE.  One  having  a  preemi- 
nence over  other  dukes. 

ARCHERY.  The  art  of  shooting  with  a 
bow  ;  formerly  a  favourite  diversion  among 
the  English,  who  were  also  much  skilled 
in  it  as  a  military  exercise.  The  practice 
of  archery  was  much  encouraged  by  our 
kings.  It  was  followed  both  as  a  recreation 
and  a  service,  and  Edward  III.  prohibited 
all  useless  games  that  interfered  with  the 
practice  of  it  on  holydays  and  other  inter- 
vals of  leisure.  By  an  act  of  Edward  IV. 
every  man  was  to  have  a  bow  of  his  own 
height,  to  be  made  of  yew,  hazel,  or  ash , 
&c.;  and  mounds  of  earth  were  to  be  made 
in  every  township,  for  the  use  of  the  in- 
habitants. There  were  two  kinds  of  bows 
in  use  among  the  English;  namely,  the 
longbow  and  the  crossbow,  those  who  used 
the  long  bow  were  called  archers,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  crossbowmen.  The  Eng- 
lish archers  were  the  most  skilful  in  Europe, 
and  were  employed  in  the  army  long  after 
firearms  were  introduced.  The  artillery 
company  of  London  is  an  ancient  frater- 
nity of  archers  and  bowmen,  besides  which 
there  are  several  companies  of  archers  in 
England,  as  the  woodmen  of  Arden. 

ARCHITECT.  One  who  is  skilled  in 
architecture.  The  architect  forms  plans  and 
designs  for  edifices,  conducts  the  work,  and 
directs  the  artificers  employed  in  it. 

ARCHITECTURE.  The  art  of  building, 
or  the  science  which  teaches  the  method 
of  constructing  any  edifice  for  use  or  orna- 
ment. It  is  divided  into  civil,  militaiy,  and 
naval  architecture,  according  as  the  erec- 
tions are  for  civil,  military,  or  naval  pur- 
poses. The  two  last  kinds  are  otherwise 
called  Fortification,andNaval  Architecture 
or  Shipbuilding.  (See  Fortification  and 
Naval  Architecture.) 

ARCHITECTURE,  History  of.  The 
origin  of  civil  architecture,  or  architecture 
properly  so  called,  is  commonly  derived 
from  the  building  of  huts  in  a  conical  form, 
spreading  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  joining 
In  a  point  at  the  top,  the  whole  being 
covered  with  reeds,  leaves,  &c.  But  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  form  of  the  first 
buildings,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  making 
of  regular  habitations  v/as  one  of  the  first 


ARC 


27 


things  which  necessity  suggested  to  the 
reason  of  man  ;  for  we  find  that  Cain,  the 
son  of  Adam,  built  a  city.  Tents,  or  tem- 
porary residences,  which  were  only  suited 
to  such  as  lead  a  wandering  life,  were  not 
invented  before  the  time  of  Jubal,  the  son 
of  Tubal  Cain  ;  since  that  time  the  Tartars 
have  followed  the  practice,  and  the  original 
inhabitants  of  America  did  the  same.  Every 
nation,  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  civili- 
sation which  it  has  attained,  has  shown  a 
disposition  to  exercise  their  ingenuity  in 
the  construction  of  their  residences.  Among 
the  Egyptians  this  art  was  earned  to  an 
extraoi-dinary  degree  of  perfection.  Their 
pyramids,  labyrinths,  and  some  ruins  of 
their  palaces  and  other  edifices  are  still  to 
be  seen  and  admired  as  stupendous  monu- 
ments of  their  industry,  perseverance,  and 
skill.  Near  Andera,  in  Upper  Egj'pt,  are 
the  ruins  of  a  palace  of  gray  granite,  the 
ceilings  of  which  are  supported  by  columns 
of  such  thickness,  that  four  men  can  scarce- 
ly span  them.  The  grand  hall  is  112  feet 
long,  60  high,  and  58  broad.  The  roof  of  the 
whole  edifice  is  a  terrace,  on  which  once 
stood  an  Arabian  village.  The  Babylonians 
and  Persians  vied  with  the  Egyptians,  both 
in  the  grandeur  and  splendour  of  their 
buildings,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  ruins 
still  remaining.  A  staircase  was  to  be  seen 
some  time  ago,  having  95  steps  of  white 
marble  still  standing,  so  broad  and  flat,  that 
12  horses  might  conveniently  go  abreast. 

As  these  vast  structures  were  not  fitted 
for  the  general  convenience  of  mankind, 
we  must  look  to  the  Greeks  for  the  art  of 
architecture  as  it  has  since  been  exercised. 
From  the  simple  construction  of  wooden 
huts,Vitruvius  supposes  the  orders  of  archi- 
tecture took  their  rise.  When  buildings  of 
wood  were  superseded  by  solid  and  stately 
edifices  of  stone,  they  imitated  the  parts 
which  necessity  had  introduced  into  the 
primitive  huts ;  so  that  the  upright  trees, 
with  the  stones  at  each  extremity  of  them, 
were  the  origin  of  columns,  bases,  and 
capitals  ;  and  the  beams,  joists,  rafters,  and 
the  materials  which  formed  the  covering, 
gave  birth  to  architraves,  frizes,  triglyphs, 
cornices,  with  the  corona,  mutules,  mo- 
dilions,  and  dentiles.  To  bring  all  these 
several  parts  to  the  state  of  perfection  at 
which  they  arrived  was  the  work  of  long 
experience  and  much  reasoning,  aided  by 
the  invention  of  many  tools.  The  Greeks 
improved  upon  the  works  of  the  Egyptians, 
so  as  to  render  them,  if  not  so  durable,  at 
least  more  ornamental,  and  perhaps  more 
really  serviceable.  The  construction  of 
arches  was  unknown  to  the  ancient  Assy- 
rians and  Babylonians.    The  roofs  of  their 


28 


ARCHITECTURE. 


halls  were  flat , and  covered  with  prodigious- 
ly large  stones,  some  of  them  large  enough 
to  cover  the  whole  room.  They  had  columns, 
but  they  were  ill  proportioned,  and  the  cap- 
itals were  badly  executed.  The  art  of  pro- 
portioning the  various  parts  of  a  building 
belongs,inapecuIiarmanner,  to  the  Greeks, 
from  whom  we  derive  the  three  principal 
orders :  at  the  same  time  it  must  not  be 
denied,  that  the  Jewish  nation  had  earlier 
examples  of  such  proportion ;  and  that,  in 
all  probability,  the  Greeks  took  their  idea 
of  a  regular  order  in  architecture  from  the 
temple  of  Solomon. 

In  the  Doric  Order,  which  is  so  called 
from  Dorus,  the  son  of  Helenus,  and  gi-and- 
son  of  Deucalion,  the  column  approaches 
very  nearly  to  the  proportions  of  those  to 
be  found  in  Solomon's  temple.  This  order 
was  first  employed  by  Dorus  in  the  build- 
ing of  a  temple  at  Argos,  in  honour  of  Juno, 
and  was  formed  according  to  the  propor- 
tions between  the  foot  of  a  man  and  the 
rest  of  his  body,  reckoning  the  foot  to  be 
tlie  sixth  part  of  a  man's  height :  tliey  gave 
to  a  Doric  column,  taking  in  its  chapiter, 
six  of  its  diameters  ;  that  is  to  say,  they 
made  it  six  times  as  high  as  it  was  thick, 
but  they  afterwards  added  a  seventh  di- 
ameter. 

The  Ionic  Order,  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  lonians,  in  Upper  Asia,  was 
formed  according  to  the  proportions  of  a 
woman  ;  making  the  height  of  the  column 
to  be  eight  times  greater  than  the  diameter. 
They  also  made  channeling  in  the  trunk, 
to  imitate  the  folds  in  the  dress  of  a  woman, 
and  by  the  volutes  in  the  chapiter  they  re- 
presented that  part  of  the  hair  which  hung 
in  curls  on  each  side  of  the  face ;  besides 
the  lonians  added  a  base  to  their  column, 
which  the  Dorians  originally  had  not. 

The  Corinthian  Order,  which  was  poste- 
rior to  the  other  two,  took  its  rise  from  an 
accident  related  by  Vitruvius.  A  basket, 
with  a  tile  over  it,  had  been  placed  on  the 
tomb  of  a  young  Corinthian  maid,  near 
which  grew  the  herb  acanthus,  or  bear's 
breech.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  rising  up 
to  the  tile,then  curled  themselves  down  into 
a  sort  of  volute,  which  being  observed  by 
Callimachus,  the  sculptor,  he  took  the  idea 
of  representing  such  a  circle  of  leaves  in 
the  capital  of  a  column,  that  has  since  been 
characteristic  of  the  Corinthian  Order.  Sca- 
mozzi  calls  this  the  virginal  order,  because 
it  bears  all  the  delicacy  in  its  dress  peculiar 
to  young  virgins. 

The  Tuscan,  or  Etruscan  Order,  derives 
its  name  from  the  Etruscans,  or  Pelasgians, 
who  first  inhabited  Etruria,  in  Italy  ;  this 
is  therefore  looked  upon  as  a  Roman  Order. 


It  has  the  proportions  of  the  Doric  Order ; 
but  as  it  is  one  of  the  plainest  and  simplest 
orders,  it  is  in  all  probability  one  of  the 
most  ancient.  Vitruvius  speaks  of  the  pro- 
portions of  this  order,  but  there  are  no 
certain  remains  of  it,  unless  we  except  the 
Trajan  and  Antonine  pillars  at  Rome. 

The  Composite  or  Roman  Order,  is  so 
called  because  it  combines  the  proportions 
and  decorations  of  the  Corinthian  Order 
with  the  angular  volute  and  dentils  of  the 
Ionian,  thus  forming  a  new  order,  wliich 
was  adopted  by  the  Romans. 

Both  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  iu 
the  practice  of  using  the  figures  of  men  and 
women  instead  of  regular  columns,  whence 
arose  the  Persian  or  Persic  Order,  in  wliicli 
the  statues  of  men,  and  the  Caryatic  Order, 
in  which  the  statues  of  women,  served  to 
support  the  entablatures,  in  the  place  of 
columns.  The  Romans  had  also  their  Ter- 
mini for  tire  support  of  entablatures,  the 
upper  part  of  which  represented  the  head 
and  breast  of  a  human  body,  and  the  lower 
the  inverted  frustrum  of  a  square  pyramid. 
Persian  figures  are  generally  charged  with 
a  Doric  entablature ;  the  Caryatides  with 
an  Ionic  or  Corinthian  architrave  and  cor- 
nice ;  and  the  Termini  with  an  entablature 
of  any  of  tlie  three  Grecian  orders. 

In  their  private  buildings  the  Roman 
architects  followed  the  Greeks  5  but  in  their 
public  edifices  they  far  surpassed  them  in 
grandeur.  Architecture  was  carried  to  its 
highest  pitch  of  perfection  iu  the  reign  of 
Augustus.  The  Pantheon,  one  of  the  finest 
monuments  of  antiquity,  was  built  by 
Agrippa,  the  son  in  law  of  Augustus.  Some 
of  his  successors,  particularly  Trajan  and 
Antoninus,  were  no  less  favourable  to  the 
exercise  of  this  art ;  but  on  the  decline  of 
the  empire,  architecture  shared  the  fate  of 
other  arts,  and  declined  also,  but  did  not 
altogether  drop.  New  modes  of  building 
were  introduced,  which  acquired  the  name 
of  styles ;  as  the  Gothic,  Saxon,  and  Nor- 
man styles. 

The  Gothic  style  was  so  called  because 
it  was  first  used  by  the  Visigoths.  The 
Saxon  and  Norman  styles  were  so  called 
because  they  were  respectively  used  by  the 
Saxons  before  the  Conquest,  and  by  the 
Normans  after,  in  the  building  of  church- 
es. The  Saxon  style  was  distinguished 
by  the  semicircular  arch,  which  they  seem 
to  have  taken  partly  from  the  Romans,  and 
partly  from  their  ancestors  on  the  conti- 
nent. 

The  Norman  style  v/as  distinguished  by 
the  following  particulars:  the  walls  were 
very  thick,  generally  without  buttresses ; 
the  arches,  both  within  and  without,  semi- 


ARC 

circular,  and  supported  by  veiy  plain  and 
solid  columns ;  of  which  examples  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  chancel  at  Orford,  in  Suf- 
folk, and  at  Christ  Church,  Canterbury. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  columns  were 
decorated  with  carvings  of  foliage  or  ani- 
mals, and  sometimes  with  spirals,  lozenge, 
or  network. 

These  two  styles  continued  to  be  the  pre- 
vailing modes  of  building  in  England  until 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  when  a  new  mode 
was  introduced,  which  was  called  modern 
Gothic.  Wliether  this  was  purely  a  devia- 
tion from  the  other  two  modes,  or  whether 
it  was  derived  from  any  foreign  source,  is 
not  known.  It  is,  however,  supposed  to 
be  of  Saracenic  extraction,  and  to  have 
been  introduced  by  the  crusaders.  This 
supposition  is  strengthened  by  the  fact,  that 
the  mosques  and  palaces  of  Fez,  and  also 
some  of  the  cathedrals  in  Spain  built  by 
the  Moors,  are  in  this  style  5  which  ought 
therefore  to  be  called  Arabic,  Saracenic, 
or  Moresque.  This  style  is  distinguished 
by  its  numerous  buttresses,  lofty  spires,  and 
pinnacles,  large  and  ramified  windows, 
with  a  profusion  of  ornaments  throughout. 
It  came  into  general  use  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III. ;  when  the  circular  gave  way  to 
the  pointed  arch,  and  the  massive  column 
to  the  slender  pillar,  of  which  the  present 
cathedral  church  of  Salisbuiy,  begun  at  that 
period,  affords  the  best  specimen.  From 
that  time  to  the  reign  of  Heniy  VIII.  the 
pillars  in  churches  were  of  Purbeck  marble, 
very  slender  and  round,  encompassed  with 
marble  shafts  a  little  detached,  having  each 
a  capital  adorned  with  foliage,  which  join- 
ing formed  one  elegant  capital  for  the  whole 
pillar.  The  windows  were  long  and  nar- 
row, with  pointed  arches  and  painted  glass ; 
and  the  lofty  steeples  were  furnished  with 
spires  and  pinnacles.  In  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry VIII.  a  new  kind  of  low  pointed  arclr  was 
introduced,  which  was  described  from  four 
centres,  was  very  round  at  the  haunches, 
and  the  angle  at  the  top  was  very  obtuse, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Cardinal  Wolsey's  build- 
ings. In  the  fifleenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies the  taste  for  Greek  and  Roman  archi- 
tecture revived,  and  brouglit  tlie  five  orders 
again  into  use,  although  for  sacred  edifices 
the  Saxon  and  Gotliic  styles  still  maintain 
the  preeminence.  The  Italians  were  for  a 
long  time  reckoned  the  greatest  arcliitects, 
but  England  may  also  boast  of  an  Inigo 
Jones  and  a  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  wlro 
hold  a  very  high  rank  in  the  art.  Inigo 
Jones  has  left  tlie  banqueting  house  at 
Whitehall,  dueen  Catherine's  Chapel  at 
St.  James's,  the  Piazza  at  Covent  Garden, 
and  other  buildings,  as  proofs  of  his  skill 
3* 


ARI 


29 


and  taste.  Tlie  works  of  Sir  Cliristopher 
Wren  even  surpass  those  of  his  predecessor, 
both  in  number  and  magnitude.  Among 
these  stand  foremost  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Paul's,  Greenwich  Hospital,  the  Monu- 
ment, Chelsea  Hospital,  the  Theatre  at 
Oxford,  Trinity  College  Library,  and  Em- 
manuel College,  Cambridge  5  besides  up- 
wards of  fifty-two  churches  and  innumer- 
able other  public  buildings. 

ARCHITECTURE  (in  Perspective).  A 
sort  of  building,  the  members  of  which 
are  of  different  measures  and  modules,  and 
diminish  in  proportion  to  their  distance,  to 
make  tlie  building  appear  longer  and  larger 
to  the  view  than  it  really  is. 

ARCHITRAVE.  Tliat  part  of  a  column 
or  series  of  columns  that  is  above  or  lies 
immediately  upon  the  capital.  It  is  the 
lowest  member  of  the  frieze,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  represent  tlie  principal  beam  in 
limber  buildings.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  reason  piece,  as  in  porticoes,  cloisters, 
&c. ;  and  the  masterpiece  in  chimneys. 

ARCHIVAULT.  The  inner  contour  of 
an  arch,  or  a  frame  setoff  with  mouldings, 
running  over  the  faces  of  the  arch  stones, 
and  bearing  upon  the  imposts. 

ARCHIVES.  The  place  where  the  re- 
cords, &c.  belonging  to  the  crown  and 
kingdom  are  kept. 

ARCTIC.  An  epithet  for  what  lies  to  the 
north,  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  Arctic  Pole. 

AREA.  The  site  or  space  of  ground  on 
which  any  building  is  erected. 

AREA  (in  Geometry).  Tlie  superficial 
contents  of  any  figure,  as  a  triangle,  qua- 
drangle, &c. 

ARENA.  That  part  of  an  amphitheatre 
where  the  gladiators  contended,  so  called 
from  the  sand  with  which  it  was  strewed. 

ARGENT  (in  Heraldry).  The  white  co- 
lour in  the  coats  of  arms  of  baronets, 
knights,  and  gentlemen. 

ARGO  NAVIS.  A  constellation  called 
after  the  ship  of  Jason  and  his  compan- 
ions. 

ARGUMENT.  Whatever  is  offered^or 
offers  itself  to  the  mind,  so  as  to  create  be- 
lief in  regard  to  any  subject  or  matter  laid 
down. 

ARGUMENT  (in  Astronomy).  An  arc, 
whereby  another  arc  is  to  be  sought  bear- 
ing a  certain  proportion  to  the  first  arc. 

ARGUMENTUM  AD  HOMINEM  (In 
Logic).  A  mode  of  reasoning,  in  which  an 
argument  is  drawn  from  the  professed  prin- 
ciples or  practice  of  the  adversary. 

ARIES.  The  Ram,  a  constellation  of 
fixed  stars,  and  the  first  of  the  twelve  signs 
of  the  zodiac,  marked  {°f). 

ARISTOCRACY.    A  form  of  govern- 


30  ARI 

ment  in  wliich  the  power  is  vested  in  the 
nobility. 

ARITHMETIC.  The  ait  of  numbering 
or  computing  by  certain  rules,  of  which  the 
four  first  and  simplest  are  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division. 
Vulgar  Arithmetic  is  the  computation  of 
numbers  in  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life. 
Integral  Arithmetic  treats  of  whole  num- 
bers ;  Fractional  Aritlimetic,  of  fractional 
numbers  ;  Decimal  Arithmetic,  of  decimal 
numbers.  Universal  Arithmetic  is  the 
name  given  to  Algebra  by  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton. 

ARITHMETIC,  History  of.  Of  Arith- 
metic as  a  science,  we  know  but  very  lit- 
tle as  to  its  state  and  progress  among  the 
ancients.  It  is  evident,  from  the  bare  con- 
sideration of  our  wants,  and  earliest  im- 
pressions, that  some  knowledge  of  numbers 
or  some  mode  of  computation,  however  im- 
perfect, was  coeval  with  society ;  and  as  the 
transactions  of  men  became  more  compli- 
cated, it  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  they 
would  liit  on  devices  for  facilitating  and 
simplifying  their  calculations.  Josephus 
asserts  that  Abraham,  having  retired  from 
Chaldea  into  Egypt,  during  the  time  of  a 
famine,  was  the  first  who  taught  the  inha- 
bitants of  that  countiy  a  knowledge  both 
of  arithmetic  and  astronomy,  of  which  they 
were  both  before  ignorant  5  a  circumstance 
the  more  probable,  as  it  is  well  known  that 
the  science  of  astronomy  was  first  cultiva- 
ted among  the  Chaldeans,  and  such  advan- 
ces made  iu  that  science  as  could  not  have 
been  effected  without  the  aid  of  arithmeti- 
cal calculations. 

The  Greeks  imagined  that  the  science  of 
arithmetic,  as  well  as  that  of  geometry, 
originated  with  the  Egyptians ;  but  this 
notion,  as  fiir  as  respects  priority  of  dis- 
covery, was  evidently  erroneous,  and  no 
doubt  arose  from  the  circumstance  of  their 
having  derived  all  their  first  ideas  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  as  well  as  many  of  their 
fables,  from  the  Egyptians,  Thus,  as  the 
Egj'ptians  believed  that  they  were  taught 
numbers  by  their  god  Theut  or  Thot,  who 
presided  over  commerce,  the  Greeks  as- 
signed a  similar  oflice  to  their  god  Mer- 
cury. As  the  Phoenicians  were  the  first 
trading  people,  they  naturally  addicted 
themselves  to  the  science  and  practice  of 
arithmetic,  v.iiich  led  Strabo  to  observe 
that  the  invention  of  the  art  belonged  to 
them  ;  but,  as  the  Chaldeans  were  a  more 
ancient  people,  this  supposition  is  no  less 
erroneous  than  the  former.  What  advan- 
ces were  made  by  these  people  in  tlie  sci- 
ence we  liave  nomeans  of  ascertaining,  for 
nothing  remains  of  the  early  writings,  on 


ARI 

this  subject  except  what  may  be  gathered 
from  the  commentary  of  Proclus  on  the 
First  Book  of  Euclid's  Elements.  It  ap- 
pears that  almost  all  nations  were  led  to  fix 
upon  the  same  numeral  scale,  or  the  com- 
mon method  of  notation,  by  dividing  num- 
bers into  tens,  hundreds,  and  thousands ; 
a  practice  doubtless  derived  from  the  cus- 
tom, so  universally  adopted  in  childhood, 
of  counting  by  the  fingers  ;  which,  being 
first  reckoned  singly  from  one  to  ten,  and 
then  successively  over  again,  would  natu- 
rally lead  to  the  decimal  scale  or  the  de- 
cuple division  of  numbers.  But  they  rep- 
resented their  numbers  by  means  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  place  of  the 
modern  numerals.  Thus  the  Jews  divided 
their  alphabet  into  nine  units,  nine  tens, 
and  nine  hundreds,  including  the  final  let- 
ters, as  frj  Aleph,  1,  3  Beth,  2,  &c.  to  t  Yod, 
10  ;  then  3  Caph,  20,  ij  Lamed,  30,  &c.  to 
p  Koph,  100,  n  Resh,  200,  &c.  to  y  Tsadi 
final,  900.  Thousands  were  sometimes 
expressed  by  the  units  annexed  to  hund- 
red, as  •y'^m,  1434 ;  sometimes  by  the  word 
t\^H,  1000,  o^e'jH,  2000,  and  with  the 
other  numerals  prefixed,  to  signify  the  num- 
ber of  thousands.  To  avoid  using  the  di- 
vine name  of  riS  Jehovah,  in  notation, 
they  substituted  p  for  fifteen.  To  the  al- 
phabet of  the  Greeks  were  assigned  two 
numerical  powers,  namely,  a  power  to  each 
letter  in  order,  as  a.  Alpha,  1,  &c.  to 
w  Omega,  24,  and  a  power  similar  to  that 
adopted  by  the  Jews,  as  a  Alpha,  1,  &c. 
to  y.  Kappa,  10,  &c.  j  to  to  Omega,  800  ; 
then  900  was  expressed  by  the  character^ 
and  the  thousands  were  denoted  by  a  point 
under  the  letters  after  this  manner,  «,  1000, 

/?  2000,  &c. ;  the  number  of  10,000  was 

sometimes  expressed  by  a  small  dash  over 
the  iota  thus  i,  but  mathematicians  employ- 
ed the  letter  M,  which,  by  placing  under  the 
small  letters,  indicated  the  number  of  thou- 
sands, as  a  for  10,000,  ^  for  20,000,  &c. 

M  M 

Diophantus  and  Pappus  made  Mi;  to  re- 
present 10,000,  and  then  by  the  addition 
of  the  letters,  as  ftMv,  for  20,000,  &c. 
Apollonins  divided  numbers  into  periods 
of  four  characters,  to  wliich  lie  gave  a  local 
value  very  similar  to  the  modern  mode  of 
notation.  The  Greeks,  however,  were  en- 
abled, by  means  of  their  letters,  to  perform 
the  common  rules  of  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division,  from  which, 
no  doubt,  the  idea  was  taken  of  working 
with  letters  in  our  Algebra ;  for  it  is  worthy 
of  observation  that  in  their  multiplication 
they  proceeded  from  left  to  right,  as  in  t]»e 


ART 

multiplication  of  algebra  at  present.  The 
Greeks  had  likewise  another  kind  of  nota- 
tion by  means  of  capitals,  more  properly 
initials  of  the  names  of  numbers,  and  were 
used  in  inscriptions,  as  I  for  lu,  or  uia,  1, 
IZ for  Trarrs ,  5,  A  for  Sexa,  10,  &c.  The 
Roman  notation,  which  is  still  used  in 
marking  dates,  and  numbering  chapters, 
&;c.  consists  of  five  of  their  capital  letters, 
namely,  I  one,  V  five,  X  ten,  L  fifty, 
C  one  hundred,  which  are  increased  in 
this  manner :  the  repetition  of  the  I's  in- 
creases numbers  by  units,  as  II  for  two, 
III  for  three,  &c.;  that  of  X's  increases 
numbers  by  tens,  as  XX  for  twenty,  XXX 
for  thirty,  &c.;  and  that  of  C's  increases 
numbers  by  hundreds,  as  CC  for  two  hun- 
dred, CCC  for  three  hundred,  &c.;  also  a 
less  character  before  a  greater  diminishes 
the  value  of  the  number,  as  I  before  V, 
tlms,  IV,  makes  it  four,  I  before  X,  thus, 
IX,  makes  it  nine :  on  the  other  hand,  a 
less  character  after  a  greater  increases  the 
value  of  the  number,  as  I  after  V,  thus,  VI, 
makes  it  six,  and  I  after  X,  thus,  XI,  makes 
it  eleven.  In  what  manner  the  Romans 
performed  their  arithmetical  operations  is 
not  known  ;  but  it  is  most  probable  that, 
as  they  were  not  a  commercial  nation,  they 
followed  the  simplest  forms  of  calculation : 
we  must  therefore  look  for  further  informa- 
.tion  on  this  subject  to  the  period  when  the 
Arabs  or  Saracens  introduced  into  Europe 
tlieir  mode  of  notation,  which  is  not  only 
distinguished  ft-om  the  others  by  the  pecu- 
liarity of  the  characters,  but  also  by  their 
value  and  disposition.  Although  this  nota- 
tion consists  of  only  nine  digits,  with  the 
cipher  0,  yet,  by  giving  a  local  power  to 
these  figures,  namely,  that  of  units,  tens, 
hundredSjthousands,  &c.  they  maybe  made 
to  express  numbers  to  an  indefinite  extent. 
Besides,  this  mode  also  presents  many  ad- 
vantages by  the  additional  facility  with 
which  all  arithmetical  operations  are  thus 
performed.  By  what  nation  this  improve- 
ment was  first  made  is  not  known.  The 
Greeks,  as  before  observed,  were  making 
advances  towards  it  by  giving  a  local  value 
to  certain  periods  of  four  numbers  each, 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  they  proceeded 
any  further.  The  Aiabs  introduced  it  into 
Europe  about  eight  hundred  years  back, 
whence  it  soon  circulated  among  the  dif- 
ferent European  nations  ;  but  although  the 
first  use  of  this  scale  is  commonly  ascribed 
to  them,  yet  they  acknowledge  themselves 
indebted  to  the  Indians  for  it ;  and  as  this 
latter  people  were  in  many  respects  very 
ingenious,  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that 
they  were  the  authors  of  the  invention. 
The  cultivation  of  arithmetic  in  Europe 


ARM 


31 


may  be  dated  from  the  thirteenth  century, 
when  Jordanus  of  Namur,  the  first  writer 
on  the  subject  that  we  know  of,  flourished. 
His  arithmetic  was  published  with  illustra- 
tions, by  Joannes  Faber  Stapulensis,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  but  was  less  perfect  than 
the  treatises  of  Lucas  de  Burgo  and  Nicholas 
de  Tartagliain  that  and  the  subsequent  cen- 
turies. In  France,  the  subject  of  arithmetic 
was  handled  about  the  same  time  by  Cla- 
vius  and  Ramus;  in  Germany,  by  Sturmius, 
Stifelius,  and  Henischius  ;  and  in  England 
by  Recorde,  Diggs,  and  Buckley.  After 
that  period  the  writers  on  arithmetic  be- 
came too  numerous  to  be  particularly  spe- 
cified, but  the  names  of  Briggs,  Emerson, 
Napier,  Maclaurin,  Hutton,  and  Bonny- 
castle,  are  entitled  to  notice  for  having 
systematized,  enlarged,  and  in  many  par- 
ticulars simplified  the  science. 

ARK.  The  floating  vessel  in  which  Noah 
and  Jiis  family  were  saved  from  the  flood. 
It  was  500  feet  long,  90  broad,  and  50  high. 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  or  Mo- 
ses' Ark.  The  chest  in  which  the  stone 
tables  of  the  ten  commandments,  written 
by  the  hand  of  God,  were  laid  up. 

ARMADILLA.  A  quadruped,  a  native 
of  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies,  with  the 
snout  of  a  pig,  the  tail  of  a  lizard,  and  the 
feet  of  a  hedgehog.  He  is  armed  with  a 
coat  of  impenetrable  scales,  under  which 
he  retires  like  a  tortoise. 


ARMILLARY  SPHERE  (in  Astro- 
nomy). An  artificial  sphere,  composed  of 
a  number  of  circles,  of  metal,  wood,  or 
paper,  representing  the  several  circles  of 
the  sphere  of  the  world  put  together  in 
their  natural  order.  The  armillary  sphere 
revolves  upon  an  axis  within  a  silvered 
horizon,  which  is  divided  into  degrees,  and 
moveable  every  way  upon  a  brass  supporter. 
In  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  there  is  an 
armillary  sphere  constructed  by  Dr.  Long, 
which  is  eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  will 
contain  more  than  thirty  persons  sitting 
within  it,  to  view,  as  from  a  centre,  the 
representation  of  the  celestial  spheres.  That 
part  of  the  sphere  which  is  not  visible  in 
England  is  cut  off*;  and  the  whole  is  so 
contrived,  that,  by  being  turned  round,  it 


82  ARR 

exhibits  all  the  phenomena  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 


ARMORY.  A  branch  of  the  science  of 
heraldry,  consisting  in  the  knowledge  of 
armorial  bearings  or  coats  of  arms,  which 
serve  to  distinguish  the  quality  of  the 
bearer. 

ARMOUR.  All  such  habiliments  as  serve 
to  defend  the  body  from  wounds  inflicted 
by  darts,  swords,  lances,  &c. 

ARMY.  A  body  of  soldiers  consisting  of 
horse  and  foot,  under  the  command  of  a 
general  and  subordinate  officers,  and  com- 
pletely equipped  and  disciplined  for  service. 
An  army  is  generally  divided  into  a  certain 
number  of  corps,each  consisting  of  brigades, 
regiments,  battalions,  and  squadrons;  when 
in  the  field,  it  is  formed  into  lines ;  the  first 
line  is  called  the  vanguard,  the  second  the 
main  body,  the  third  the  rearguard,  or  body 
of  reserve.  The  middle  of  each  line  is  oc- 
cupied by  tlie  foot,  the  cavalry  forms  the 
right  and  left  wing  of  each  line,  and  some- 
times squadrons  of  horse  are  placed  in  the 
intervals  between  the  battalions. 

AROMA,  A  general  name  for  all  sweet 
spices,  but  particularly  myrrh;  also  the 
odoriferous  principle  which  produces  the 
fragrance  peculiar  to  some  plants. 

ARRAC.  A  spirituous  liquor  distilled  in 
India  from  the  cocoa  tree,  rice,  or  sugar. 
It  is  very  strong,  and  intoxicates  more  than 
rum  or  brandy. 

ARRAIGNMENT  (in  Law).  The  bring- 
ing a  prisoner  forth,  reading  the  indictment 
to  him,  and  putting  the  question  of  guilty 
or  not  guilty. 

ARRAY.  The  drawing  up  of  soldiers  in 
order  of  battle. 

ARREARS.  Money  unpaid  at  the  due 
time,  as  rent,  moneys  in  hand,  &c. 

ARREST  (in  Law).  The  apprehending 
and  restraining  a  man's  person  in  order  to 


ART 

compel  him  to  be  obedient  to  the  law. 
This,  in  all  cases  except  treason,  felony, 
or  breach  of  the  peace,  must  be  done  by 
the  lawful  warrant  of  some  court  of  record 
or  officer  of  justice.  Arrest  of  judgment  is 
the  staying  of  judgment,  or  not  proceeding 
to  judgment. 

ARROW.  A  missile  weapon,  which  is 
commonly  discharged  from  a  bow.  When 
this  weapon  is  borne  in  coats  of  arms,  it 
is  said  to  be  barbed  and  feathered. 

ARROW-ROOT.  An  Indian  root,  of 
which  starch  is  made.  It  is  also  used 
medicinally. 

ARSENAL.  A  public  storehouse  for 
arms  and  all  sorts  of  ammunition. 

ARSENIATE,  A  sort  of  salts  formed 
by  the  combination  of  arsenic  acid  with 
different  bases,  as  the  ai-seniate  of  ammo- 
nia, &c. 

ARSENIC.  A  ponderous  mineral  body. 
It  is  yellow,  white,  and  red.  Yellow  arsenic 
is  the  native  arsenic  dug  out  of  the  mines, 
otherwise  called  Arsenic  Ore.  White 
arsenic  is  drawn  from  the  yellow  by  sub- 
limating ;  and  is  reduced  to  powder  by  the 
mixture  of  oxygen,  or  exposure  to  the  air. 
This  is  sometimes  used  in  medicine  in 
small  quantities,  but  is  otherwise  a  deadly 
poison.  Red  arsenic  is  the  yellow  arsenic 
rubified  by  fire,  when  it  is  called  realgal. 

ARSENITE.  A  sort  of  salts  formed  by 
the  combination  of  arsenious  acid  with 
different  bases. 

ARSIS  (in  Grammar).  The  elevation  of 
the  voice,  in  distinction  from  thesis  or  the 
depression  of  the  voice.  Arsis  and  thesis, 
in  Ancient  Music,  is  applied  to  the  raising 
and  falling  of  the  hand  in  beating  of  time. 

ARTERY.  A  hollow,  fistulous,  conical 
canal,  which  serves  to  receive  the  blood 
from  the  ventricles  of  the  heart,  and  to 
distribute  it  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 


ART.  The  contrivance  and  use  of  things 
by  the  help  of  thought  and  experience, 


ART 

and  according  to  prescribed  rules,  so  as  to 
make  them  serve  tlie  purposes  for  whiclr 
they  were  designed.  Liberal  or  fine  arts 
are  those  which  are  noble  and  worthy  to 
be  cultivated  without  regard  to  lucre,  as 
painting,  poetrj',  music,  &c.  Mechanic  arts 
are  those  wherein  the  hand  and  body  are 
more  concerned  than  the  mind.  Terms 
of  art  are  such  words  as  are  used  in  re- 
gard to  any  particular  art,  profession,  or 
science. 

AUTICHOKE,  A  plant  very  like  the 
thistle,  v/ith  scaly  heads  similar  to  the  cone 
of  the  pine  tree.  At  the  bottom  of  each 
scale,  as  also  at  the  bottom  of  each  floret, 
is  the  well  known  fleshy  edible  substance. 
The  Jemsalem  Artichoke  is  a  plant,  the 
root  of  which  resembles  a  potatoe,  having 
the  taste  of  the  artichoke. 

ARTICLE  (in  Law).  The  clause  or  con- 
dition in  a  covenant. 

ARTICLE  (in  Grammar).  A  particle, 
which  in  most  languages  serves  to  denote 
the  gender  and  case  of  nouns ;  and  in  lan- 
guages which  have  not  difierent  termina- 
tions it  serves  to  particularize  the  object 
refen-ed  to. 

ARTICULATION  (in  Anatomy).  The 
junction  of  two  bones  intended  for  motion. 
There  are  two  kinds ;  the  diarthrosis, 
which  has  a  manifest  motion,  and  synar- 
throsis, which  has  only  an  obscure  motion. 

ARTICULATION.  The  articulate  or 
distinct  utterance  of  every  letter,  syllable, 
or  word,  so  as  to  make  oneself  intelligible. 

ARTIFICERS.  Persons  employed  in 
the  performance  of  mechanical  arts. 

ARTILLERY.  A  collective  name  de- 
noting all  engines  of  war,  but  particularly 
cannon,  mortars,  and  other  large  pieces, 
for  the  discharge  of  shot  and  shells.  It  is 
also  employed  to  denote  the  science  which 
teaches  all  things  relating  to  the  artilleiy, 
as  the  construction  of  all  engines  of  war, 
the  arrangement,  movement,  and  manage- 
ment of  cannon  and  all  sorts  of  ordnance, 
used  either  in  the  field,  or  the  camp,  or  at 
sieges,  &c. 

ARTILLERY,  Park  of.  A  place  set 
apart  in  a  camp  for  the  artillery  and  large 
firearms, 

ARTILLERY,  Train  OF.  Asetornum- 
ber  of  pieces  of  ordnance  mounted  on 
carriages. 

ARTILLERY,  Flying.  A  sort  of  artil- 
leiy, so  called  from  the  celerity  with  which 
it  can  be  moved.  Seats  are  contrived  for 
the  men  who  work  it,  and  a  sufficient  force 
of  horses  is  applied  to  enable  them  to  pro- 
ceed at  a  gallop ;  each  horse  being  rode  by 
a  separate  driver.  This  kind  of  artillery 
was  introduced  by  the  French  during  the 


ASP  33 

late  war,  and  has  been  adopted  by  other 
nations. 

ARTIST.    A  proficient  in  the  fine  arts. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES.  Ancient 
marbles  illustrative  of  the  history  and  my- 
thology of  the  ancients,  so  called  from  the 
Earl  of  Arundel,  by  whom  they  were  trans- 
ported from  the  island  of  Paros  into  Eng- 
land. They  contain  a  chronicle  of  the  city 
of  Athens,  supposed  to  have  been  inscribed 
thereon  264  years  before  Christ. 

ASA-FCETIDA.  A  gum  resin  of  a  very 
fetid  smell,  obtained  from  the  ferula  asa 
fcetida,  a  perennial  plant,  which  is  a  native 
of  Persia.  It  comes  into  this  country  in 
small  grains  of  different  colours,  hard  and 
brittle. 

ASBESTOS.  A  mineral  substance,  of 
which  Amianthus  is  one  of  its  principal 
species.  This  consists  of  elastic  fibres, 
somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch,  and 
slightly  translucent.  The  ancients  manu- 
factured cloth  from  the  fibres  of  the  asbes- 
tos for  the  purpose,  as  is  said,  of  wrapping 
up  the  bodies  of  the  dead  when  exposed  on 
the  funeral  pile  ;  it  being  incombustible  in 
its  nature.  It  is  found  in  many  places  in 
Asia  and  Europe. 

ASCARIDES.  Worms  that  infest  the 
intestinum  rectum,  and  cause  a  violent 
itching ;  also  a  kind  of  worms  which  infest 
the  intestines  of  all  animals. 

ASCENSION  (in  Astronomy).  That  de- 
gree of  the  equator  reckoned  from  the  first 
of  Aries  eastward,  which  rises  with  the  sun 
or  a  star.  This  is  either  right  or  oblique, 
according  as  it  rises  in  a  right  or  an  ob- 
lique sphere. 

ASCENSIONAL  DIFFERENCE.  The 
difference  between  the  right  and  the  ob- 
lique ascension  in  any  point  of  the  heav- 
ens. 

ASCENT.  The  rising  of  fluids  in  a  glass 
tube  or  any  vessel  above  the  surface  of  their 
own  level. 

ASH.  A  well  known  tree,  the  timber  of 
which  is  next  to  the  oak  in  value,  being 
used  in  ever>'  sort  of  handicraft. 

ASHES.  The  earthy  substances  remain- 
ing after  combustion,  which  contain  an 
alkaline  salt ;  also  the  skimmings  of  metal 
among  the  letter-founders, 

ASH-WEDNESDAY.  The  first  day  in 
Lent,  so  called  from  the  custom  of  fasting 
in  sackcloth  and  ashes. 

ASP.  A  very  small  kind  of  serpent,  pe- 
culiar to  Egypt  and  Libya,  the  bite  of  which 
is  deadly.  Its  poison  is  so  quick  in  its  op- 
erations, that  it  kills  without  a  possibility 
of  applying  any  remedy.  Those  that  are 
bitten  by  it  are  said  to  die  within  three 
hours,  by  means  of  sleep  and  lethargy, 


34 


ASS 


without  any  pain ;  wherefore  Cleopatra 
chose  it  as  the  easiest  way  of  dispatching 
herself. 

ASPARAGUS.  A  valuable  esculent 
plant,  which  requires  three  years  at  least  to 
bring  it  to  maturity  from  the  time  of  sow- 
ing the  seed,  and  will  not  yield  vigorously 
without  a  continual  supply  of  manure. 

ASPEN-TREE.  A  kind  of  white  poplar, 
the  leaves  of  which  are  small,  and  always 
trembling. 

ASPHALTUM,  or  Jews' Pitch.  A  solid, 
brittle,  ponderous  substance,  which  breaks 
with  a  polish,  aud  melts  easily.  It  is  found 
in  a  soft  or  liquid  state  on  the  surface  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  a  lake  in  Judea,  and  by 
time  grows  dry  and  hard.  The  Egyptians 
used  asphaltum  in  embalming,  which  they 
called  numia  mineralis. 

ASS.  A  well  known  useful  quadruped, 
remarkable  for  its  patience,  hardiness,  and 
long  life.  The  milk  of  the  female  is  highly 
esteemed  for  its  light  and  nutritious  quality, 
and  for  that  reason  recommended  for  con- 
sumptive persons, 


ASSASSINATION  (in  Law).  The  mur- 
dering a  person  for  hire. 

ASSAULT  (in  Law).  The  offering  or 
attempting,  with  force  and  violence,  to  do 
a  corporal  hurt  to  another,  as  by  striking 
at  him  with  or  without  a  weapon,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  battery,  which  is  any 
injury  actually  done  to  a  person. 

ASSAY.  A  mode  of  trying  metals,  or 
separating  them  from  all  foreign  bodies : 
thus  gold  and  silver  are  assayed  by  the  re- 
finer, to  obtain  them  in  their  purest  state. 
This  was  formerly  called  the  Touch,  and 
those  who  had  the  charge  of  assaying  were 
called  Officers  of  the  Touch.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  assaying,  namely,  one  before 
metals  are  melted,  the  other  after  they  are 
struck.  In  the  first  case  the  assayers  usu- 
ally take  14  or  15  grains  of  gold,  and  half  a 
dram  of  silver,  if  it  be  for  money,  and  18 


ASS 

grains  of  the  one,  and  a  dram  of  the  other, 
if  for  other  uses ;  in  the  second  case,  they 
take  one  of  the  pieces  of  money  of  each 
sort.  The  Assay  of  Weights  and  Meas- 
ures was  an  examination  of  them  by  the 
questmen  in  the  city,  &c. 

ASSAYER  OF  THE  KING.  An  officer 
of  the  king's  mint,  for  the  trial  of  silver. 

ASSAYING.  The  particular  mode  of 
trying  ores  or  mixed  metals  by  means  of 
proper  fluxes,  in  order  to  discover  the  pro- 
portion of  metal,  as  also  of  the  other  ingre- 
dients, as  alum,  sulphur,  vitriol,  and  the 
like,  which  are  contained  in  them.  Gold 
is  obtained  pure  by  dissolving  it  in  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  when  the  metal  may  be  pre- 
cipitated by  dropping  in  a  diluted  solution 
of  sulphate  of  iron ;  the  precipitate  which 
is  in  the  form  of  a  powder  is  pure  gold. 
Silver  is  obtained  pure  by  dissolving  it  in 
nitric  acid,  and  precipitating  it  with  a  di- 
luted solution  of  sulphate  of  iron. 

ASSAY-MASTER.  The  master  of  the 
mint,  who  weighs  the  bullion,  and  takes 
care  that  it  be  according  to  the  standard. 

ASSETS  (in  Law).  Goods  and  chattels 
sufficient  for  an  heir  or  executor  to  dis- 
charge the  debts  and  legacies  of  the  testa- 
tor or  ancestor. 

ASSIGN  (in  Law).  One  to  whom  any 
thing  is  assigned  or  made  over,  as  an  exe- 
cutor, &c. ;  also  an  assignee  or  assign  to  a 
bankrupt's  estate. 

ASSIGNMENT.  A  transfer  or  making 
over  to  another  the  right  one  has  in  any 
estate,  usually  applied  to  an  estate  for  life 
or  years.  It  difters  from  a  lease  in  this, 
that  by  an  assignment  one  parts  with  the 
whole  interest  one  has  in  the  thing,  but  by 
a  lease  he  reserves  himself  a  reversion. 

ASSIMILATION  (in  Physics).  The  pro- 
cess in  the  animal  economy  by  which  the 
food  is  converted  into  nourishment  for  the 
body. 

ASSIZE  (in  Law).  An  assembly  of 
knights  and  other  substantial  men,  who, 
with  the  justices,  met  at  a  certain  time 
and  in  a  certain  place  for  the  due  admi- 
nistration of  justice.  In  the  modern  appli- 
cation it  signifies  a  sitting  of  the  judges  by 
virtue  of  a  commission,  to  hear  and  de- 
termine causes.  The  assizes  are  general 
when  the  justices  go  their  circuits,  with 
commission  to  take  all  assizes,  that  is,  to 
hear  all  causes ;  they  are  special  when 
special  commissions  are  granted  to  Iiear 
particular  causes. 

ASSOCIATION.  The  connexion  of  ideas 
in  the  human  mind  which  for  the  most  part 
immediately  follow  one  another,  whether 
there  is  any  natural  relation  between  them 
or  not. 


AST 

ASSUMPSIT  (in  Law).  A  voluntary 
promise  by  wliicli  a  man  binds  himself  to 
pay  any  thing  to  another,  or  to  do  any 
work. 

ASSURANCE,  or  INSURANCE.  An 
engagement  by  which  a  person  becomes 
bound  for  a  specified  sum,  and  for  a  limited 
period,  to  indemnify  another  for  any  losses 
which  his  property  may  sustain  from  fire 
or  shipwreck,  &c. 

ASTERISK.  A  star  (*)  used  in  printing 
as  a  mark  of  reference. 

ASTERN.  Behind  a  ship. 

ASTEROIDS.  The  new  planets,  Ceres, 
Juno,  Pallas,  and  Vesta,  lately  discovered. 

ASTHMA.  A  painful,  difficult,  and  la- 
borious respiration,  with  a  sense  of  stricture 
across  the  breastjthat  sometimes  approaches 
to  sufibcation. 

ASTRAGAL  (in  Anatomy).  The  ankle 
bone;  in  Architecture,  a  small  round  mould- 
ing serving  as  an  ornament  to  the  tops  and 
bottoms  of  columns. 


AST 


m 


(T 


ASTRAGAL  (in  Gunnery).  A  small 
moulding  encompassing  a  cannon. 

ASTROLABE.  An  instrument  for  taking 
the  altitude  of  the  sun  or  stars  at  sea. 

ASTROLOGY.  An  art  formerly  much 
cultivated,  but  now  exploded,  of  judging 
or  predicting  human  events  from  the  situ- 
ation and  different  aspects  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 

ASTRONOMY.  The  science  which  treats 
of  the  sun,  moon,  earth,  planets,  and  other 
heavenly  bodies,showing  their  magnitudes, 
order,  and  distances  from  each  other,  mea- 
suring and  marking  their  risings,  settings, 
motions,  appearances,  the  times  and  quan- 
tities of  their  eclipses,  &;c.  It  comprehends 
what  was  anciently  called  the  doctrine  of 
the  sphere,  and  is  a  mixed  mathematical 
science. 

ASTRONOMY,  History  of.  Of  all  the 
sciences  which  have  engaged  the  attention 
of  mankind,  none  appears  to  have  been 
cultivated  so  early  as  that  of  astronomy, 
which  treats  of  the  noblest  and  most  inter- 
esting objects  of  contemplation.  Josephus 
informs  us  that  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam,  is 
said  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  this 
science,  and  that  his  posterity,  understand- 
ing from  a  prediction  of  Adam  that  there 
would  be  a  general  destruction  of  all  things, 
once  by  the  rage  of  fire  and  once  by  the 
violence  and  multitude  of  waters,  made  two 
pillars,  one  of  brick  and  the  other  of  stone, 
and  engraved  thek  inventions  on  each,  that 
if  the  pillar  of  brick  happened  to  be  over- 
thrown by  the  flood,  that  of  stone  might 


remain  ;  which  latter  pillar,  Josephus  adds, 
was  to  be  seen  in  his  day.  He  also  ascribes 
to  the  antediluvians  a  knowledge  of  the 
astronomical  cycle  of  600  years,  but  upon 
what  authority  we  are  not  informed. 

The  account  is,  however,  not  improbable; 
for  historians  generally  agree  in  assigning 
the  origin  of  astronomy  to  the  Chaldeans 
soon  after  the  deluge,  when,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  their  astrological  predictions,  to 
which  they  were  much  addicted,  as  also 
for  that  of  advancing  the  science  of  astro- 
nomy, they  devoted  themselves  to  the  study 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  Chaldeans 
were  in  fact  a  tribe  of  Babylonians,  who 
constituted  the  priests,  philosophers,  astro- 
nomers, astrologers,  and  soothsayers  of  this 
people,  whence  a  Chaldean  and  a  sooth- 
sayer became  synonymous  terms.  These 
Chaldeans  discovered  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  ;  and,  from  their  supposed 
influences  on  human  affairs,  pretended  to 
predict  what  was  to  come.  The  planeta 
they  called  their  interpreters,  ascribing  to 
Saturn  the  highest  rank ;  the  next  in  emi- 
nence was  Sol,  the  sun;  then  Mars,  Venus, 
Mercuiy,  and  Jupiter.  By  the  motions  and 
aspects  of  all  these  they  foretold  storms  of 
wind  and  of  rain,  or  excessive  droughts,  as 
also  the  appearance  of  comets,  eclipses  of 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  other  phenomena. 
They  also  marked  out  thirty-six  constella- 
tions, twelve  of  which  they  placed  in  the 
zodiac,  assigning  to  each  a  month  in  the 
year,  and  thus  dividing  the  zodiac  into 
twelve  signs,  through  which  they  taught 
that  the  several  planets  performed  their 
revolutions.  They  appear  not  to  have  had 
much  idea  of  the  immense  distance  of  some 
of  the  planets  from  the  sun,  but  accounted 
for  the  time  they  took  in  performing  their 
revolutions  bytheslownessof  their  motions. 
They,  however,  held  that  the  moon  com- 
pleted her  course  the  soonest  of  any,  not 
because  of  her  extraordinary  velocity,  but 
because  her  orbit,  as  it  would  now  be  called, 
was  less  than  that  of  any  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  They  taught  that  she  shone  with  a 
light  not  her  own,  and  that  when  eclipsed 
she  was  immersed  in  the  shadow  of  the 
earth.  Of  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  they  ap- 
pear to  have  had  no  just  idea,  nor  could 
they  fix  the  time  when  they  should  happen. 
Their  ideas  of  the  earth  as  a  celestial  body 
were  also  crude  and  imperfect. 

Astronomy  was  cultivated  in  Egypt  nearly 
about  the  same  time  as  among  the  Chal- 
deans ;  and,  according  to  the  opinions  of 
some,  the  honour  of  the  invention  is  due 
to  them  :  but  the  most  probable  conclusion 
is,  that  as  these  two  nations  were  coeval, 
and  both  addicted  to  the  arts  and  sciences, 


ASTRONOMY. 


they  cultivated  astronomy  at  the  same  time. 
The  Egj'ptians  had  at  a  very  early  period 
their  college  of  priests,  who  were  all  accu- 
rate observers  of  the  stars,  and  kept,  as 
Diodorus  observes,  registers  of  their  obser- 
vations for  an  incredible  number  of  years. 
It  is  said,  that  in  the  monument  of  Osy- 
mandyas  there  was  a  golden  circle  of  365 
cubits  in  circumference  and  one  cubit  thick, 
divided  into  365  parts,  answering  to  the 
days  of  the  year,  &c.  The  Egyptians  dis- 
covered that  the  stars  had  an  annual  motion 
of  50"  ,9'"  ,45""  in  the  year;  and  Macrobius 
asserts  that  they  made  the  planets  revolve 
about  the  sun  in  the  same  order  as  we  do. 
From  Chaldea  and  Egypt  astronomy  passed 
into  Phoenicia,  where  it  was  applied  by  that 
trading  people  to  the  purposes  of  navigation. 
The  Arabians  also,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
nations  in  the  world,  cultivated  astronomy 
as  far  as  was  needful  to  answer  the  ends  of 
their  pastoral  life,  by  observing  the  stars, 
their  position,and  influence  on  the  weather. 
In  travelling  through  the  desert,  we  are 
informed  that,  at  a  very  early  period,  they 
used  to  direct  their  course  by  the  Great 
and  Little  Bear,  as  is  done  at  sea  to  this 
day.  They  also  gave  names  to  the  stars, 
mostly  in  allusion  to  their  flocks  and  herds ; 
and  they  were  so  nice  in  this  matter  that 
no  language  abounds  with  so  many  names 
of  stars  and  asterisms  as  the  Arabic. 

As  to  the  Indians  and  Chinese  there  is 
no  doubt  but  that  they  cultivated  astronomy 
at  a  very  early  period,  and  that  the  Brah- 
mins of  the  former  people,  being  altogether 
devoted  to  speculative  sciences,  made  ad- 
vances in  that  of  astronomy  equal  to  any 
of  the  nations  of  antiquity.  M.  Bailly  in- 
forms us,  in  his  history,  that  he  examined 
and  compared  four  different  sets  of  astro- 
nomical tables  of  the  Indian  philosophers, 
namely,  that  of  the  Siamese  explained  by 
M.  Cassini  in  1689 ;  that  brought  from  India 
by  M.  le  Gentil,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  two  other  manuscript  tables,  found 
among  the  papers  of  the  late  M.  de  Lisle ; 
all  of  which  he  found  to  accord  with  one 
another,  referring  to  the  meridian  of  Be- 
nares. It  appears  that  the  Indians  date  their 
astronomy  from  a  remarkable  conjunction 
of  the  sun  and  moon  which  took  place  at 
the  distance  of  302  years  before  Christ; 
and  M.  Bouilly  concludes  that,  from  our 
most  accurate  astronomical  tables,  such  a 
conjunction  did  take  place.  The  Indians 
calculate  eclipses  by  the  mean  motions  of 
the  sun  and  moon,  commencing  at  a  period 
five  thousand  years  distant ;  but,  without 
giving  them  credit  for  an  antiquity  which 
is  at  variance  with  all  historical  documents, 
sacred  and  profane,  it  suffices  here  to  ob- 


serve that  tliey  ha%'e  adopted  the  cycle  of 
nineteen  years,  and  that  their  astronomy 
agrees  with  modern  discoveries  in  many 
particulars,as  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic, 
and  an  acceleration  of  the  motion  of  the 
equinoctial  points.  They  also  assign  ine- 
qualities to  the  motions  of  the  planets,  an- 
swering very  well  to  the  annual  parallax, 
and  the  equation  of  the  centre. 

The  Greeks,  without  doubt,  derived  their 
astronomical  knowledge fromtheEgyptians 
and  Phoenicians  by  means  of  several  of  their 
countrymen,  particularly  Thales  the  Mile- 
sian, who,  about  640  years  before  Christ, 
travelled  into  Egypt,  and  brought  from 
thence  the  chief  principles  of  the  science. 
He  was  the  first  among  the  Greeks  who 
observed  the  stars,  the  solstices,  the  eclipses 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  proceeded  so  far 
as  to  predict  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  It 
appears,  however,  that,  before  his  time, 
many  of  the  constellations  were  known, 
for  we  find  mention  of  them  in  Hesiod  and 
Homer,  two  of  their  earliest  writers.  After 
Thales,  Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  Anax- 
agoras,  but  above  all,  Pythagoras,  distin- 
guished themselves  among  the  number  of 
those  who  cultivated  astronomy.  The  latter, 
after  having  resided  a  long  time  in  Egypt 
and  other  foreign  parts,  established  a  sect 
of  philosophers  in  his  own  country,  known 
by  the  name  of  Pythagoreans.  He  taught, 
among  other  things,  that  the  sun  was  in 
the  centre  of  the  universe  and  immovable ; 
that  the  earth  was  round,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants were  antipodes  to  each  other;  that  the 
moon  reflected  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  was 
inhabited  like  the  earth ;  that  comets  were 
wandering  stars ;  that  the  milky  way  was 
an  assemblage  of  stars,  which  derived  its 
white  colour  from  the  brightness  of  their 
light;  besides  a  number  of  other  particulars, 
some  of  which  are  admitted  in  the  present 
day.  Philolaus,  a  Pythagorean,  maintain- 
ed the  doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  round 
the  sun,  450  years  before  Christ,  and  Hice- 
tus,  a  Syracusan,  taught,  a  hundred  years 
after,  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  on  its 
own  axis  ;  also  Meton,  the  inventor  of  the 
Metonic  cycle,  and  Euctemon,  observed  the 
summer  solstice  432  years  before  Christ,  be- 
sides the  risings  and  settings  of  the  stars, 
and  what  seasons  they  answered  to.  The 
same  subject  was  treated  of  at  large  by 
Aratus  in  his  poem  entitled  Phoenomena. 
Eratosthenes,  a  Cyrenian,  who  was  born 
in  271  B,  c,  measured  the  circumference  of 
the  earth ;  and,  being  invited  to  the  court  of 
Ptolemy  Evergetes  at  Alexandria,  he  was 
made  keeper  of  the  royal  library,  and  set 
up  there  the  armillary  spheres  which  Hip- 
parchus  and  Ptolemy  afterwards  used  so 


ASTRONOMY. 


37 


effectually.  He  also  determined  the  dis- 
tance between  the  tropics  to  be  11-83  of  the 
whole  meridian  circle,  which  makes  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  in  his  time  to  be  23 
degrees,  51  minutes  and  one-third.  Ar- 
chimedes is  said  to  have  constructed  a 
planetarium  to  represent  the  phenomena 
and  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  and 
many  others  added  to  the  stock  of  astro- 
nomical knowledge,  but  none  so  much  as 
Hipparchus,  who  flourished  about  140  years 
fi,  c.  and  surpassed  all  that  had  gone  be- 
fore him  in  the  extent  of  his  researches. 
He  showed  that  the  orbits  of  the  planets 
were  eccentric,  and  that  the  moon  moved 
Blower  in  her  apogee  than  in  her  perigee. 
He  constructed  tables  of  the  motions  of 
the  sun  and  moon  5  collected  accounts  of 
eclipses  tiiat  had  been  computed  by  the 
Chaldeans  and  Egyptians  ;  and  calculated 
such  as  would  happen  for  six  hundred 
years  to  come  ;  besides  correcting  the  er- 
rors of  Eratosthenes  in  his  measurement 
of  the  earth's  circumference,  and  compu- 
ting the  sun's  distance  more  accurately. 
He  is,  however,  most  distinguished  by  his 
catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars  to  the  number 
of  a  thousand  and  twenty-two,  with  their 
latitudes  and  longitudes,  and  apparent 
magnitudes.  These  and  most  other  of  his 
observations  are  preserved  by  his  illustri- 
ous successor  Ptolemy. 

From  the  time  of  Hipparchus  to  that  of 
Ptolemy,  an  interval  of  upwards  of  two 
centuries,  few  or  no  advances  were  made 
in  astronomy.  Claudius  Ptolemy,  who 
was  born  at  Pelusium  in  Egypt,  in  the  first 
centuiy  of  the  Christian  era,  is  well  known 
as  the  author  of  a  great  work  on  astronomy, 
entitled  his  Almagest,  which  contains  a 
complete  system  of  astronomy  drawn  from 
the  observations  of  all  preceding  astrono- 
mers in  union  with  his  ov.-n.  He  maintain- 
ed tlie  generally  received  opinion  of  the 
sun's  motion,  which  continued  to  be  uni- 
versally lield  until  the  time  of  Copernicus. 
The  work  of  Ptolemy  being  preserved  from 
the  gi-ievous  confiagi-ation  that  consumed 
the  Alexandrian  library  duringthe  ravages 
of  the  Saracens,  was  translated  out  of  the 
Greek  into  the  Arabic,  a.  d.  827  ;  and,  by 
the  help  of  this  translation,  the  Arabians, 
who  now  addicted  themselves  to  the  study 
of  astronomy,  cultivated  it  with  great  ad- 
vantage under  the  patronage  of  the  caliphs, 
particularly  Al  Mamon,  who  was  himself 
an  astronomer,  and  made  many  accurate 
obsen'ations  by  the  help  of  instruments, 
which  he  himself  constructed.  He  deter- 
mined the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  in  his 
time  to  be  23  degrees,  35  minutes.  Among 
the  Arabian  authors  of  this  period  was  Al- 
4 


fragan,  who  wrote  his  Elements  of  Astro- 
nomy, and  Albetegnius,  who  flourished 
about  880.  This  latter  compared  his  own 
observations  with  those  of  Ptolemy,  and 
computed  the  motion  of  the  sun's  apogee 
from  Ptolemy's  time  to  his  own.  He  also 
composed  tables  for  the  meridian  of  Arabia, 
which  were  much  esteemed  by  his  country- 
men. After  this,  Ebn  Younis,  astronomer 
to  the  caliph  of  Egj-pt,  observed  some 
eclipses,  by  means  of  which  the  quantity 
of  the  moon's  acceleration  since  that  time 
has  been  determined ;  also  Arzechel,  a 
IMoor  of  Spain,  observed  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic;  and  Alhazen  his  contemporarj', 
wrote  on  the  twilight,  the  height  of  the 
clouds,  and  the  phenomena  of  the  horizon- 
tal moon.  He  likewise  first  employed  the 
optical  science  in  astronomical  observa- 
tions, and  showed  tJie  importance  of  the 
theoiy  of  refraction  in  astronomy. 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  astronomy,  as 
well  as  other  arts  and  sciences,  began  to 
revive  in  Europe,  particularly  under  the 
auspices  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  ; 
who,  besides  restoring  some  decayed  uni- 
versities, founded  a  new  one,  and  in  1230 
caused  the  works  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Al- 
magest of  Ptolemy  to  be  translated  into 
Latin.  Two  years  after  this,  John  de  Sacro 
Bosco,  or  John  of  Halifax,  published  his 
work  De  Sphsera,  a  compendium  of  astro- 
nomy drawn  from  the  works  of  Ptolemy, 
Alfragan,  Albetegnius,  and  others.  This 
was  held  in  high  estimation  for  some  cen- 
turies, and  was  honoured  with  a  commen- 
tary from  the  pen  of  Clavius  and  other 
learned  men.  In  1240,  Alphonsus  king  of 
Castile,  a  gi-eat  astronomer  himself,  and  an 
encourager  of  astronomers,  corrected  with 
their  assistance  the  tables  of  Ptolemy, 
which,  from  him,  were  called  the  Alphon- 
sine  tables.  About  the  same  time  Roger 
Bacon  published  his  tracts  on  astronomy, 
and  shortly  after  Vitellio,  a  Polander,  in 
his  treatise  on  optics,  showed,  in  accord- 
ance with  Alhazen,  the  use  of  refraction 
in  astronomy.  Nearly  two  centuries  elap- 
sed from  this  period  before  any  farther 
progress  "was  made  in  the  science,  when 
Purbach  composed  new  tables  of  sines  for 
every  ten  minutes,  constructed  spheres 
and  globes,  wrote  commentaries  on  Ptole- 
my's Almagest,  corrected  the  tables  of  the 
planets  and  the  Alphonsine  tables,  deter- 
mined the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  at  23 
degrees,  33  minutes  and  a  half,  and  begun, 
at  his  death,  a  new  series  of  tables  for  com- 
puting eclipses.  He  w^as  succeeded  by 
John  Muller,  commonly  called  Regio- 
montaiius,  Bernard  Walther,  John  Werner, 
and  others.    John  Werner  showed  that  the 


38 


ASTRONOMIC . 


motion  of  the  fixed  stars,  since  called  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes,  was  about  1 
degree,  10  minutes,  in  a  hundred  years. 
The  celebrated  Copernicus  came  next  in 
order,  who  distinguished  himself  by  calling 
in  question  the  Ptolemaic  system  of  the 
universe,  and  reviving  that  of  Pythagoras. 
After  making  a  series  of  observations,  and 
forming  new  tables,  he  completed  in  1530 
his  work,  first  published  under  the  title  of 
DeRevolutionibus  Cuiiestium  Orbium,  and 
afterwards  under  that  of  Astronomia  In- 
staurata,  in  which  he  set  forth  the  system 
since  known  by  the  name  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem, in  which  all  the  planets  are  consider- 
ed as  revolving  round  the  sun  as  their 
immovable  centre. 

The  science  of  astronomy  henceforth 
continued  to  receive  regular  accessions  and 
improvements  by  a  series  of  writers,  as 
Schoner,  Nonnius,  Appian,  Gemma  Frisi- 
us,  Byrgius,  &c.  Besides,  William  IV., 
landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel,  applying  him- 
self to  the  study,  formed,  by  the  help  of  the 
best  instruments  then  to  be  procured,  a 
catalogue  of  four  hundred  stars,  with  their 
latitudes  and  longitudes  adapted  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1593.  About  this  time 
the  Copernican  system  found  a  strenuous 
though  unsuccessful  opponent  in  Tycho 
Brahe,  a  Danish  nobleman,  who,  to  obviate 
the  objections  against  the  Ptolemaic  sys- 
tem, advanced  an  hypothesis  of  his  own, 
vv-hich  added  less  to  his  reputation  than 
the  accurate  observations  which  he  made 
by  the  help  of  improved  instruments  in  a 
new  observatory  built  for  him  by  order  of 
the  king  of  Denmark.  His  friend  Kepler, 
who  enjoyed  the  title  of  mathematician  to 
the  emperor,  finished  his  tables  after  his 
death,  and  published  them  under  the  title 
of  Rhodolphine  tables.  This  latter  astron- 
omer discovered  that  all  the  planets  revolve 
round  the  sun,  not  in  circular  but  in  ellip- 
tical orbits ;  that  their  motions  are  not  equa- 
ble, but  quicker  and  slower  as  they  are 
nearer  to  the  sun  or  farther  from  him ;  be- 
sides a  number  of  other  observations  on  the 
motions  and  distances  of  the  planets.  He 
also  concluded,  from  his  observations  on 
the  comets,  that  they  are  freely  carried 
about  among  the  orbits  of  the  planets  in 
paths  that  are  nearly  rectilinear.  To  the 
astronomers  of  this  age  may  be  added  Bay- 
er, who,  in  his  Uranometria,  has  given  a 
representation  of  all  the  constellations, 
with  the  stars  marked  on  them,  and  accom- 
panied with  the  Greek  letters  for  the  con- 
venience of  reference. 

The  seventeenth  century  added  many 
great  names  to  the  list  of  astronomers,  as 
Galileo,  Huygens,  Cassini,  Hevelius,  New- 


ton, and  Flamstead,  &;c.  As  the  Coperni- 
can system  had  met  with  an  opponent  in 
one  that  ranked  high  in  tlie  science,  it 
found  a  defender  in  Galileo,  an  Italian  no- 
bleman, who  in  his  Dialogi,  in  1632,  drew 
a  comparison  between  the  Ptolemaic  and 
Copernican  system,  much  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  latter,  for  which  he  incurred  the 
censures  of  the  church,  as  the  doctrine  of 
the  sun's  immobility  was  looked  upon  as 
directly  opposed  to  the  express  language  of 
Scripture.  Although  Galileo  professed  to 
recant  in  order  to  obtain  his  liberation  from 
prison,  yet  the  system  daily  gained  ground, 
and  became  at  length  established.  Galileo 
besides  made  many  accurate  observations 
in  astronomy,  and  was  one  of  the  first  who, 
by  improving  the  new  invention  of  the 
telescope,  was  enabled  to  employ  them  in 
advancing  his  favourite  science.  By  this 
means  he  is  said  to  have  discovered  inequa- 
lities in  the  moon's  surface,  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites, and  the  ring  of  Saturn ;  so  likewise 
spots  in  the  surface  of  the  sun,  by  which 
he  found  out  the  revolution  of  that  luminary 
on  its  own  axis.  He  also  ascertained  what 
Pythagoras  had  conjectured,  that  the  milky 
way  and  the  nebulse  consisted  of  innumer- 
able small  stars.  Harriot  made  similar  dis- 
coveries in  England  at  the  same  time,  if  not 
earlier.  Hevelius,  by  means  of  his  obser- 
vations, formed  a  catalogue  of  fixed  stars 
much  more  complete  than  that  of  Tycho's. 
Huygens  and  Cassini  discovered  the  satel- 
lites of  Saturn,  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  de- 
monstrated, from  physical  considerations, 
the  laws  which  regulated  the  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  and  set  bounds  to  the 
planetary  orbs, determining  their  excursions 
from  the  sun,  and  their  nearest  approaches 
to  him ;  he  also  explained  the  principle 
which  occasioned  that  constant  and  regular 
proportion,  observed  both  by  the  primary 
and  secondary  planets  in  their  revolutions 
round  their  central  bodies,  and  their  dis- 
tances compared  with  their  periods.  His 
theory  of  the  moon,  grounded  on  the  laws 
of  gravity  and  mechanics,  has  also  been 
found  to  account  for  all  her  irregularities. 
Mr.  Flamstead  filled  the  ofiice  of  Astrono- 
mer Royal  at  Greenwich  from  1675  until 
his  death  in  1729,  during  which  time  he 
was  constantly  employed  in  making  obser- 
vations on  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens. 
As  the  result  of  his  labours  he  published  a 
catalogue  of  three  thousand  stars,  with  their 
places  to  the  year  1689;  also  new  solar 
tables,  and  a  theory  of  the  moon  according 
to  Horrox.  On  his  tables  was  constructed 
Newton's  theory  of  the  moon,  as  also  the 
tables  of  Dr.  Halley,  who  succeeded  him 
in  his  office  in  1729.    Besides  composing 


ASTRONOMY. 


tables  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  Dr. 
Halley  added  to  the  list  of  astronomical 
discoveries,  being  the  first  who  discovered 
the  acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean  motion. 
He  also  contrived  a  method  for  finding  her 
parallax  by  three  observed  places  of  a  solar 
eclipse,  and  showed  the  use  that  might  be 
made  of  the  approaching  transit  of  Venus 
in  1761,  in  determining  the  distance  of  the 
sun  from  the  earth,  and  recommended  the 
method  of  determining  the  longitude  by  the 
moon's  distance  from  the  sun  and  certain 
fixed  stars,  which  was  afterwards  success- 
fully adopted  by  Dr.  Maskelyne,  Astrono- 
mer Royal. 

It  was  about  this  period  that  the  question 
respecting  the  figure  of  the  earth  appears 
to  have  been  satisfactorily  decided,  and  in 
favour  of  Newton's  theory.  M.  Cassini 
concluded,  from  the  measurement  of  M. 
Picard,  that  it  was  an  oblong  spheroid, 
but  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  from  a  considera- 
tion of  the  laws  of  giavity,  and  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth,  had  determined  its 
figure  to  be  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid  flat- 
tened at  the  poles,  and  protuberant  at  the 
equator.  To  determine  this  point  Louis  XV. 
ordered  two  degrees  of  the  meridian  to  be 
measured,  one  under  or  near  the  equator, 
the  other  as  near  as  possible  to  the  poles ; 
the  expedition  to  the  north  being  intrusted 
to  Messrs.  Maupertuis  and  Clairaut,  tliat  to 
the  south  to  Messrs.  Condamine,  Bouguer, 
and  Don  UUoa.  Among  the  many  obser- 
vations made  by  those  who  went  on  this 
expedition,  it  was  found  by  those  who 
went  to  the  south  that  the  attraction  of  the 
mountain  of  Peru  had  a  sensible  efl:ect  on 
the  plumb  lines  of  their  large  instruments, 
which  is  supposed  to  afford  an  experimental 
proof  of  the  Newtonian  doctrine  of  gravita- 
tion. A  similar  observation  has  since  been 
made  by  Dr.  JMaskelyne  on  the  mountain 
Schehallien  in  Scotland. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  marked  by 
the  discoveries  of  Dr.  Bradley,  the  successor 
to  Dr.  Halley  as  Astronomer  Royal,  and 
Dr.  Herschel,  who  also  filled  the  same  post 
so  honourably  to  himself.  Dr.  Bradley  dis- 
covered the  aberration  of  light,  and  the 
mutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  besides  having 
formed  new  and  accurate  tables  of  the  mo- 
tions of  Jupiter's  satellites,  and  the  most 
correct  table  of  refractions  that  is  extant : 
also  with  a  large  transit  instrument,  and  a 
npw  mural  quadrant  of  eight  feet  radius, 
he  made  observations  for  determining  the 
places  of  ail  the  stars  in  the  British  cata- 
logue, and  likewise  nearly  a  hundred  and 
fifty  places  of  the  moon.  Dr.  Herschel,  by 
augmenting  the  powers  of  the  telescope 
beyond  any  thing  existing  before,  or  even 


thought  of,  succeeded  in  discovering  a  new 
planet, which  he  named  theGeorgiumSidus; 
he  also  discovered  two  additional  satellites 
to  Saturn,  besides  those  of  his  own  planet. 
Among  those  wlio  cultivated  the  higher 
branches  of  the  science,  and  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  researches.  Dr.  Maske- 
lyne,the  predecessor  of  Dr.  Herschel,  ranks 
the  foremost,  having  been  the  originator  of 
the  Nautical  Almanac,  and  brought  into  use 
the  lunar  method  of  determining  the  longi- 
tude, &c.  besides  making  tlie  requisite  ta- 
bles. The  theoretical  part  of  the  science 
was  indebted  to  Clairaut,  Euler,  Simpson, 
de  la  Caille,  Kiel,  Gregory,  Leadbetter,  for 
many  correct  observations  and  elucida- 
tions. The  practical  part  acquired  a  system- 
atic form  and  many  improvements  from  the 
pens  of  Lalande,  Ferguson,  Emerson,  Bon- 
nycastle,  Vince,  &c.  The  historians  of  the 
science  are  Weilder,  in  his  History  of 
Astronomy;  Baillie,  in  his  History  of  An- 
cient and  Modern  Astronomy  ;  Montuccla, 
in  his  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;  and 
Lalande,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Astro- 
nomj'. 

The  nineteenth  century  was  commenc- 
ed with  the  discovery  of  several  new 
planets,  namely  one  in  1801  by  M.  Piazzi 
of  Palermo,  named  Ceres,  between  Mars 
and  Jupiter  ;  another,  named  Pallas,  dis- 
covered March  28,  1802,  by  Dr.  Olbers, 
of  Bremen;  a  third,  named  Juno,  by  Mr. 
Harding,  at  the  observatory  at  Lilientlial, 
near  Bremen,  Sept.  1,  1804 ;  and  a  fourth, 
named  Vesta,  by  Dr.  Olbers,  March  29, 
1807.  These  three  last  have  also  been 
observed  to  revolve  between  Mars  and 
Jupiter. 

ASYMPTOTE  (in  Conic  Sections).  A 
line  which  approaches  nearer  to  another 
continually,  and  never  meets  it.  It  is  pro- 
perly applied  to  straight  lines  approaching 
a  curve. 

ASYNDETON.  A  figure  in  gi-ammar, 
when  conjunctions  are  omitted  in  a  sen- 
tence. 

ATCHIEVEMENT  (in  Heraldry ;  vul- 
garly called  Hatchment).  The  arms  of  any 
family,  with  the  ornaments  appendant 
thereto,  painted  on  canvass,  and  fixed  to 
the  dwelling  house  of  a  person  deceased, 
to  denote  his  death. 

ATE.  A  termination  of  chymical  words. 
See  Chymistry. 

A-TEMPO  (in  Music).  Italian  for  'in 
time,'  employed  when  the  regular  measure 
has  been  interrupted. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED.  A  formula  of 
faith  ascribed  to  St.  Athanasius,  which  has 
been  adopted  into  the  liturgy  of  the  church 
of  England, 


40 


ATM 


ATHEIST,  One  who  denies  the  existence 
of  God  or  a  providence. 

ATHWART.  A  sea  term,  signifying 
across  the  line  of  a  ship's  course. 

ATLAS  (in  Geography).  A  collection  of 
maps ;  also  the  name  of  a  chain  of  high 
mountains  in  Africa,  extending  from  the 
coast  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  border  of 
Egypt. 

ATLAS  (in  Mythology).  One  of  the 
Titans,  who  is  fabled  to  have  borne  heaven 
on  his  shoulders,  and  afterwards  to  have 
been  metamorphosed  into  the  mountain  in 
Africa  which  bears  his  name.  The  origin 
of  this  fable  is  ascribed  to  Atlas,  a  king  of 
Africa,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  ad- 
dicted to  the  study  of  astronomy.  He  is 
frequently  represented  bearing  a  globe  on 
his  shoulders. 


ATLAS  (in  Commerce).  A  satin  raanu- 
/actured  in  the  East  Indies. 

ATMOSPHERE.  That  region  of  the  air 
next  to  the  earth,  which  receives  the  va- 
pours and  exhalations,  and  is  terminated 
by  the  refraction  of  the  sun's  light;  some- 
times it  signifies  the  whole  ambient  air. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the 
whole  surface  of  the  earth  is  said  to  be 
equivalent  to  that  of  a  globe  of  lead  of 
sixty  miles  in  diameter.  Admitting  there- 
fore the  surface  of  a  man's  body  to  be  about 
15  square  feet,  and  the  pressure  about  15  lb. 
on  a  square  inch,  it  is  computed  that  a  man 
must  sustain  32,400  lb.,  or  nearly  14  tons 
and  a  half  weight ;  but  the  difference  in 
the  weight  sustained  in  different  states  of 
the  atmosphere  may  be  as  much  as  a  ton 
and  a  half.  The  density  of  the  atmosphere 
is  not  the  same  in  all  parts  ;  for  it  decreases 
in  proportion  to  the  height,  and,  as  is  sup- 
posed, in  this  proportion  :  that  the  density 
decreases  in  geometrical  progression  as  the 


A  TO 

heights  increase  ;  whence  the  comparative 
density  of  the  air  at  the  several  correspond- 
ing heights  has  been  calculated  as  follows : 

Height  in  Miles.             No.  of  times  rarer. 
0 1 

3  and  a  half 2 

7 4 

14 16 

21 64 

28 256 

35 1024 

and  pursuing  this  calculation,  it  has  been 
computed  that  a  cubic  inch  of  the  air  Ave 
breathe  would  be  so  much  rarefied  at  the 
height  of  500  miles,  that  it  would  fill  a 
sphere  equal  in  diameter  to  the  orbit  of 
Saturn.  The  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
likewise  diminishes  as  the  distance  from 
the  earth  increases,  though,  as  it  should 
seem,  in  a  less  ratio.  M.  de  Saussure 
found  that,  by  ascending  from  Geneva  to 
Chamouni,  a  height  of  347  toises,  Reau- 
mer's  thermometer  fell  4  degrees,2  minutes, 
and  that  on  ascending  from  thence  to  the 
top  of  Mount  Blanc,  1941  toises,  it  fell 
20  degrees,  7  minutes. 

ATMOSPHERE  (in  Electricity).  That 
sphere  which  surrounds  the  surface  of  elec- 
trified bodies,  and  is  formed  by  the  effluvia 
issuing  from  them. 

ATMOSPHERIC  STONES.  The  same 
as  Aerolites,  which  see. 

ATMOSPHERIC  TIDES.  Certain  pe- 
riodical changes  in  the  atmosphere,  similar 
to  those  of  the  ocean,  and  produced  from 
nearly  the  same  causes ;  of  this  description 
are  the  equinoctial  winds. 

ATOM.  A  part  or  particle  of  matter,  so 
small  as  not  to  admit  of  farther  subdivision. 
The  Epicureans  professed  to  account  for  the 
origin  and  formation  of  all  things  by  sup- 
posing that  these  atoms  were  endued  with 
gravity  and  motion,  and  thus  came  together 
into  the  different  organized  bodies  we  now 
see.  This  was  called  the  atomical  philoso- 
phy, which  was  adopted  by  the  skeptics 
and  infidels  of  those  times. 

ATOMIC  THEORY.  A  species  of  phi- 
losophy recently  introduced  into  chymistry, 
and  grounded  on  the  axiom  that '  chymical 
union  consists  in  the  combination  of  the 
atoms  of  bodies  with  each  other ;'  so  that 
when  two  bodies  chymically  unite  and  form 
a  third  body,  the  two  substances  united  are 
dispersed  everywhere  through  the  new 
compound.  Thus,  for  instance,  saltpetre  is 
a  compound  of  nitric  acid  and  potash ; 
and  if  we  examine  even  so  small  a  portion 
of  this  salt  as  the  hundredth  part  of  a  grain, 
it  will  be  found  to  be  compounded  of  these 
two  substances,  nitric  acid  and  potash;  and 


ATT 

if  any  part  of  it  wanted  these  constituents, 
it  could  not  be  saltpetre. 

ATROPA,  or  Deadly  Nightshade.  A 
genus  of  plantSjOne  speciesof  vvhich,namely 
the  Atropa  Belladonna,  is  remarkable  for 
bearing  berries  of  a  fine  black  colour, 
which  are  highly  poisonous.  It  grows  wild 
in  England,  and  has  caused  the  death  of 
many  children  who  have  eaten  incautiously 
of  its  berries.    The  root  is  perennial. 

ATROPHY.  A  disease,  a  kind  of  con- 
sumption, where  the  body  is  not  nourished 
by  food,  but  decays  and  wastes  away  in- 
sensibly. 

ATROPOS.  One  of  the  three  destinies, 
who,  as  the  poets  feign,  cuts  the  thread  of 
life. 

ATTACHMENT  (in  Law).  A  laying  on 
of  hands,  or  taking  by  virtue  of  a  precept ; 
it  differs  from  an  arrest,  inasmuch  as  it 
lays  hold  of  the  goods,  as  well  as  the  per- 
son ;  and  also  from  a  distress,  which  seizes 
on  lands,  tenements,  and  goods ;  but  an 
attachment  on  the  goods  and  body. 

ATTACK.  A  military  term ;  a  general 
assault  or  onset,  made  to  gain  a  port  or 
any  particular  point. 

ATTAINDER  (in  Law).  The  corruption 
of  blood,  which  follows  from  being  convict- 
ed of  treason  or  felony.  A  Bill  of  Attainder 
is  a  bill  brought  into  parliament  for  attaint- 
ing persons  convicted  of  high  treason.  Such 
bills  have  been  passed  occasionally  from 
the  reign  of  Charles  II. 

ATTIC  (in  Architecture).  A  sort  of  build- 
ing, in  which  there  is  no  roof  or  covering 
to  be  seen,  as  was  usual  in  the  houses  of 
the  Athenians.  The  attic,  or  attic  story,  is 
the  upper  story  of  a  house. 

ATTITUDE  (in  Painting).  The  gesture 
of  a  figure,  serving  to  express  the  action 
and  sentiments  of  the  person  represented. 

ATTORNEY.  One  who  is  appointed  by 
another  to  do  a  thing  in  his  absence.  A 
public  attorney  is  one  who  acts  in  the 
courts  of  law,  and  is  a  lawyer  by  profes- 
sion :  a  private  attorney  acts  upon  particu- 
lar occasions,  and  is  authorized  by  a  letter 
of  attorney,  which  gives  one  full  power  to 
act  for  another. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL.  A  gi-eat  law 
officer,  appointed  to  manage  all  affairs  of 
the  state,  either  in  criminal  prosecutions 
or  otherwise. 

ATTRACTION.  In  a  general  sense,  the 
power  or  principle  by  which  bodies  mutu- 
ally tend  towards  each  other,  which  varies 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  bodies  at- 
tracted, and  the  circumstances  under  which 
this  attraction  takes  place  ;  whence  attrac- 
tion is  distinguished  into  the  Attraction  of 
Cohesion,  Attraction  of  Gravitation,  Attrac- 


ATT 


41 


tion  of  Electricity,  Attraction  of  Magnetism, 
and  Chymical  Attraction. 

The  Attraction  of  Cohesion  is  that  by 
which  the  minute  particles  of  bodies  are 
held  together. 

Attraction  of  Gravitation  is  the  prin- 
ciple by  which  bodies  at  a  distance  tend 
to  each  other ;  on  this  principle  it  is  that 
two  leaden  balls,  having  each  a  smooth 
surface,  if  compressed  strongly  together, 
will  cohere  almost  as  strongly  as  if  united 
by  fusion  ;  and  even  two  plates  of  glass,  if 
the  surfaces  are  dry  and  even,  will  cohere 
so  as  to  require  a  certain  force  to  separate 
them  ;  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  universal 
principle  in  nature.  By  gravitation  a  stone 
and  all  heavy  bodies,  if  let  fall  from  a  height, 
are  supposed  to  drop  to  the  earth.  All  ce- 
lestial bodies  are  supposed  to  have  not  only 
an  attraction  or  gi-avitation  towards  their 
proper  centres,  but  that  they  mutually  at- 
tract each  other  within  their  sphere.  The 
planets  tend  towards  the  sun  and  towards 
each  other,  as  the  sun  does  towards  them. 
The  satellites  of  Jupiter  tend  towards  Jupi- 
ter, as  Jupiter  does  towards  his  satellites ; 
and  the  same  with  the  satellites  of  Saturn 
and  of  Uranus.  The  earth  and  moon  tend 
likewise  reciprocally  towards  each.  By 
this  same  principle  of  gravity  heavenly 
bodies  are  kept  in  their  orbits,  and  terres- 
trial bodies  tend,as  is  supposed,  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earth.  From  this  attraction 
all  the  motion,  and  consequently  all  the 
changes  in  the  universe,  are  supposed  to 
arise,  the  rains  fall,  rivers  glide,  ocean 
swells,  projectiles  are  directed,  and  the  air 
presses  upon  different  bodies. 

Attraction  of  Magnetism  is  the  parti- 
cular tendency  of  certain  bodies  to  each 
other,  as  that  of  the  magnet,  which  attracts 
iron  to  itself.  This  is  only  a  sort  of  attrac- 
tion of  gravitation,  acting  on  particular 
substances. 

Attraction  of  Electricit  vis  the  prin- 
ciple by  which  bodies,  when  excited  by 
friction,  tend  towards  each  other.  This 
species  of  attraction  agrees  with  that  of 
gravitation  in  the  property  of  acting  upon 
bodies  at  a  distance ;  but  it  differs  from  it 
inasmuch  as  these  bodies  require  to  be  in  a 
particular  state  in  order  to  be  acted  upon, 

Chymical  Attraction  is  that  disposition 
which  some  bodies  in  solution  indicate  to 
unite  with  some  substances  in  preference 
to  others.  This  is  otherwise  called  affinity, 
and  is  considered  as  a  sort  of  attraction  of 
cohesion,  acting  in  an  unresisting  medium, 
as  it  applies  peculiarly  to  such  bodies  as,  in 
solution,  indicate  a  disposition  to  unite  with 
some  substances  in  preference  to  others. 

ATTRIBUTES,  Those  properties  or  per- 


42 


AVE 


fections  which  are  attributed  to  the  Divine 
Being  only,  as  his  self-existence,  immuta- 
bility, eternity,  &c. 

ATTRIBUTES  (in  Logic).  The  predi- 
cates of  any  subject,  or  that  which  may  be 
affirmed  or  denied  of  a  thing,  as  '  man  is 
an  animal,'  '  man  is  not  a  brute.' 

ATTRIBUTES  (in  Painting  and  Sculp- 
ture). Symbols  added  to  certain  figures,  to 
denote  their  office  or  character,  as  the  eagle 
added  to  the  figure  of  Jupiter,  to  denote 
his  power ;  a  club  to  Hercules,  to  denote 
his  prowess,  &c. 

AVALANCHES.  A  name  given  in  Savoy 
and  Switzerland  to  the  masses  of  snow, 
which  break  off  from  the  mountains  with 
a  noise  like  thunder,  and  sometimes  over- 
vv'helm  whole  villages. 

AVAST.  A  term  of  command  at  sea, 
signifying,  hold,  stop,  stay. 

AUCTION.  A  public  sale  of  goods  by 
persons  called  auctioneers,who  are  licensed 
to  dispose  of  goods  to  the  highest  bidder 
on  certain  conditions,  called  the  conditions 
of  sale.  A  mock  auction  is  that  which  is 
conducted  by  unlicensed  persons  for  fraud- 
ulent purposes. 

AUDIENCE.  The  ceremony  of  admit- 
ting ambassadors  and  public  ministers  to 
a  hearing  at  court. 

AUDIENCE  COURT  (in  Law).  An  ec- 
clesiastical court  appertaining  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury. 

AUDIT.  A  regular  examination  of  ac- 
counts by  persons  duly  appointed. 

AUDITOR.  An  officer  of  any  public 
body,  appointed  to  examine  accounts. 

AVE-MARIA.  A  prayer  used  by  the 
Romish  church,  whicli  was  so  called  be- 
cause it  consists  of  the  first  words  addres- 
sed by  the  angel  Gabriel  in  his  salutation 
to  the  Virgin  Mary. 

AVENUE.  A  walk  planted  on  each  side 
with  trees  before  a  house,  or  as  a  passage 
to  any  place. 

AVERAGE  (in  Commerce).  The  damage 
which  a  vessel,  with  the  goods  or  loading, 
sustains  from  the  time  of  its  departure  to 
its  return  ;  also  the  charges  or  contribution 
towards  defraying  such  damages,  and  the 
quota  or  proportion  which  each  merchant 
or  proprietor  is  adjudged,  upon  a  reason- 
able estimate,  to  contribute  to  a  common 
average. 

AVES.  Birds ;  the  second  class  of  ani- 
mals in  the  Linnaean  system.  This  class  of 
animals  is  distinguished  from  all  others  Ity 
several  peculiarities  in  their  form,  having 
feathers  for  their  covering,  two  feet,  and 
two  wings  formed  for  flight.  They  have, 
for  the  most  part,  the  mandible  protracted 
and  naked,  but  are  without  external  ears, 


AUR 

lips,  teeth,  scrotum,  womb,  urinary  vessel, 
or  bladder,  epiglotis,  corpus  callosum,  or 
its  fornix  and  diaphragm.  They  are  divided 
in  the  Linnaan  system  into  six  orders : 
namely,  Accipitres,  or  the  falcon  and  eagle 
kind  ;  Pics,  the  pies ;  Anseres,  the  goose 
and  duck  kind ;  Grallse,  the  crane  kind ; 
Gallinse,  the  poultry  or  domestic  fowl  3  and 
Passeres,  the  sparrow  and  finch  kind,  with 
all  the  smaller  birds. 

AUGER,  A  wimble,  or  tool  for  boring. 

AUGMENT  (in  Grammar).  A  letter  or 
syllable  added  or  changed  in  Greek  verbs. 

AUGMENTATION  (in  Heraldry).  A 
particular  mark  of  honour  borne  in  an 
escutcheon,  as  the  hand  in  the  arms  of 
baronets. 

AUGURY.  The  practice  of  divining  by 
the  flight  of  birds  or  from  inspecting  their 
entrails.  The  augurs  were  a  principal 
order  of  priests  among  the  Romans. 

AUGUST.  The  eighth  month  of  the  year, 
called  after  the  emperor  Augustus  Caesar, 
who  entered  his  second  consulship  in  that 
month,  after  the  Actian  victory. 

AUGUSTAN  CONFESSION.  A  con- 
fession or  declaration  of  Christian  faith 
made  by  the  Protestants  at  Augusta  or 
Augsburg  in  Germany,  a.  d.  1550. 

AUGUSTINES,  or  Austin  Friars.  A 
religious  order,  so  called  from  St.  Augustin 
their  founder.  They  were  very  numerous 
in  England  before  the  Reformation. 

AVIARY.  A  place  set  apart  for  feeding 
and  propagating  birds. 

AUK.  A  bird,  otherwise  called  Penguin 
or  Razorbill,  an  inhabitant  of  the  arctic  or 
northern  seas. 


AVOIRDUPOIS.  A  sort  of  weight  used 
in  England,  of  which  the  pound  consists  of 
16  ounces.  The  proportion  of  a  pound 
avoirdupois  to  a  i)ound  troy  is  as  17  to  14. 

AURICLE.  Tliat  part  of  the  ear  which 
is  prominent  from  the  head.  The  auricles 
of  the  heart  are  appendages  at  the  base  of 
the  heart,  which  are  distinguished  into 
right  and  left,  the  former  of  which  is  pla- 


AUT 

ced  in  the  anterior,  the  latter  in  the  hinder 
part.  These  are  muscular  bags,  which 
move  regularly  with  the  heart,  but  in  an 
inverted  order. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION.  A  mode 
of  confession  among  Roman  Catholics,  by 
whispering  in  the  ears  of  their  fathers, 
confessors,  or  priests. 

AURORA  BOREALIS,  i.  e.  the  North- 
ern Twilight.  An  extraordinarj^  meteor 
or  luminous  appearance  visible  in  the  night 
time  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  heavens. 
The  aurora  borealis  appears  frequently  in 
the  form  of  an  arch,  chiefly  in  the  spring 
and  autumn,  after  a  dry  year.  This  kind 
of  meteor  is  more  rarely  to  be  seen,  the 
nearer  we  approach  the  equator,  but  in 
the  polar  regions  it  is  very  constant  and 
brilliant.  In  the  Shetland  Isles  these  lights 
are  called  '  the  merry  dancers.' 

AURUM  MUSICUM,  or  Mosaicum.  A 
combination  of  tin  and  sulphur,  used  by 
statuaries  and  painters,  for  giving  a  gold 
colour  to  their  figures. 

AUSPICES.  A  kind  of  soothsaying 
among  the  Romans,  by  the  flight  or  sing- 
ing of  birds. 

AUTO  DA  FE,  or  An  Act  of  Faith. 
The  solemn  act  of  punishing  heretics,  for- 
merly in  use  among  the  Spaniards.  Upon 
a  Sunday  or  festival,  the  offender  being 
brought  from  prison  to  church,  dressed  in 
a  frightful  manner,  attended  divine  service, 
after  which  he  was  delivered  over  to  the 
civil  power  to  be  burnt. 

AUTOGRAPH.  An  epithet  applied  to 
whatever  is  written  in  a  person's  own  hand 
writing,  as  an  autograph  letter,  a  letter  of 
one's  own  writing. 

AUTOMATON.  A  self-moving  engine, 
more  particularly  the  figure  of  any  animal 
having  the  principle  of  motion  within  itself 
by  means  of  wheels,  springs,  and  weights,- 
tliose  in  tlie  figure  of  a  man  are  called 
androides,  as  the  mechanical  chess-player, 
&c.  (See  Androides);  those  of  animals  are 
properly  called  automata.  It  is  said  that 
Archytas  of  Tarentura,  400  years  before 
Christ,  made  a  wooden  pigeon  that  could 
fly;  and  that  Archimedes  made  similar 
automata.  Regiomontanus  made  a  wooden 
eagle,  that  flew  forth  from  the  city,  met  the 
emperor,  saluted  him,  and  returned  ;  also 
an  iron  fly',  which  flew  out  of  his  hand  at 
a  feast,and  returned  again,after  flying  about 
the  room.  Dr.  Hooke  made  the  model  of 
a  flying  chariot,  capable  of  supporting  itself 
in  the  air.  M.  Vaucanson  made  a  figure 
that  played  on  the  flute ;  also  a  duck  capable 
of  eating,  drinking,  and  imitating  exactly 
the  voice  of  a  natural  one  ;  and,  what  is 


A  XI 


43 


still  more  surprising,  the  food  it  swallowed 
was  evacuated  in  a  digested  state  ;  also  the 
wings,  viscera,  and  bones  were  formed  so 
as  strongly  to  resemble  those  of  a  living 
duck.  M.  le  Droz,  of  la  Chaux  de  Fonds, 
presented  a  clock  to  the  king  of  Spain, 
which  had,  amongother  curiosities,  a  sheep 
that  made  a  bleating  noise,  and  a  dog 
watching  a  basket,  that  snarled  and  barked 
when  any  one  offered  to  take  it  away. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  automata 
ever  invented,  was  that  of  the  Chess  Player, 
constructed  in  Germany  by  Baron  Kemp- 
lin,  and  since  exhibited  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  and  America,  by  Mr.  Maelzel. 
It  represented  the  figure  of  a  Turk,  who 
made  the  moves  on  the  chess-board  with 
its  hand,  and  played  the  game  with  so 
nmch  skill  that  it  was  long  thought  never 
to  have  been  beaten.  It  was  however  fre- 
quently beaten  in  America,  and  is  now  gen- 
erally supposed  to  have  concealed  a  person 
of  small  size  within  tlie  engine,  which 
directed  the  moves.  The  ingenuity  of 
this  contrivance,  therefore,  lay  rather  in 
the  mode  of  concealing  the  real  player,  tlian 
in  the  mechanism. 

AUTUMN.  The  third  season  in  the  year, 
which  begins,  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
on  the  day  when  the  sun  enters  Libra,  that 
is,  on  the  22d  of  September.  It  termi- 
nates about  the  same  day  in  December, 
when  the  winter  commences. 

AUTUMNAL  SIGNS.  The  three  signs, 
Libra,  Scorpio,  and  Sagittarius,  through 
which  the  sun  passes  during  the  autumn 
season. 

AUXILIARY  VERBS  (in  Grammar). 
Such  verbs  as  help  to  form  or  conjugate 
others,  as,  in  English,  the  verbs  '  to  have,' 
and  '  to  be.' 

AWL.  A  shoemaker's  tool,  v/ith  which 
holes  are  bored  in  the  leather,  for  the  ad- 
mission of  the  thread  in  stitching  and  sew- 
ing. The  blade  of  the  awl  is  mostly  a  little 
flattened  and  bent. 


^ 


AWNING.  A  piece  of  tarpaulin  or  sail, 
&c.  hung  about  the  decks  or  any  other  part 
of  a  vessel,  to  screen  persons  from  the  sun 
and  rain. 

AXIOM.  A  self-evident  proposition,  or 
one  requiring  no  proof,  as  that  '  the  whole 
is  greater  than  the  part.' 

AXIS  (in  Geometry).  A  right  line  con- 
ceived to  be  drawn  from  the  vertex  of  a 
figure  to  the  middle  of  the  base.  It  is  so 
called  because  the  figure,    by  revolving 


44 


AZI 


round  this  line,  is  conceived  to  generate  a 
solid.  The  axis  of  a  circle  is  the  same  as 
the  diameter. 

AXIS  (in  Mechanics).  A  certain  line, 
about  which  a  body  may  move,  as  the  axis 
of  a  balance,  &c. 

AXIS  IN  PERITROCHIO,  or.  Wheel 
AND  Axle.  One  of  the  five  mechanical  pow- 
ers or  simple  machines,  which  is  principally 
used  in  the  raising  of  water. 


AXIS  (in  Astronomy),  or  Axis  of  the 
Sphere.  An  imaginary  right  line  con- 
ceived to  pass  through  the  centre  of  the 
earth  from  one  pole  to  the  other.  The  sun 
and  all  the  planets  are  each  conceived  to 
revolve  about  their  respective  axes.  That 
of  the  earth  during  its  revolution  round 
the  sun  remains  parallel  to  itself,  inclined 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  in  an  angle  of 
66  degrees  and  a  half. 

AXLE,  or  Axle-tree.  The  piece  of  wood 
which  passes  through  the  middle  of  any 
wheel,  and  on  which  it  turns. 

AZIMUTH.  An  arch  of  the  horizon,  in- 
tercepted between  the  meridian  of  the  place 
and  the  azimuth  or  vertical  circle  passing 
through  the  centre  of  the  object. 

AZIMUTH  CIRCLES,  or  Vertical 
Circles.  Imaginaiy  great  circles  passing 
through  the  zenith  and  nadir,  and  cutting 
the  horizon  at  right  angles. 


AZU 

AZIMUTH  COMPASS.  An  instrument 
for  finding  in  a  more  accurate  manner  than 
by  the  common  sea  compass,  the  magnetical 
amplitude  or  azimuth  of  the  sun  or  stars 

AZIMUTH,  Magnetical.  An  arc  of  the 
horizon,  intercepted  between  the  vertical 
circle  passing  through  the  centre  of  any 
heavenly  body  and  the  magnetical  me- 
ridian. 

AZOTE,  or  Nitrogen  (in  Chymistry). 
A  simple  substance,  which,  though  not  per- 
ceptible to  the  senses,  is  known  to  exist, 
by  observing  its  passage  from  one  combi- 
nation to  another,  and  tracing  the  laws  of 
chymical  attraction  to  which  it  is  subject. 
It  is  the  radical  principle  of  atmospheric 
air,  which  contains  nearly  four-fifths  of  it 
in  bulk,  and  three-fourths  in  weight ;  it  also 
forms  a  part  of  nitric  acid,  ammoniac,  and 
other  substances.  Its  most  remarkable  com- 
bination is  that  which  it  enters  into  with 
light  and  caloric,  so  as  to  form  the  com- 
pound well  known  by  the  name  of  nitrogen 
gas  or  azotic  gas. 

AZURE  (among  Painters).  The  beauti- 
ful blue  colour,  with  a  greenish  cast,  pre- 
pared from  the  Lapis  Lazuli,  generally 
called  Ultramarine. 

AZURE  (in  Heraldry).  The  blue  colour 
in  the  coats  of  arms  of  all  persons  under 
the  degree  of  barons.    In  engraving,  the 


azure  is  represented  by  horizontal  lines 
across  the  shield  from  side  to  side. 


BAC 


BAI 


45 


B. 


B,  the  second  letter  of  the  alphabet,  is  often 
used  as  an  abbreviation  for  Bachelor,  as 
B.  A.  Bachelor  of  Arts,  B.  D.  Bachelor  of 
Divinity,  &c.  B  as  a  numeral  among  the 
Romans  stood  for  300,  and  with  a  dash  over 
it  thus,  B,  for  3000.  B,  in  chronology, 
stands  for  one  of  the  Dominical  letters,  and 
in  music  for  the  seventh  note  in  the  gamut. 

BAAL.  A  god  of  the  Phoenicians  and 
Canaanites,  which  is  supposed  to  represent 
the  sun,  and  to  be  the  same  as  the  Bel  or 
Belus  of  the  Greeks. 

BABOON.  A  large  kind  of  ape  with  a 
short  tail,  which  forms  one  division  of  tlie 
genus  Simla  in  the  LinnEean  system. 


BACCHANALIANS.  Those  who  per- 
formed the  rites  at  the  Bacchanals  in  hon- 
our of  Bacchus. 

BACCHANALS.  A  festival  at  Rome  in 
honour  of  Bacchus,  which,  for  their  licen- 
tiousness, were  suppressed  by  a  solemn 
decree  of  the  senate. 

BACCHUS.  The  god  of  wine  in  the 
heathen  mythology,  was  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Semele.  He  was  the  Osiris  of  the 
Egyptians,  from  whom  the  fables  respecting 
him  were  taken  by  the  Greeks. 

BACCIFER^.  Beriy-bearing  plants. 

BACHELOR.  One  of  the  first  degrees 
in  the  liberal  arts  conferred  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

BACKGAMMON.  A  particular  game 
played  by  two  persons  with  the  help  of 
dice,  on  a  board  or  table  divided  into  parts, 
whereon  are  twenty-four  black  and  white 
spaces  called  points. 

BACKPAINTING.  The  method  of 
painting  mezzotinto  prints  pasted  on  glass, 
with  oil  colours. 

BACKSTAFF.  An  instrument  formerly 
used  in  taking  the  sun's  altitude.  It  was 
so  called  because  the  back  of  the  observer 
is  turned  towards  the  sun  when  he  makes 


the  observation.  This  quadrant  is  noW 
superseded  by  more  accurate  instruments. 

BADGE.  An  exterior  ornament  of  a  coat 
of  arms,  originally  worn  by  the  retainers  or 
attendants  of  the  nobility.  It  fell  into  dis- 
use in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

BADGER.  An  animal  ranked  by  Lin- 
nteus  under  the  Bear  tribe,  which  lives  in 
holes  by  the  sides  of  rivers,  or  in  the  clefts 
of  rocks.  It  feeds  on  insects  or  berries, 
burrows  during  v/inter,  hunts  by  night,  and 
lies  concealed  by  day. 


BAG  (in  Commerce).  A  determinate 
quantity  of  goods  contained  in  a  bag,  vary- 
ing in  size,  according  to  the  article  or  the 
place,  from  three  to  four  hundred  weiglit, 

BAGNIO.  Italian  for  a  bathing  house, 
with  conveniences  for  bathing,  sweating, 
and  otherwise  cleansing  the  body. 

BAGPIPE.  A  favourite  wind  instrument 
among  the  Highlanders.  It  consists  of  two 
parts  3  namely,  a  leathern  bag,  and  pipes 
for  admitting  and  ejecting  the  air.  One  of 
the  pipes  called  the  drone,  with  which  the 
base  part  is  played,  never  varies  its  tone. 
The  third  pipe  is  played  on  by  compressing 
the  bag  under  the  arm. 

BAIL  (in  Law).  Sureties  given  for  the 
appearance,  when  required,  of  a  person  in 
custody.  Common  Bail  is  in  common  con- 
cernment, where  any  sureties  may  be  ta- 
ken; but  Special  Bail  is  in  matters  of  gi-eater 
importance,  where  special  surety  of  two  or 
more  persons  must  be  taken  according  to 
the  value  of  the  cause. 

BAILEE  (in  Law).  The  person  to  whom 
the  goods  of  the  one  that  is  bailed  are  de- 
livered. 

BAILIFF.  A  subordinate  magistrate  or 
officer  appointed  within  a  particular  pro- 
vince or  district,  as  bailiffs  of  hundreds, 
liberties,  courts  baron,  &c.  Sheriffs'  bailiffs 
are  officers  appointed  by  the  sheriff  to  ex- 
ecute writs.  These,  being  bound  in  bond 
to  the  sheriff  for  the  due  execution  of  their 


46 


BAL 


office,  are  called  bound  bailiffs,  vulgarly 
bum-bailiffs. 

BAILIWICK.  The  hundred  or  any  other 

district  wherein  a  bailiff  has  a  jurisdiction. 

BAILMENT.  The  delivery  of  goods  in 

trust  upon  a  contract  expressed  or  implied. 

BAL^NA.  The  whale  j  a  genus  of  the 
class  Mammalia,  and  of  the  order  Ceti. 

BALANCE.  One  of  the  simple  powers 
in  mechanics  which  serves  to  find  out  the 
equality  or  difference  of  weight  in  heavy 
bodies.  It  is  a  peculiar  application  of  the 
lever  to  this  particular  purpose.  The  com- 
mon balance  consists  of  a  lever  with  equal 
arms,  at  the  extremity  of  each  of  which  is 
attached  a  scale.  Before  loading  it  with 
any  weights,  the  whole  ought  to  preserve 
a  perfect  equilibrium ;  and  this  equilibrium 
must  arise  from  an  exact  distribution  of  the 
weight  of  each  arm  and  scale  of  the  balance, 
as  well  as  from  the  equal  length  of  the 
former ;  for  on  this  depends  the  correctness 
of  its  action.  The  Assay-Balance  is  a  very 
delicate  kind  of  balance,  used  for  determin- 
ing the  exact  weight  of  minute  bodies.  It 
is  so  called  because  it  is  particularly  used 
in  the  different  processes  of  assaying ;  it  is 
also  frequently  used  in  chymical  analysis. 
Balances  also  vary  in  their  form,as  the  Bent- 
Lever  Balance,  the  Compound  Balance, 
consisting  of  a  combination  of  balances 
used  in  weighing  very  heavy  bodies ;  also 
the  Danish  Balance,  a  kind  of  steel-yard. 

BALANCE  OF  TRADE.  A  term  in 
commerce,  denoting  the  equality  between 
the  value  of  the  commodities  bought  of 
foreigners,  and  the  value  of  the  native  pro- 
ductions transported  into  other  countries. 
Balance  in  a  merchant's  account  is  when 
the  debtor  and  creditor  account  are  made 
even. 

BALE  (in  Commerce).  A  quantity  of 
merchandise  packed  up  in  cloth.  A  bale 
of  cotton  yarn  is  from  three  to  four  hun- 
dred weight ;  of  raw  silk,  from  one  to  four 
hundred. 

BALISTER,  or  File-Fish.  A  fish  so 
called  from  the  resemblance  of  its  back- 
bone to  a  file.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
brilliancy  of  its  colours. 

BALL  AND  SOCKET.  An  instrument 
of  brass  with  a  perpetual  screw,  construc- 
ted to  move  in  any  direction.  It  is  used  in 
the  management  of  surveyirig,  and  astro- 
nomical instruments. 

BALLAST.  Gravel,  sand, or  any  weighty 
matter,  put  into  a  ship's  hold,  to  poise  her 
and  bringher  sufficiently  low  in  the  water. 

BALLET.  A  theatrical  representation, 
consisting  of  music  and  dancing. 

BALLET-MASTER.  The  artist  who  re- 


BAL 

gulates  the  performance  and  representa- 
tion of  the  ballet. 

BALLISTA.  A  warlike  engine  used  by 
the  ancients  in  besieging  cities,  to  throw 
large  stones,  darts,  and  javelins. 


BALLOON.  A  globe  commonly  made 
of  lutestring,  and  covered  with  an  elastic 
varnish,  to  render  the  substance  impervious 
by  the  gas.  When  filled  with  hydrogen  gas, 
from  ten  to  thirteen  times  lighter  than  at- 
mospheric air,  the  balloon  will  ascend,  and 
convey  heavy  bodies  suspended  to  it.  The 
weight  which  the  balloon  is  capable  of 
raising  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  diameter 
of  the  sphere.  From  experiments  it  has  been 
found  that  a  cubic  foot  of  hydrogen  gas 
will  raise  about  one  ounce  avoirdupois. 


BALLOT.  A  little  ball ;  also  the  manner 
of  giving  votes  at  an  election  by  putting 
little  balls,  black  or  white,  into  a  box. 

BALLUSTRADE,  A  series  or  row  of 
ballusters  or  small  pillars,  serving  as  a 
guard  or  fence  to  balconies  or  staircases. 

BALM,  or  BALSAM.  A  liquid  resin  of 
a  whitish  or  yellow  colour,  a  fragrant  smell, 
and  a  penetrating  aromatic  taste.  It  flows 
from  the  balsam  tree,  and  is  much  used  by 
the  females  in  Turkey  as  a  cosmetic. 


BAN 

BALM,  or  Bx\LM  MINT.  A  perennial, 
so  called  from  the  fragrance  of  its  smell, 
which  resembles  that  of  balsam. 

BALSAM  TREE.  A  tree  growing  in 
Arabia  and  Egypt,  the  bark  of  which  jdelds 
the  balm  or  balsam  abovementioned. 

BALSAMICS.  Softening,  healing,  and 
cleansing  medicines. 

BxlMBOO,  or  BAMBU.  An  Indian  reed 
with  larger  knots  than  the  common  reed. 
The  poorer  inhabitants  of  India  make  their 
dwellings  of  this  reed  :  paper  is  also  made 
of  the  same  material,  by  bruising  it  and 
steeping  it  in  water  until  it  be  reduced  to 
a  paste. 

BANANA.  See  Plantain  Tree. 

BAND  (in  Architecture).  Any  flat,  low 
member  or  moulding,  which  is  broad  but 
not  deep. 

BANDANA  HANDKERCHIEFS.  A 
kind  of  silk  handkerchiefs  manufactured, 
in  India,  of  silk  and  cotton. 

BANDEROLE.  A  sea  term  for  a  little 
flag  in  form  of  a  gridiron,  that  used  to  be 
hung  on  the  masts  of  vessels. 

BAND  OF  PENSIONERS.  A  parti- 
cular company  of  gentlemen  bearing  hal- 
berds, and  attending  upon  the  person  of 
the  king  upon  solemn  occasions. 

BANDITTI.  A  band  of  outlawed  rob- 
bers, most  frequent  in  Italy. 

BANDOLEER,  or  BANDOLIER.  A 
large  leathern  belt,  formerly  worn  over  the 
right  shoulder,  and  hanging  under  the  left 
arm,  to  carry  some  warlike  weapon. 

BANDROL.  A  little  flag  or  streamer. 

BANDS.  Two  pieces  of  iron  nailed  upon 
the  bows  of  the  saddle,  to  hold  them  tight. 

BANERET.  A  knight  made  in  the  field, 
whose  standard  was  converted  into  a  ban- 
ner which  he  could  display  in  the  king's 
army  as  the  barons  did. 

BANIAN  TREE  See  Indian  Fig. 

BANISHMENT.  A  quitting  the  realm, 
either  voluntarily,  as  by  abjuration  ;  or 
compulsorily,  as  by  transportation. 

BANK  (in  Commerce).  An  establishment 
for  the  receiving  of  moneys  and  letting 
them  out  on  interest.  Banks  are  general- 
ly formed  by  a  number  of  moneyed  per- 
sons, who,  for  carrying  on  the  business  of 
negotiating  bills  of  exchange,  and  dealing 
in  bullion,  &c.  advance  a  considerable  sum 
as  a  joint  capital.  The  first  bank  was  es- 
tablished at  Venice  about  1157,  and  the 
name  of  Banco  was  given  to  it  in  Italian, 
from  the  bench  which  the  money-changers 
or  bankers  used  to  sit  upon  in  their  courses 
or  exchanges.  The  bank  of  Genoa  was 
established  in  1345;  that  of  v^msterdam,  in 
1609  ;  that  of  Hamburg,  in  1619  ;  that  of 
Rotterdam,  in  1635.    The  Bank  of  Eng- 


BAN 


47 


land,  one  of  the  last,  but  at  present  the 
greatest  of  its  kind,  was  established  by 
charter  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary, 
into  a  corporate  body,  by  the  title  of  the 
Governor  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of 
England.  Its  notes  form  the  currency  of 
the  kingdom  to  a  certain  extent,  and 
amount  to  between  twenty  and  thirty  mil- 
lions. The  Bank  of  England  is  also  the 
Government  Bank,  and  pays  the  interest 
of  the  national  debt. 

Bx\NKER.  A  person  who  traffics  in 
money,  by  receiving  the  current  cash  of 
individuals  free  of  interest,  and  negotiat- 
ing with  it,  either  in  the  discount  of  bills 
or  the  advance  of  money  on  sufficient  se- 
curities. 

BANKING-HOUSE.  Any  mercantile 
house  which  carries  on  the  business  of  a 
private  banker,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Bank,  by  which  is  understood  the  Bank 
of  England. 

BANKRUPT.  A  trader  who  fails  or 
breaks,  so  as  to  be  unable  to  carry  on  his 
business  or  pay  his  debts.  In  Law,  a  bank- 
rupt is  one  who  has  cuinmitted  an  act  of 
bankruptcy,  so  as  to  bring  him  under  the 
protection  of  the  bankrupt  laws,  whicli  is 
allowed  to  none  but  actual  traders,  or  such 
as  buy  and  sell,  and  gain  a  livelihood  by 
so  doing.  It  is  derived  from  bancum,  a 
bench,  and  rumpere,  to  break,  because  the 
bench  of  the  Italian  banker  or  money- 
changer is  said  to  have  been  broken  by 
way  of  infamy  when  he  failed. 

BANNER.  A  flag  or  standard  at  the 
end  of  a  lance. 

BANNIANS.  A  religious  sect  among 
the  Hindoos,  who  believe  in  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls,  and  therefore  abstain  from 
eating  the  flesh  of  animals,  which  they 
carefully  preserve.  They  are  so  cautious 
of  having  communication  with  any  but 
their  own  caste,  that  if  any  of  another  na- 
tion or  tribe  has  drunk  out  of  or  touched 
their  cup,  they  break  it. 

BANNOCK.  A  sort  of  oaten  cake  in 
the  north  of  England,  baked  in  the  embers 
or  on  a  hot  stone. 

BANNS  OF  MATRIMONY.  The  pub- 
lishing of  marriage  contracts  in  the  church 
before  the  performance  of  the  marriage 
ceremony.  By  the  ordinances  of  the 
church,  when  persons  are  to  be  married, 
the  banns  of  matrimony  shall  be  published 
in  the  church  where  they  dwell  three 
several  Sundays  or  holydays  in  the  time 
of  Divine  Service  ;  and  if,  at  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  their  marriage,  any  man  do 
allege  any  impediment  or  precontract, 
consanguinity  or  affinity,  want  of  parent's 
consent,  infancy,  4'c.  why  they  should 


48 


BAR 


not  be  married  (and  become  bound  with 
sureties  to  prove  tills  allegation),  then  the 
solemnization  must  be  deferred  until  the 
truth  is  tried. 

BANTAM.  The  name  of  a  domestic 
fowl  of  the  hen  tribe,  having  short  legs, 
and  the  shanks  well  feathered. 


BAPTISM.  Asaci-amentofthe  Christian 
church,  administered  either  by  immersion, 
that  is,  dipping  in  water,  or  by  sprinkling 
with  water. 

BAPTISTS.  A  denomination  of  profess- 
ing Christians,  who  practice  adult  baptism 
instead  of  that  of  children,  and  by  immer- 
sion rather  than  by  sprinkling. 

BAR  (in  Courts  of  Law).  The  place 
parted  off  by  a  bar  or  railing,  within  which 
counsellors  stand  to  plead  ;  also  the  pro- 
fession of  a  barrister  or  pleader. 

BAR.  A  sea  term  for  a  rock  lying  before 
the  harbour  in  such  a  manner  that  ships 
cannot  sail  over  except  upon  the  flood. 

BAR  (in  Music).  A  line  which  divides 
the  notes  into  equal  portions  in  respect  to 
their  duration. 

BAR  (in  Heraldry).  One  of  the  honour- 
able ordinaries,  consisting  of  two  horizon- 
tal lines  drawn  across  the  escutcheon. 


BARALTPTON.  An  arbitrary  name 
among  logicians  for  an  indirect  mode  of 
the  first  figure  of  syllogisms. 

BARATRY  (in  Commerce).  A  term 
used  when  the  master  of  a  vessel  or  the 
mariners  cheat  the  owners  by  embezzling 
theirgoods,  or  running  away  with  the  ship. 

BARB.  The  points  that  stand  back  in 


BAR 

the  head  of  an  arrow  or  fishing-hook,  to 
prevent  them  from  being  drawn  out  easily; 
also  the  name  of  a  horse  of  the  Barbary 
breed,  remarkable  for  its  swiftness. 

BARBARA.  An  arbitrary  name  among 
logicians  for  the  first  mode  of  the  first  fig- 
ure of  syllogisms,  consisting  of  three  uni- 
versal propositions  :  as,  '  all  animals  are 
endued  with  sense  ;  all  men  are  animals  ; 
ergo,  all  men  are  endued  with  sense.' 

BARBARISM.  A  rude  kind  of  language 
used  only  by  the  savage  or  unlettered  per- 
son. 

BARBEL.  A  fish  of  the  carp  kind,  which 
lies  in  holes  near  the  banks,  and  feeds  on 
testaceous  animals,  worms,  &c.  It  has  its 
name  from  the  beards  or  wattles  under  its 
nose. 


^^®^$'"^A^\)i^ 


oy 


BARBER.  One  who  follows  the  trade 
of  shaving  and  dressing  hair,  and  anciently 
also  that  of  bleeding,  whence  barbers  were 
called  Barber-Chirurgeons,  and  used  a  pole 
as  a  sign  to  represent  the  staff  which  per- 
sons used  to  hold  when  they  were  bled. 
The  barbers  were  separated  from  the  sur- 
geons by  a  statute  in  the  reign  of  George 
the  Second. 

BARBERRY.  A  tart  beny,  the  fruit  of 
the  barberry  tree  ;  a  prickly  shrub. 

BARBICAN.  An  outer  defence  or  forti- 
fication to  a  city  or  castle,  used  as  a  fence, 
and  also  as  a  watchtower,  to  descry  the 
approach  of  an  enemy. 

BARD.  A  sort  of  poets  among  the  Gauls, 
who  used  to  set  forth  the  deeds  of  heroes 
and  great  men. 

BARGAIN  AND  SALE  (in  Law).  An 
instrument  whereby  the  property  of  lands 
and  tenements  is,  for  valuable  considera- 
tion, transferred  from  one  person  to  anoth- 
er. It  is  called  a  real  contract  upon  a  val- 
uable consideration  for  passing  of  lands, 
tenements,  and  hereditaments,  by  deed 
indented  and  enrolled. 

BARGE.  A  very  large  boat  used  on  rivers 
either  for  pleasure  and  state,  as  the  royal 
barge  ;  or  for  trade,  as  the  coal  barge,  &c. 

BARILLA.  A  kind  of  Spanish  alkaline 
salt  used  in  the  glass  trade. 


BAR 

BARITONO.  A  low  pitch  of  the  voice 
between  hass  and  tenor. 

BARIUM.  A  metal  so  called  by  Sir  H. 
Davy  the  discoverer,  which  is  obtained  by 
the  chymical  decomposition  of  barytes. 

BARK.  The  skin  or  covering  of  a  ligne- 
ous plant.  Bark-binding  is  a  disease  in 
trees  cured  by  slitting  the  bark. 

BARK  (in  Commerce).  A  stuff  manu- 
factured in  India  of  the  bark  of  trees  ;  also 
the  Peruvian  or  Jesuit's  bark,  which  is 
procured  from  the  Cinchona  tree  growing 
in  duito. 

BARK.  A  sea  terra  for  a  small  vessel, 
particularly  one  carrying  three  masts. 

BARKING.  The  process  of  peeling  the 
bark  off  the  trees,  which  must  be  done  in 
the  month  of  May. 

BARLEY.  A  sort  of  corn  or  grain  which 
is  sown  in  March,  April,  or  May,  and  suc- 
ceeds best  in  light  dry  soils.  From  barley, 
when  converted  into  malt,  beer  is  made. 

BARLEY^  or  Pearl-Barley.  Barley 
stripped  of  its  first  coat,  and  used  in  mak- 
ing a  diet  drink. 

BARLEYCORN.  The  least  of  our  long 
measures,  being  the  third  of  an  inch. 

BARLEY-MOW.  The .  place  where 
reaped  barley  is  laid  up. 

BARLEY  WATER.  A  decoction  of 
pearl-barley. 

BARM,  or  Yeast.  The  head  or  working 
out  of  beer,  which  is  used  as  a  ferment  to 
lighten  bread. 

BARN.  A  storehouse  for  grain,  in  which 
it  is  deposited  and  threshed. 

BARNACLE.  A  species  of  shell-fish 
which  sticks  to  the  bottom  of  ships, 
rocks.  &c. 

BARNACLE-GOOSE.  A  large  \yater- 
fowl,  with  a  broad  flat  bill. 


BAR 


49 


BAROLITE,  A  stone  of  the  ponderous 
order,  called  also  the  carbonite  of  barytes. 

BAROMETER.  An  instrument  for  mea- 
suring the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  in- 
vented by  Torricelli.  The  common  ba- 
rometer is  a  glass  tube  hermetically  sealed 
at  one  end,  and  filled  with  mercury,  so  as 
5 


to  have  no  air  over.  Then  the  maker,  put- 
ting his  finger  on  the  open  end,  immerses 
it  in  a  bason  of  quicksilver  or  water  ;  and 
on  his  removing  his  finger,  the  quicksilver 
in  the  tube  endeavours,  by  its  own  weight, 
to  descend  into  the  bason,  but  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  external  air  on  the  surface  of 
the  fluid  in  the  bason,  and  no  air  being  in 
the  tube  at  the  top,  the  quicksilver  will 
rise  from  28  to  31  inches  in  mercury,  and 
from  30  to  33  inches  in  water.  In  dry 
weather,  the  air,  being  free  from  vapours, 
is  consequently  heavy,  and  presses  up  the 
quicksilver  ;  but  in  moist  rainy  weather, 
the  atmosphere  being  charged  with  clouds 
and  fogs,  the  air  is  lighter,  and  presses 
with  less  force  on  the  quicksilver.  In 
high  winds  the  atmosphere  is  light,  and 
the  quicksilver  low  ;  it  also  rises  higher 
in  cold  weather  than  in  warm. 


BARON.  In  England,  a  degree  of  nobili- 
ty next  to  a  viscount.  All  barons  are 
lords  of  parliament  and  peers  of  the  realm. 
Barons  were  originally  so  by  tenure,  that 
is,  by  virtue  of  the  barony  annexed  to 
their  lands  or  office. 

BARON  AND  FEME,  A  term  in  Law 
for  husband  and  wife,  who  are  deemed  but 
one  person. 

BARON'S  CORONET.  On  a  sold  circle 


six  pearls,  which  were  assigned  to  barons 

by  King  Charles  II.  after  the  Restoration. 

BARONET.  The  lowest  degree  of  here- 


50 


BAS 


ditary  honour  created  by  letters  patent. 
It  was  founded  by  James  I.  in  1604. 

BARONS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUEIl. 
In  England  the  four  judges  who  officiate  in 
the  court  of  exchequer  at  Westminster. 

BARONY,  In  England,  the  honour  and 
territory  which  gave  title  to  a  baron,  in- 
cluding the  fees  and  lands  of  lords,  both 
temporal  and  spiritual. 

BARRACKS.  Places  erected  for  the 
accommodation  of  both  men  and  horses  in 
the  army. 

BARRAS.  A  substance  consisting  of  re- 
sin and  oil,  which  exudes  from  the  wounds 
of  fir  trees  in  winter. 

BARRATOR  (in  Law).  A  common 
mover  of  suits  and  quarrels, either  in  courts 
or  elsewhere. 

BARREL.  A  cask  or  vessel  for  holding 
liquor,  that  is,  thirty-one  and  a  half  gallons 
of  wine,  &c.  and  thirty-two  gallons  of  beer. 

BARREL.  The  cylinder  of  a  watch, 
about  whicli  the  spring  is  wrapped. 

BARRIER.  A  kind  offence,  composed 
of  great  stakes,  and  serving  to  defend  the 
entrance  of  a  passage. 

BARRISTER.  In  England  a  counsellor 
admitted  to  plead  at  the  bar.  An  inner 
Barrister  is  one  who  is  a  serjeant,  or  king's 
counsel,  and  is  admitted  to  plead  within 
the  bar  ;  but  an  outer  barrister  is  one  who 
pleads  without  the  bar. 

BARROW  (in  Husbandry).  An  imple- 
ment of  conveyance  with  a  single  wheel, 
and  driven  with  the  two  hands.  It  is 
made  of  different  forms,  according  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  intended  ;  the  com- 
mon barrow,  called  the  wheelbarrow,  is 
represented  underneath. 


BARROW.  A  large  hillock  or  mound, 
of  which  many  are  to  be  met  with  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  England,  and  are  supposed 
to  be  the  tumuli  or  tombs  of  the  Romans. 

BARTER.  The  exchanging  one  commo- 
dity for  another  ;  also  the  rule  in  Arithme- 
tic by  wliich  the  proportionate  value  of 
commodities  is  found. 

BARYTES.  A  sort  of  ponderous  earth, 
very  brittle,  and  perfectly  soluble  in  boil- 
ing sulphuric  acid.  It  is  compounded  of 
oxygen  and  barium. 

BASALT.  A  sort  of  argillaceous  earth, 
consisting  of  silica,  with  a  certain  portion 
of  alumina  and  oxyde  of  iron,  lime,  and 


BAS 

magnesia.  It  is  always  found  near  vol- 
canoes. 

BASE  (in  Architecture).  The  foot  of  a 
pillar,  by  which  it  is  sustained  ;  in  Geome- 
try, the  base  of  a  figure  is  the  lowest  plain 
side,  or  that  on  which  it  stands. 

BASE  (in  Chymistry).  The  inert  sub- 
stance which  combines  with,  and  is  acted 
upon,  by  the  more  volatile  and  active  men- 
strua, as  the  alkalies,  earths,  and  metallic 
oxydes,  which  are  the  principal  ingredi- 
ents in  the  formation  of  salts. 

BASE  LINE  (in  Perspective).  The 
common  section  of  a  picture,  and  the  geo- 
metrical plane. 

BASEMENT.  A  continued  base  ex- 
tended along  any  building,  as  the  base- 
ment or  lower  story  of  a  house. 

BASE  TENURE,  or  Base  Estate  (in 
Law).  A  holding  by  villanage,  or  other 
customary  service. 

BASHAW,  or  Pacha.  The  title  given 
to  the  grand  officers  of  the  court  at  Con- 
stantinople ;  as  the  capudan  bashaw,  the 
admiral  or  commander  at  sea  •,  bostangi 
bashaw,  the  chief  officer  of  the  garden,&;c. 
Their  degrees  of  dignity  were  marked  by 
their  bearing  one,  two,  orthree  horses  tails. 
The  ruler  of  Tripoli  is  called  Bashaw. 

BASIL.  The  sloping  edge  of  a  chisel, 
or  of  the  iron  of  a  plane. 

BASIL,  A  plant  which  has  an  aromatic 
smell. 

BASILICON.  An  ointment,  consisting 
of  resin,  pitch,  oil,  wax,  &c, 

BASILISK.  A  serpent  of  the  lizard 
tribe,  with  remarkably  piercing  eyes,  and 
a  white  spot  on  its  head,  resembling  a 
diamond.  It  was  formerly  called  a  cocka- 
trice, and  fabled  to  be  produced  from  the 
eggs  of  a  cock. 

BASIN.  Any  hollow  place  capable  of 
holding  liquids.  Basin  of  a  dock,  a  place 
where  the  water  is  confined  by  double 
floodgates.  The  basin  of  a  haven  is  that 
part  which  opens  from  a  narrow  passage 
into  a  spacious  receptacle.  The  basin  of  a 
river,  includes  the  whole  valley  which 
empties  its  waters  into  the  river  or  its 
branches. 

BASKET.  A  vessel  made  either  of  rush- 
es, splinters,  willows,  osiers,  or  any  otiier 
flexible  material  that  can  be  interwoven. 
To  render  osiers  fit  for  use,  they  must  be 
soaked  for  some  time.  Those  that  are  in- 
tended for  the  finer  kind  of  work,  as  wash- 
ing-baskets or  market  baskets,  and  the 
like,  must  be  peeled  while  they  are  green, 
and  then  steeped.  Hampers,  and  the 
coarser  kind  of  work,  do  not  require  that 
preparation :  basket  making  was  one  of 
the  arts  that  was  carried  to  a  considerable 


BAT 

degree  of  perfection  among  the  ancient 
Britons. 

BASKING  SHARK,  A  species  of  tlae 
shark,  which  lies  much  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  basking  in  the  sun.  It  grows  to 
a  prodigious  size,  but  is  not  very  fierce. 

BAS-RELIEF.  See  Basso  Relievo. 

BASS.  A  sort  of  cushion  made  of  rush 
or  straw. 

BASS  (in  Music).  The  lowest  or  deepest 
part  of  any  composition.  This  note  is  play- 
ed on  the  largest  pipes  or  strings  of  instru- 
ments of  the  common  size,  as  the  organ, 
lute,  &c.,  or  on  the  largest  kind  of  instru- 
ments. The  bass  is  the  principal  part  of  a 
musical  composition,  and  the  foundation 
of  harmony,  whence  it  is  called  the  fun- 
damental bass.  Thorough  bass  is  that 
which  includes  the  fundamental  rules  of 
composition.  Ground  bass  is  that  which 
commences  with  some  subject  of  its  own, 
that  is  continually  repeated  throughout 
the  movement,  whilst  the  upper  parts 
pursue  a  separate  air. 

BASS  CLIFF,  or  F  Cliff.  The  charac- 
ter marked  thus, 


BAT 


51 


and  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  stave  in 
which  the  bass  or  lower  notes  are  placed. 

BASSO  RELIEVO.  In  English,  bass- 
relief,  a  sort  of  sculpture  in  which  the 
figures  are  represented,  as  projecting  not 
far  above  the  plane  on  which  they  are 
formed.  Figures  cut,  are  said  to  be  done 
in  relief,  and  when  the  work  is  low  or  flat 
it  is  called  bass-relief,  or  basso  relievo,  in 
distinction  from  alto  relievo,  and  mezzo 
relievo. 

BASSOON.  A  musical  wind  instrument 
blown  with  a  reed,  and  has  eleven  holes. 
It  serves  to  play  the  bass  part  in  concerts. 

BASS  VIOL.  A  stringed  musical  in- 
strument of  the  same  shape  as  a  violin,  but 
much  larger. 

BASS  VOICE.  The  gravest  and  deepest 
of  the  male  voices. 

BASTARD  (in  Law).  One  born  out  of 
wedlock,  who  cannot  inherit. 

BASTILE.  A  fortress  in  Paris,  which 
was  used  as  a  prison,  and  destroyed  during 
the  French  revolution. 

BASTINADO.  A  mode  of  punishment 
usual  among  the  Turks,  of  beating  the 
offender  on  the  soles  of  the  feet. 

BASTION.  A  large  mass  of  earth,  stand- 
ing out  from  a  rampart,  of  which  it  forms 
the  principal  part. 

BAT.  An  animal  resembling  both  a  bird 


and  a  mouse.  It  has  wings  not  of  feathers, 
but  of  a  skin  distended,  and  flies  only  at 
night.  It  lays  no  eggs,  but  brings  forth 
its  young  alive,  and  suckles  them. 


^^^S-^ 


EATABLE  GROUND.  Land  formerly 
so  called,  which  lay  between  England  and 
Scotland,  and  was  the  subject  of  debate  to 
whom  it  belonged. 

BATEMENT  (in  Carpentry).  The  wast- 
ing of  stuff,  in  cutting  it  for  the  purpose 
designed. 

BAT-FOWLING.  A  mode  of  catching 
birds  at  night,  when  they  are  at  roost. 

BATH.  Any  receptacle  for  water  which 
is  convenient  for  bathing  ;  also  any  artifi- 
cial contrivance  which  is  to  supply  the 
place  of  a  bath,  as  a  shower  bath,  or  an 
apparatus  for  applying  water  to  the  body 
in  the  form  of  a  shower  ;  a  vapour  bath, 
or  a  mode  of  conveying  moisture  to  the 
body  by  means  of  steam  ;  a  medicinal 
bath  is  that  in  which  certain  chymical 
preparations  are  mingled. 

BATH  (in  Chymistry).  A  contrivance  by 
which  heat  is  conveyed  to  any  substance; 
also  in  the  refining  of  metals,  the  fusion  of 
the  metallic  matter  is  called  a  bath. 

BATH,  KNIGHTS  OF  THE.  In  Eng- 
land, a  military  order  of  knighthood,  re- 
stored, if  not  instituted,  by  Henry  IV. 
These  knights  wear  a  red  ribbon,  and  their 
motto  is,  Tria  juncta  in  uno,  alluding  to  the 
three  cardinal  virtues,  faith,  hope,  and 
charity,  which  every  knight  ought  to 
possess. 

BATON.  The  staff  or  truncheon,  given 
as  a  symbol  of  authority,  to  generals  in  the 
French  army. 

B ATTA.  Allowances  made  to  trov  ps  in 
India.  Dry  batta  is  money  given  in  lieu  of 
rations  ;  wet  batta,  what  is  given  in  kind. 

BATTALION.  A  body  of  foot  soldiers 
offrom600to800men. 

BATTEL.  An  ancient  mode  of  trial  by 
single  combat,  which  has  lately  been  abo- 
lished in  England. 

BATTEN.  A  scantling  or  piece  of  wood- 
en stuff,  from  two  to  four  inches  broad,  and 
one  inch  thick. 

BATTERING.  A  cannonade  of  heavy 
ordnance  against  any  fortress  or  works. 

BATTERING-RAM.  A  military  ma- 
chine, with  which  the  ancients  effected 


52 


BAT 


breaches  in  fortifications.  Tlaese  engines 
were  variously  constructed,and  of  different 
sizes,  Plutarch  informs  us  that  Marc  An- 
tony, in  the  Parthian  war,  used  a  ram  of 
80  feet  long  ;  and,  according  to  Vitruvius, 
they  were  sometimes  106,  and  even  120 
feet  long,  and  weighed  100,000  lbs.  This 
engine  was  frequently  used  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  occasionally  for  other 
purposes  besides  that  of  war  in  later  peri- 
ods. Sir  Christopher  Wren  is  said  to  have 
employed  it  in  demolishing  the  walls  of 
the  old  church  of  St.  Paul,  previously  to 
his  rebuilding  it. 


BATTERY  (in  i;aw).The  striking,beat- 
ing,  or  offering  any  violence  to  the  person 
of  another,  as  by  spitting  in  his  face,  or 
any  way  touching  him  in  anger,  or  vio- 
lently jostling  against  him.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  an  assault,  inasmuch  as  the 
latter  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  hitting, 
or  blow.  There  may  be  an  assault  with- 
out battery,  but  there  cannot  be  a  battery 
without  an  assault. 

BATTERY  (in  Military  Affairs).  Any 
raised  place  on  vs^hich  cannon  are  placed. 
Batteries  are  of  different  kinds,  as  open 
batteries,  which  -are  exposed  to  view  ; 
masked  batteries,  which  are  hidden  by  a 
breastwork  ;  cross  batteries,  two  batteries 
firing  athwart  each  other  on  the  same  ob- 
ject, &c.  A  floating  battery  is  a  battery 
erected  on  simple  rafts,  or  the  hulls  of  ships. 

BATTERY  (in  Electricity).  A  combina- 
tion of  coated  surfaces  of  glass  jars,  so 
connected,  that  they  may  be  charged  at 
once,  and  discharged  by  a  common  con- 
ductor. A  battery  or  pile,  is  also  an  appa- 
ratus employed  for  accumulating  the  elec- 
tricity of  galvanism. 

BATTLEDORE.  An  instrument  used 
either  with  a  shuttlecock,  or  a  tennis  ball. 

BATTLEMEx\TS.  Notches  or  inden- 
tures in  the  top  of  a  wall  or  building,  like 
embrasures,  to  look  through. 


BEA 

BATTLE  AXE.  An  ancient  sort  of 
weapon,  having  an  axe  and  a  point  at  the 
end,  for  cutting  or  thrusting. 


BATTON.  A  staff  or  truncheon,  used 
by  the  English  in  coats  of  arms,  to  denote 
illegitimacy. 


BAWLING.  Thenoise  of  dogs  in  sport- 
ing, who  are  too  busy  before  they  find  the 
scent. 

BAY.  Any  inlet  of  the  sea  between  two 
capes,  or  promontories,  where  ships  may 
ride  ;  it  is  defined  in  geograpliy,  an  arm 
of  the  sea  stretching  inland. 

BAY,  or  Bay  Tree  .  The  female  laurel 
tree,  an  evergreen,  which  grows  wild  in 
Italy  and  France. 

BAY.  A  colour  in  horses  resembling  tlie 
dried  bay  leaf. 

BAYONET.  A  short  triangular  dagger, 
made  to  fix  on  the  muzzle  of  a  firelock  or 
musket. 

BAY-SALT.  A  salt  which  is  made  from 
seawater  in  France,  by  letting  the  water 
into  pits  or  basins,  where,  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  it  is  evaporated,  and  the  residue 
is  converted  into  crystals  of  salt. 

BAZAAR.  A  place  mostly  covered,  and 
fitted  up  with  shops  in  Eastern  countries  ; 
also  a  similar  collection  of  shops  lately  in- 
troduced into  England. 

BDELLIUM.  The  gum  of  an  Arabian 
tree  about  the  size  of  an  olive  tree.  The 
gum  resembles  wax,  and  consists  of  resin, 
guin,  cerasin,  and  volatile  oil. 

BEACH.  The  seashore,  or  margin  of  the 
sea,  which  is  washed  by  the  tides.' 

BEACON.  A  signal  by  fire,  placed  on 
some  eminence,  to  prevent  shipwrecks,  or 
give  some  alarm. 

BEAD  (in  Architecture). A  round  mould- 
ing, carved  in  short  embossments,  like  the 
bead  of  a  necklace. 

BEADLE,  or  BEDEL.  In  England  an 
officer  of  a  court,  of  the  university,  or  of 


BEA 

any  corporate  body,  -who  acts  as  a  mes- 
senger and  attends  to  keep  order. 

BEAD  PROOF.  A  method  of  deter- 
mining the  strength  of  spirituous  liquors, 
from  the  continuance  of  the  bubbles  or 
beads  on  the  surface. 

BEAD  TREE.  A  shrub,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  a  nut,  that  is  bored  through,  and 
strung  as  beads  by  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
BEAGLE.  A  sort  of  hunting  dog. 
BEAK,  or  Beak-head  of  a  Ship.  That 
part  of  it,  which  is  without  before  the  fore- 
castle, and  serves  by  way  of  ornament. 
Among  the  ancients  it  was  a  piece  of 
brass,  like  a  bird's  beak. 

BEAM.  The  largest  piece  of  wood  in  a 
building,  which  is  its  main  support ;  in 
Naval  Architecture,  beams  are  the  large 
main  timbers  that  stretch  across  a  ship  to 
support  a  deck. 

BEAM- COMPASS.  An  instrument  con- 
sisting of  a  square  wooden  or  brass  beam, 
having  sliding  sockets,  used  for  describing 
large  circles. 

BEAM-TREE.  A  tree  which  grows  to 
the  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  so  called, 
because  it  is  particularly  fitted  for  making 
axletrees  and  the  like. 

BEAN.  An  edible  pulse,  of  which  there 
are  several  sorts,  as  the  kidney  or  French 
bean,  the  broad  Windsor  bean,  the  horse 
bean,  &;c. 

BEAR.  A  wild  beast,  covered  with 
shaggy  hair,  and  having  hooked  claws  for 
climbing  trees.  It  feeds  on  honey,  insects, 
and  carcasses,  and  lies  torpid  during  the 
winter.  The  black  bear  is  a  native  of  the 
north  of  Europe,  Asia  and  America  ;  but 
the  polar  bear,  which  is  white,  lives  with- 
in the  arctic  circle.  The  brown  bear  is 
found  in  Europe,  but  not  in  America. 
Asia  has  several  varieties  of  the  bear. 
The  grisly  bear  figured  below,  is  found 
only  near  the  Rocky  mountains  in  the 
United  States. 


BEA 


53 


BEAR'S-BREECH.  An  herb,  from  the 
smooth  leaved  sort  of  which,  is  extracted 
a  mucilage. 

BEARD  (with  Botanists).  The  under  lip 
of  a  labiated  flower,  and  in  corn  and  grass, 
5* 


that  hair  or  bristle  which  serves  to  defend 
the  ear,  as  in  barley,  rye,  wheat,  and  oats. 

BEARD  OF  A  COMET  (in  Astronomy). 
The  rays  which  a  comet  emits  towards 
that  part  of  the  heavens,  to  which,  its 
course  seems  to  direct  it.  , 

BEARD  OF  A  HORSE  (in  Farriery). 
The  chuck,  or  that  part  under  the  lower 
jaw,  on  the  outside,  and  above  the  chin, 
which  bears  the  curb  of  the  bridle. 

BEAR-GARDEN.  A  place  formerly  set 
apart  in  England  for  the  baiting  of  bears 

BEARER  OF  A  BILL  (in  Commerce). 
The  person  in  whose  hands  the  bill  is,  and 
in  favour  of  whom  the  last  indorsement 
was  made. 

BEARERS.  Posts  or  brick  walls,  which 
are  trimmed  up  between  two  ends  of  a 
piece  of  timber,  to  shorten  its  bearing,  or  to 
prevent  its  bearing  with  the  whole  weight 
at  the  ends  only.  i 

BEARING  (in  Architecture).  The  dis- 
tance between  the  bearer,  or  support,  and 
each  end  of  the  timber. 

BEARING.  A  sea  term,  to  denote  the 
situation  of  any  distant  object  with  regard 
to  the  ship's  position,  whether  ahead, 
astern,  or  abreast,  &c. 

BEARING  (in  Heraldry).  Whatever  is 
borne  in,  or  fills  the  escutcheon. 

BEAT.  The  walk  or  round,  which  a 
watchman  has  to  take  at  stated  intervals. 

BEATING  TIME  (in  Music).  That  mo- 
tion of  the  hand  or  foot,  by  which  some 
person  marks  and  regulates  the  movements 
of  the  performers. 

BEATS  (in  a  Clock  or  V/atch).  The 
strokes  made  by  the  pallets  or  fangs  of  the 
spindle. 

BEAVER.  An  amphibious  four  footed 
animal,  that  lives  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
and  unfrequented  lakes,  and  is  remarkable 


for  its  ingenuity  in  building  its  habitation. 
It  walks  slowly,  swims  dexterously,  eats 
sitting  on  its  haunches,  and  conveys  its 
food  to  its  mouth  with  its  fore  paws.  This 
animal  is  valued  both  for  its  fur  and  for 
the  oil  which  it  yields,  called  castor  oil. 


54 


BEE 


BEAVER.  That  part  of  the  hehnet  which 
defends  the  sight,  and  opens  in  front. 

BEAU  MONDE.  The  gay  fashionable 
world. 

BED  (in  Gunnery).  A  thick  plank  which 
lies  under  a  piece  of  ordnance,  on  the  car- 
riage. 

BED  (in  Masonry).  A  range  or  course 
of  stones. 

BED  (in  Mineralogy).  A  stratum  or 
layer  of  any  earth  or  stone. 

BED  OF  A  RIVER.  The  bottom  of  a 
channel,  in  which  the  stream  or  current 
usually  flows. 

BEE.  An  insect  which  cai'ries  on  the 
operation  of  making  honey  and  wax.  Bees 
begin  to  swarm,  that  is  to  form  new  colo- 
nies, in  May  or  June,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  weather.  The  swarm  consists  of  a 
female,  called  the  queen,  who  is  distin- 
guished by  her  size  ;  the  drones,  who  are 
supposed  to  be  males,  that  do  not  work  ; 
and  the  mules,  or  common  bees,  who  are 
of  neither  sex,  and  do  the  work  of  the  hive. 


BEEHIVE.    A  particular  kind  of  box 
or  basket  in  which  bees  are  kept. 


BEER.  A  drink  made  of  malt  and  hops 
by  the  process  of  brewing  ;  it  is  of  three 
kinds,  namely,  strong  beer,  ale,  and  table 
beer,  or  small  beer. 

BEESTINGS.  A  term  in  Husbandry 
for  the  first  milk  taken  from  a  cow  after 
she  calves. 

BEET.  A  garden  herb  and  root,  which 
is  thick  and  fleshy.  The  leaves  are  used 
as  potherbs,  and  the  root  is  boiled  for  the 
table. 


BEL 

BEETLE.  The  scarabseus  of  Linnaeus,  a 
well  known  insect,  produced  from  the  lar- 
va3  or  grubs  that  live  under  ground.  It 
has  six  feet,  is  hairy  at  one  end,  and  lives 
in  dry  decayed  wood,  &;q. 


BEETLE.  A  large  wooden  hammer  for 
driving  palisadoes. 

BELFRY.  That  part  of  a  church  steeple 
in  which  the  bells  are  hung. 

BELL.  The  well  known  metallic  ma- 
chine, which  is  ranked  among  musical 
instruments  ;  it  consists  of  three  parts,  the 
body,  or  barrel,  the  clapper,  and  the  ear, 
or  cannon.  The  use  of  bells  in  churches 
was  introduced  into  England,  in  the  eighth 
century.  They  were  commonly  baptized 
before  they  were  hung 


BELLES  LETTRES.  A  French  term 
for  polite  literature. 

BELLIGERENT.  An  epithet  applied 
to  states  that  are  at  war. 

BELL  METAL.  A  metal  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  bells,  which  usually 
consists  of  three  parts  of  copper  and  one  of 
tin. 

BELLONA.  The  goddess  of  war,  and 
sister  of  Mars. 

BELLOWS.  A  machine  for  blowing  the 
fire.  This  machine  is  so  contrived  as  to 
expire  and  respire  the  air  alternately,  by 
enlarging  and  contracting  its  capacity. 
The  air  which  enters  the  bellows  is  com- 
pressed when  they  are  closed,  and  flows 
out  of  the  pipe  with  a  velocity  proportion- 
ed to  the  force  by  which  it  is  compressed. 
The  bellows  of  smiths  and  founders  are 
worked  by  a  rocker. 


BEN 

BELLOWS  OF  AN  ORGAN.  The 
pneumatic  part  of  the  machine,  by  wliich 
it  is  supplied  with  wind.  The  bellows  of 
a  large  organ  are  worked  by  a  man  called 
the  blower  ;  those  of  smaller  organs  by  the 
foot  of  the  player. 

BELLU^.  The  sixth  order  of  animals 
in  the  Linnsan  system,  having  their  feet 
hoofed,  as  the  equus,  or  horse  ;  sus,  the 
swine  -,  the  hippopotamus,  and  the  tapir. 

BELT.  A  girdle  for  hanging  a  sword  or 
any  other  weapon  in. 

BELT  (in  Heraldry).  A  badge  of  the 
knightly  order,  given  to  a  person  when  he 
was  raised  to  the  knighthood. 

BELT  (in  Surgery).  A  bandage  applied 
round  the  body. 

BELT  (in  Masonry).  A  range  or  course 
of  bricks  projecting  from  the  rest, 

BELTEIN.  An  ancient  festival  in  Ire- 
land, celebrated  on  the  21st  of  June,  tlie 
summer  solstice,  when  fires  were  made  on 
the  tops  of  the  hills. 

BELTS,  or  Fascije.  Two  zones  or 
girdles  round  the  planet  Jupiter,  more 
lucid  than  the  other  parts  of  his  body,  and 
terminated  by  parallel  straight  lines,  some- 
times broader  and  sometimes  narrower, 
varying  both  in  magnitude  and  position. 
These  belts  were  first  observed  at  Na- 
ples, by  Zuppi  and  Bartoli,  two  Jesuits. 

BENCH.  A  seat  of  justices,  or  judges, 
as  the  King's  Bench,  at  Westminster,  Eng. 

BENCHER.  In  England,  a  lawyer  of 
the  oldest  standing  in  the  inns  of  court. 

BEND  (in  Heraldry).  One  of  the  ten 
honourable  ordinaries,  drawn  from  the 
dexter,  or  right  corner,  at  the  top  of  the 
escutcheon,  to  the  sinister  base,  or  left 
corner,  at  the  bottom.  It  is  supposed  to 
represent  a  shoulder  belt,  or  scarf,  and  to 
Bhow  the  wearer  to  be  valiant  in  war.  It 
is  sometimes  called  a  bend  dexter,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  bend  sinister,  which  is 
drawn  from  the  left  side  of  the  shield  to 
the  right. 


BER 


55 


BEND.  A  sea  term  for  the  knot,  by 
which  one  rope  is  fastened  to  another  or 
lo  an  anchor. 

BENDING.  A  sea  term,  for  the  tying 
two  cables  or  ropes  together,  or  to  anything 


BENDING  (in  Physiology).  The  reduc- 
ing a  body  to  a  curved  or  crooked  form. 
The  bending  of  boards,  planks,  &c.  is 
effected  by  means  of  heat,  whether  by  boil- 
ing or  otherwise,  by  which  the  fibres  be- 
come relaxed  and  flexible. 

BENDS  IN  A  SHIP.  The  outermost 
timbers  of  the  side,  to  set  the  foot  on  in 
climbing  up  the  side.  They  are  reckoned 
from  the  water,  first,  second,  and  third 
bend,  and  are  of  great  service  in  strength- 
ening the  ship,  as  into  them  the  beams, 
knees,  and  foothooks  are  bolted. 

BENEFICE.  In  England,  any  ecclesias- 
tical living,  but  particularly  rectories  and 
vicarages. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  In  England, 
a  privilege  in  law,  at  first  peculiar  to  the 
clergy,  but  in  after  times  made  common  to 
the  laity.  When  any  one  was  convicted 
of  certain  crimes,  he  had  a  book  given  him 
to  read,  and  if  the  ordinary  or  his  deputy 
pronounced  these  words,  '  Legit  ut  cleri- 
cus,  he  reads  like  a  clergyman,  or  scho- 
lar,' he  was  only  burnt  in  the  hand,  and 
set  free  for  the  first  offence,  otherwise  he 
was  to  suffer  death. 

BENZOIN.  A  dry  solid  resin,  of  a 
fragrant  smell,  produced  by  incision  from 
the  styrax,  an  Indian  tree.  It  is  brought 
to  us  from  the  East  Indies,  particularly 
Siam  and  the  islands  of  Java  and  Sumatra, 
in  masses  of  various  sizes,  composed  of 
small  granules  of  a  whitish  or  yellowish 
colour,  with  a  purple  cast  on  the  surface. 
It  is  very  inflammable,  and  diff'uses  a  fra- 
grant smell  while  burning,  and  so  in  like 
manner  when  rubbed  in  the  hand.  When 
the  benzoin  tree  is  six  years  old,  the  na- 
tives cut  it  in  several  places,  in  an  ob- 
lique direction,  and  the  benzoin  flows 
from  the  wounds.  Benzoin  is  used  by 
perfumers  in  making  sweet  bags,  &c.  and 
was  formerly  very  much  esteemed  as  an 
expectorant.  The  tree  was  introduced 
from  Virginia  into  England. 

BEaUEST.  A  legacy;  what  Is  be- 
queathed or  left  by  will. 

BERENICE'S  HAIR.  A  constellation 
in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

BERGAMOT.  A  fine  sort  of  pear, 
which  is  of  two  sorts,  namely,  the  sum- 
mer bergamot  and  the  autumn  bergamot. 

BERGAMOT  (in  ChymistryJ.  A  fragrant 
essence,  extracted  from  a  fruit  which  ia 
produced  by  ingrafting  a  branch  of  a  lemon 
tree,  upon  the  stock  of  a  bergamot  pear. 
This  essence  is  got  by  cutting  the  external 
rind  of  the  fruit  into  small  pieces,  and 
squeezing  them  into  a  glass  vessel,  in  the 
same  manner  aa  the  juice  of  a  lemon  is 


56 


BIB 


squeezed  out,  by  which  means  an  ffitherial 
oil  is  procured  of  a  very  fragrant  smell. 

BERRY.  A  round  fruit,  for  the  most 
part  soft,  and  covered  with  a  thin  skin, 
containing  seeds  in  a  pulpy  substance. 

BERYL.  A  precious  stone,  which,  in 
its  purity,  is  of  a  perfectly  seagreen  colour, 
and  on  that  account  called  aqua  marina. 
Beryl  is  also  (in  Painting)  the  seagreen 
colour,  in  imitation  of  this  stone. 

BETA.  The  second  letter  in  the  Greek 
alphabet. 

BETEL.  A  sort  of  pepper  plant,  the 
leaf  of  which  is  universally  chewed  by  the 
southern  Asiatics,  to  sweeten  the  breath 
and  strengthen  the  stomach.  It  is  a  slen- 
der-stemmed climbing  plant. 

BEVEL.  An  instrument  with  a  mov- 
able tongue,  to  strike  angles  of  a  greater 
or  less  magnitude. 


BEVELLING  (in  Carpentry).  Hewing 
timber  with  a  proper  or  regular  curve. 

BEY.  An  officer  of  high  rank  among 
the  Turks,  inferior  to  none  but  the  pacha. 
The  ruler  of  Tunis,  has  this  title. 

BEZANTS.  Round  flat  pieces  of  bul- 
lion without  any  impression,  which  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  current  coin  of 
Byzantium.  This  coin  was  probably  in- 
troduced into  coat  armour  by  those  who 
went  to  the  wars. 


BEZOAR.  A  medicinal  stone,  brought 
from  the  East  and  West  Indies,  which  was 
formerly  reckoned  a  sovereign  antidote 
against  poisons.  Jt  is  found  to  be  a  morbid 
concretion  in  the  intestines  of  some  ani- 
mals. 

BIBLE.  The  collection  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament.  The  Old 
Testament  was  first  translated  by  the  72 
interpreters,  and  thence  called  the  Septua- 
gint:  of  the  Latin  versions,  that  of  St.  Je- 
rome was  confirmed  by  the  council  of 
Trent  for  vulgar  use,  and  thence  got  the 


BIL 

name  of  the  Vulgate.  The  Bible  was 
translated  into  the  Saxon  tongue  about  the 
year  940 ;  and  into  the  English,  by  Wil- 
liam Tindal,  in  the  twenty-first  year  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  when  it 
was  printed.  The  present  authorized 
English  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
was  completed  in  the  reign  of  James  the 
First,  about  the  year  1611. 

BIBLIOGRAPHER.  A  person  conver- 
sant with  books. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  The  knowledge  of 
books  as  to  their  several  editions,  time,  and 
form  of  being  printed,  type,  and  other  par- 
ticulars connected  with  their  publication. 
BIBLIOMANIA.  A  rage  for  scarce  and 
old  editions  of  books. 

BICE  (in  Painting).  A  blue  colour  pre- 
pared from  the  lapis  armenus  ;  it  bears  the 
best  body  of  all  bright  blues  used  in  cora^ 
mon  work. 

BIENNIALS.  Plants  that  flourish  for 
two  years,  and  seldom  more. 

BIGAMY.  Double  marriage,  or  the  mar- 
rying of  two  wives  or  two  husbands  while 
the  first  is  alive,  which  is  felony  by  statute. 
Bigamy,  in  the  Civil  Law,  is  the  marrying 
a  plurality  of  wives  or  husbands. 

BIGHT.  The  double  part  of  a  rope 
where  it  is  folded,  in  distinction  from  the 
end. 

BILBOES.  A  term  at  sea,  for  the  long 
bars  of  iron  with  which  the  feet  of  offen- 
ders are  confined,  the  irons  being  more  or 
less  heavy,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
offence. 

BILE.  A  bitter  fluid  secreted  in  the 
glandular  substance  of  the  liver,  and  pass- 
ing through  the  gall  bladder  and  the  porus 
biliarius,  is  discharged  into  the  duodenum, 
where  it  converts  the  chyme  into  chyle 
and  excrement.  The  constituent  parts  of 
bile  are  water,  soda  in  a  caustic  state, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  a  resinous  albu- 
minous principle. 

BILGE.  A  sea  term,  for  the  bottom  of 
the  floor  of  a  ship,  the  compass  or  breadth 
of  its  bottom.  A  vessel  is  said  to  bilge 
when  she  has  struck  off  some  of  her  tim- 
ber against  a  rock." 

.  BILL.  An  edged  tool,  or  hatchet,  with 
a  hooked  point,  for  lopping  of  trees  and 
making  hedges  ;  if  it  have  a  short  handle 
it  is  a  handbill ;  if  a  long  handle,  a  hedg- 
ingbill. 

BILIj  (in  Law).  A  declaration  in  writ- 
ing expressing  any  grievance  or  wrong 
which  one  person  has  suffered  from  an- 
other ;  also  an  instrument  drawn  up  by 
any  member  and  presented  to  a  legislature 
for  its  approbation  or  rejection. 


BIP 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE  (in  Commerce). 
A  note  containing  an  order  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  sum  of  money,  to  a  person  call- 
ed the  drawer,  who  when  he  has  signed  it 
with  liis  name,  and  written  the  word  ac- 
cepted, he  is  called  the  acceptor.  The 
person  in  whose  favour  it  is  drawn,  or  to 
whom  it  is  ordered  to  be  paid,  is  called  the 
drawee,  or  payee,  who,  when  he  has  in- 
dorsed it,  is  called  the  indorser.  He,  who 
is  in  possession  of  the  bill,  is  the  holder. 

BILL  OF  FARE.  An  account  of  such 
provisions  as  are  in  season,  or  are  to  be 
supplied  for  the  table. 

BILL  OF  LADING,  or  Invoice.  A 
deed  signed  by  the  master  of  a  ship,  by 
which  he  acknowledges  the  receipt  of  the 
merchant's  goods,  and  obliges  himself  to 
deliver  them  at  the  place  to  which  they 
are  consigned. 

BILL  OF  PARCELS.  A  tradesman's 
account  of  goods  sold  and  delivered. 

BILLET.  A  ticket  for  quartering  sol- 
diers :  also  a  small  paper,  or  note,  folded 
up  as  a  billet  doux,  or  love-letter. 

BILLET.  A  small  log  of  wood  ;  also  in 
Heraldry,  a  bearing  in  the  form  of  a  square, 
supposed  to  represent  cloth  of  gold  and 
silver. 

BILLETING  (in  Military  Affairs). 
Ordering  soldiers  to  be  quartered  in  par- 
ticular houses  by  a  billet  or  small  ticket. 

BILLIARDS.  A  game  played  on  an 
oblong  table,  exactly  level,  and  covered 
with  cloth,  by  the  means  of  ivory  balls, 
which  are  struck  or  driven  with  sticks, 
made  bending,  so  as  to  drive  the  antago- 
nist's ball  into  holes,  called  hazards  or 
pockets,  at  the  corners  or  by  the  sides  of 
the  table.  The  art  of  the  game  lies  in 
pocketing  your  antagonist's  ball  without 
putting  in  your  own. 

BILLION.  The  sum  of  a  million  mil- 
lions. 

BILLS  OF  MORTALITY.  Annual  re- 
gisters of  the  deaths  and  burials,  which 
take  place  in  the  different  pai-ishes  in  and 
near  London.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
a  register  of  deaths,  in  any  town. 

BINDING  OF  BOOKS.  The  art  of 
doing  up  books  in  leather  or  vellum,  as 
distinguished  from  those  done  up  in  boards 
or  only  sewed. 

BINNACLE.  A  wooden  case,  contain- 
ing the  compasses,  log  glasses,  watch  glas- 
ses, &e. 

BINOMIAL.  A  term  in  algebra  for  any 
quantity  consisting  of  two  names,  or  terms, 
connected  together  by  the  sign  -f-,  or  — , 
as  a-\-  b. 

BIPED.  An  animal  with  only  two  legs, 
as  men  and  birds. 


BIS 


57 


BiaUADRATIC.  The  square  squared, 
or  the  fourth  power  of  any  quantity. 

BIRCH  TREE.  A  tree  with  leaves  like 
the  poplar,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a  squamosa 
cone.    The  timber  is  used  for  hop-poles. 

BIRD-BOLT.  A  small  arrow  with  three 
heads,  which  was  discharged  at  birds  from 
a  cross-bow ;  The  bird-bolt  is  still  used 
in  England  as  a  bearing  in  coat  armour. 

BIRDCALL.  A  whistle  or  pipe  to  decoy 
birds. 

BIRDCATCHING.  The  art  of  taking 
birds  or  wild  fowl,  by  birdlime,  nets,  and 
decoys,  which,  as  respects  the  more  artful 
modes  of  catching  birds,  is  called  fowling. 
In  the  western  islands  of  Scotland,  where 
the  birds  live  in  rocks,  a  dangerous  mode 
of  bird  catching  is  in  use. 

BIRDLIME.  A  glutinous  substance, 
made  of  the  bark  of  holly,  which  is  spread 
on  the  twigs  of  trees  to  catch  birds. 

BIRD  OF  PARADISE.  See  Pakadise, 
Bird  of. 

BIRTH.  A  sea  term  for  the  station  in 
which  a  ship  rides  at  anchoring  ground,  as 
a  good  birth,  for  a  good  anchoring  ground. 

BIRTHRIGHT  (in  Law).  Honour  or 
estate  belonging  to  a  person  by  right  of 
his  birth. 

BIRTHWORT.  A  herb  having  a  peren- 
nial root. 

BISCUIT  (from  biscoctus,  twice  baked). 
A  sort  of  bread  much  dried  in  baking;  sea 
biscuit  is  dried  harder  than  any  other,  that 
it  may  be  better  preserved. 

BISECTION.  The  cutting  any  quantity, 
as  a  line  or  angle,  into  two  equal  parts. 

BISON.  A  variety  of  the  ox,  which  has 
its  horns  bent  forwards,  back  gibbous,  and 
mane  long.  It  is  very  common  in  the 
western  prairies.  Herds^of  ten  thousand 
are  sometimes  seen  together.  It  is  im- 
properly  called  Buffalo,  in  the   United 


BISHOP.  A  dignitary  in  the  Greek, 
Romish  and  English  churches.  In  the  lat- 
ter he  presides  over  the  clergy  within  a 
certain  district,  called   his  diocess     Bi- 


58 


BIT 


shops  in  England  are  suffraganSj  or  assist- 
ants, to  the  archbishop,  wlio  is  the  chief 
of  the  clergy  in  his  province.  The  bishop 
is  said  to  be  installed,  the  archbishop  to  be 
enthroned.  In  America  there  is  no  arch- 
bishop. 

BISHOPRIC.  The  diocess,  or  district, 
over  which  a  bishop  presides. 

BISMUTH.  A  metal  of  a  yellowish  or 
reddish  white  colour.  It  is  rather  harder 
than  lead,  and  scarcely  if  at  all  malleable, 
being  very  brittle  ;  it  melts  easily,  and  is 
soluble  in  acids. 

BISSEXTILE,  or  Leap  Year.  A  year 
consisting  of  366  days,  by  the  addition  of 
a  day  in  the  month  of  February,  when 
that  year  consists  of  29  instead  of  28  days. 
This  happens  every  fourth  year.  The  day 
thus  added  is  also  called  Bissextile,  and 
on  this  account,  that  Caesar  appointed  it 
to  be  introduced  by  reckoning  the  twenty- 
fourth  of  February  twice,  and  as  that  day 
was  the  same  as  the  sixth  of  the  calends 
of  March,  a  day  celebrated  among  the 
Romans  on  account  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Tarquins,  it  was  called  bis  sextus  calenda- 
rum  Martii,  and  afterwards  Bissextile.  By 
the  Stat.  21  Hen.  III.  De  Anno  Bissextile, 
to  prevent  misunderstandings,  the  inter- 
calary day  and  that  next  before  it,  are  to 
be  accounted  as  one  day. 

BISTER.  A  colour  made  of  chimney 
Boot  boiled  and  diluted. 

BISTOURY.  A  small  surgical  knife  of 
various  forms,  according  to  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended. 

BIT  (in  Carpentry).  A  boring  instrument 
so  constructed  as  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
handle. 

BIT,  orBiTT  OF  A  BRIDLE.  Thc  iron 
attached  to  the  bridle,  which  ia  put  into 
the  horse's  mouth. 

BITT.  A  sea  term  for  the  two  pieces  of 
timber  to  which  the  anchor  cables  are 
attached. 

BITTER.  A  sea  term  for  the  turn  of  the 
cable  round  the  bitts. 

BITTER  ALMOND.  A  sort  of  almond 
tree,  the  fruit  of  which  is  bitter. 

BITTER-APPLE.  See  CoLOftUiNTiDA. 

BITTER  PRINCIPLE.  The  bitter  parts 
of  vegetable  substances,  which  may  be  ex- 
tracted by  a  chymical  process.  Artificial 
bitter  is  any  bitter  formed  by  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  on  vegetable  and  other  sub- 
stances. 

BITTER-SWEET.  A  sort  of  solanum, 
a  perennial. 

BITTERN, or BITTOUR.  Abirdofthe 
heron  kind,  of  retired  habits,  that  conceals 
itself  in  the  reeds  and  marshes.  It  sends 
forth  a  croaking  note  when  it  is  disturbed. 


BLA 

The  American  Bittern  differs  from  that  of 
Europe  which  is  here  figured. 


BITUMEN.  A  sort  of  mineral  substance 
easily  combustible  with  flame,  greasy  to 
the  touch,  and  when  ignited  emits  a  strong 
odour.  Naphtha  is  a  fluid  bitumen,  asphalt 
a  hard  species,  and  petrolium  a  viscid 
species  of  the  bitumen. 

BIVALVES.  One  of  the  three  general 
classes  of  shellfish,  the  shells  of  which  are 
composed  of  two  pieces,  joined  together  by 
a  hinge. 

BLACK.  A  colour  which  is  supposed  to 
be  produced  by  the  peculiar  texture  of 
bodies,  which  deaden  as  it  were  the  light 
falling  upon  them,  and  reflect  none,  or  very 
little  of  it,  outwards  towards  the  eye. 

BLACK.  A  colour  or  dye,  as  lamp  black, 
the  smoke  of  resin,  prepared  by  melting  it 
in  iron  vessels  ;  ivory  black,  made  of  burnt 
ivory,  and  used  in  miniatures  ;  Spanish 
black,  made  of  burnt  cork,  and  first  used 
by  the  Spaniards. 

BLACKBIRD.  A  well  known  bird  of 
a  beautiful  black  colour  and  an  exquisite 
note.  It  sings  in  the  spring,  and  makes 
its  nest  of  moss  and  grass.  We  have  no 
bird  in  America  precisely  similar  to  the 
European  bird  which  is  here  described. 


Our  crow  blackbird  resembles  it,  but  ia 
larger. 


BLA 

BLACKBERRY.  The  fruit  of  the  bram- 
ble, or  blackberry  bush. 

BLACK  BOOK  (in  England).  A  book 
kept  in  the  Exchequer,  which  contains  the 
orders  of  that  court. 

BLxlCKCAP.  A  little  bird  with  a  fine 
black  crown  on  its  head. 

BLACK  HOLE.  A  place  of  confinement 
for  soldiers. 

BLACK  LEAD.  A  mineral,  the  plum- 
bago or  graphites  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  found 
in  lead  mines,  and  is  fusible  only  by  a 
violent  heat.  Lead  pencils  and  crucibles 
are  made  of  it. 

BLACK  LETTER.  A  sort  of  old  English 
alphabet. 

BLADDER.  A  thin  membranous  sub- 
stance, which  serves  as  the  receptacle  of 
some  fluid,  as  the  urinary  bladder,  and 
the  gall  bladder. 

BLADDER-NUT.  A  tree,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  contained  in  a  membrane  inflat- 
ed like  a  bladder. 

BLADDER  SENNA.  A  shrub  which 
yields  a  papilionaceous  flower,  that  is  suc- 
ceeded by  pods  resembling  the  Inflated 
bladder  of  fishes. 

BLADE.  The  flat  part  of  a  sword  or 
knife,  resembling  the  blade  or  leaf  of 
grass  in  shape. 

BLADEBONE.  The  shoulder  bone. 

BLAIN  (in  Farriery).  A  distemper  in- 
cident to  animals,  being  a  bladder  at 
the  root  of  the  tongue,  which  stops  the 
breath. 

BLANCHFARM  (in  English  Law).  A 
term  for  a  farm  where  the  rent  is  paid  in 
silver,  not  in  black  cattle. 

BLANCHING.  The  art  of  making  any 
thing  white,  as  (in  horticulture)  the  me- 
thod of  whitening  salads.  Blanching  mo- 
ney is  the  annealing,  boiling,  and  cleans- 
ing it  when  it  is  coined.  Blanching  cop- 
per is  done  in  various  ways,  so  as  to  make 
it  resemble  silver.  Blanching  is  also  the 
operation  of  covering  iron  plates  with  a^ 
thin  coat  or  crust  of  tin.  Blanching  al- 
monds is  the  skinning  them  by  means  of 
&ot  water. 

BLANK.  A  void  space  in  any  writing 
or  printing. 

BLANK  VERSE.  That  which  has  no 
rhymes. 

BLANKETS  (in  Printing).  Woollen 
cloths  to  lay  between  the  tympans  of  a 
printing  press,  in  order  to  produce  a  fair 
impression. 

BLANKETS.  A  sea  term,  for  combus- 
tibles made  of  coarse  brown  paper  steeped 
in  nitre,  dried,  and  then  steeped  again  in 
tallow,  resin,  and  sulphur  ;  they  are  used 
in  fireships. 


BLO 


59 


BLAST.  A  disease  in  grain  and  trees  ; 
called  also  a  blight. 

BLASTING  (among  Miners).  The 
tearing  up  rocks  by  the  force  of  gun- 
powder. 

BLASTING  -  BELLOWS.  Bellows 
which  are  used  to  produce  a  more  than  or- 
dinary degree  of  heat  in  furnaces. 

BLAZONRY,  or  BLAZONING.  That 
branch  of  the  art  of  heraldry  which  con- 
sists in  expressing  in  proper  terms  all  that 
belongs  to  coats  of  arms.  The  word  comes 
from  the  German  blasen,  to  blow  ;  be- 
cause a  trumpet  used  to  be  blown  at  justs, 
&c.  previously  to  the  herald's  recording 
the  achievements  of  the  knights. 

BLEACHING.  The  process  of  white- 
ning linen  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and 
air;  or,  as  is  now  more  commonly  in  use, 
by  the  application  of  chymical  prepara- 
tions. 

BLEMISH  (in  Farriery).  Any  imper- 
fection in  a  horse  which  impedes  a  sound 
warrant,  as  broken  knees,  cracked  heels, 
&c. 

BLENDE.    The  ore  of  zinc. 

BLIGHT.  A  disease  incident  to  plants, 
which  consists  in  a  sort  of  fungus,  that 
converts  the  affected  part  into  a  sooty 
mass. 

BLINDS.  A  contrivance  to  prevent  any 
one  seeing  through  a  window  ;  in  Military 
Affairs,  bundles  of  osiers  used  at  the  heads 
of  trenches,  to  protect  the  men. 

BLINDWORM,  or  Slowworm.  A 
worm  so  called  from  the  smallness  of  its 
eyes  and  the  slowness  of  its  motion. 

BLISTER.  A  pustule  in  the  skin,  filled 
with  serum  ;  in  general,  any  swelling 
caused  by  the  separation  of  the  outer  in- 
tegument of  any  substance  from  that 
which  is  underneath. 

BLISTER  (in  Medicine).  The  plas- 
ter or  application  that  raises  a  blister, 
mostly  made  of  the  cantharides,  or  Span- 
ish flies. 

BLOCK.  A  sea  term  for  a  pulley,  or 
series  of  pulleys,  mounted  in  a  frame,  or 
shell,  Vv^hich  serves  to  facilitate  the  pas- 
sage of  the  ropes.  Blocks  are  single,  dou- 
ble, treble,  &c.  according  to  the  number 
of  shivers  in  them  through  which  the  run- 
ning ropes  run. 

SINGLE  BLOCK. 


60 


BLO 

DOUBLE  BLOCK, 


TREBLE  BLOCK. 


BLOCKADE.  The  blocking  up  the 
roads  and  avenues  to  a  place,  by  means  of 
soldiers,  so  as  to  prevent  any  ingress  or 
egress. 

BLOOD.  A  warm  red  fluid,  of  a  salt- 
ish taste  and  urinous  smell,  circulating 
through  every  part  of  the  body  by  means 
of  arteries  and  veins.  The  blood  is  found 
to  contain  an  insipid  water,  which  soon 
becomes  putrid,  an  empyreumatic  oil,  an 
ammoniacal  spirit,  and  the  remainder  car- 
bon. 

BLOOD  (in  Law).  Is  regarded  in  de- 
scent of  lands,  for  a  person  must  be  next 
and  most  worthy  of  blood  in  order  to  in- 
herit his  ancestor's  estate. 

BLOOD-HORSE.  A  breed  of  horses 
originally  from  the  Arabian  stock,  the  ex- 
cellence of  which  consists  in  the  compact- 
ness of  his  fibre,  that  adds  to  his  strength 
without  increasing  his  bulk. 

BLOODHOUND.  A  hunting  dog,  of 
Buch  exquisite  scent,  that  he  will  follow 
the  track  of  men  as  well  as  of  animals, 

BLOOD-RED-HOT.  The  last  degree  of 
heat  given  by  smiths  to  their  iron  in  the 
forge. 

BLOODSHOT.  A  distemper  in  the  eyes, 
when  the  vessels  are  so  distended  as  to 
make  them  appear  red. 

BLOOD-STONE  J^  stone  which  serves 
to  stop  bleeding. 

BLOODSUCKER.  A  leach  which  sucks 
the  blood  of  any  animal  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied. 

BLOWING  GLASS.  The  process  in 
glass  houses  of  forming  glass  into  various 
shapes,  by  means  of  blowing  through  a 
blow-pipe  dipped  into  the  melted  glass. 

BLOW-PIPE.  A  wind  instrument, 
which  consists  of  a  hollow  tube,  ending  in 
a  cavity  as  fine  as  a  wire,  through  which 
air  may  be  directed  with  considerable  force 
against  a  flame,  so  as  to  heat  substances 


BOA 

with  great  rapidity.    It  is  used  by  chy- 
mists,  enamellers,  glassmakers,  &c. 


BLUBBER.  The  fat  of  the  whale  be- 
fore it  is  boiled.  Sea  blubber,  the  vulgar 
name  of  a  shellfish. 

BLUE.  One  of  the  seven  primitive 
colours  into  which  they  are  divided  when 
refracted  through  a  glass  prism.  Blue,  as 
a  colour  in  painting,  is  distinguished  into 
ultramarine,  from  the  azure  stone  ;  blue 
ashes,  used  in  limning,  fresco,  and  minia- 
ture ;  blue  verditer,  a  blue  somewhat  in- 
clining to  a  green  ;  Prussian  blue,  a  colour 
next  to  ultramarine  for  beauty. 

BLUE  BIRD.  A  beautiful  North  Ame- 
rican bird,  with  a  soft  warbling  note, 
which  is  one  of  the  first  harbingers  of 
spring. 

BLUEBOTTLE.  An  animal,  having  a 
bellshaped  flower.  The  flower  is  borne  in 
coats  of  arras. 

BLUEBOTTLE.  A  large  kind  of  fly 
with  a  blue  body. 

BLUEING.  The  process  of  heating  iron 
and  other  metals  in  the  fire,  until  they 
assume  a  blue  colour,  which  is  the  practice 
of  gilders  before  they  apply  the  gold  and 
silver  leaf  to  them. 

BLUFF.  A  sea  term  for  a  high  land 
projecting  almost  perpendicularly  into  the 
sea. 

BLUNDERBUSS,  A  short  brass  gun 
with  a  large  bore. 

BOA  CONSTRICTOR.  A  serpent  of 
immense  size  and  strength,  a  native  of 
Africa  and  India,  measuring  sometimes 
ten  yards  in  length.  It  will  twist  itself 
round  the  bodies  of  oxen  and  other  ani- 
mals, and,  breaking  their  bones,  swallow 
them  whole. 


BOAR.    The  male  of  the  swine.    The 

boar's  head  is  often  borne  in  coats  of  arms- 

BOARD.    A  sea  term,  for  the  space  a 


BOD 

ship  runs  over  between  tack  and  tack,  as 
to  make  short  boards,  that  is,  to  tack  fre- 
quently ;  also  the  ship  itself,  as  to  go 
aboard,  that  is,  into  the  ship  ;  so  board  and 
board  is  said  of  two  ships  coming  so  near 
to  each  other  as  to  touch  by  the  board  over 
the  ship's  side. 

BOARD  (in  Carpentry).  Any  piece  of 
timber  sawed  to  a  less  thickness  than 
about  an  inch  ;  all  above  this  thickness 
are  planks. 

BOARD,  or  Pasteboard.  Layers  of 
paper  so  pasted  together  as  to  make  a  sub- 
stance as  hard  as  a  board. 

BOARDIxVG.  The  fixing  of  boards  for 
any  purpose,  as  a  floor  •,  (in  Naval  Tactics) 
the  entering  a  ship  in  a  forcible  manner. 

BOARDS,  or  by  way  of  contraction, 
Bds.  The  manner  of  doing  books  up  in 
pasteboard  covers,  without  leather. 

BOARD  WAGES.  Money  given  to  ser- 
vants in  lieu  of  diet. 

BOAT.  A  small  open  vessel  worked  on 
rivers  or  small  waters  by  rowing  or  sailing. 


BOM 


61 


BOATBILL.  A  bird  of  South  America., 
havin'g  a  bill  that  resembles  a  boat  in 
shape.  It  lives  upon  fiislj,  and  darts  down 
upon  them  as  they  are  swimming. 

BOATFLY.  An  insect  with  an  inflected 
snout,  that  lives  in  stagnant  waters. 

BOATSWAIN.  A  sea  term,  for  the  offi- 
cer who  has  the  boats,  anchors,  &c.  in  his 
charge. 

BOB,  The  metallic  weight  attached  to 
a  pendulum. 

BOBBIN.    A  sort  of  tape. 

BOBBINS.  Little  pins  of  wood  with  a 
notch,  on  which  thread,  &:c.  is  wound. 

BODKIN.  A  long  sort  of  pin,  on  which 
women  used  to  roll  their  hair. 

BODY  (in  Geometry).  Any  solid  having 
three  dimensions,  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness.  Regular  bodies,  which  have 
all  their  angles  and  sides  similar  and 
equal,  are  of  five  kinds,  namely,  tetrae- 
dron,  a  body  contained  under  four  equi- 
lateral triangles  ;  hexaedron,  a  body  con- 
taining six  squares  ;  octaedron,  a  body  hav- 
ing eight  triangles  ;  dodecaedron,  a  body 
containing  twelve  pentagons  ;  icosaedron, 
a  body  containing  twenty  triangles.  Ir- 
regular bodies  are  solids  which  are  not 
bounded  by  equal,  and  like  surfaces. 
6 


BODY  (in  Physics).  An  extended  solid 
substance,  consisting  of  hard,  impenetra- 
ble, moveable  particles.  It  is  a  hard  body 
when  its  parts  do  not  easily  yield  to  any 
stroke  or  percussion  ;  a  soft  body  when  it 
yields  to  every  stroke, and  thereby  under- 
goes a  change  ;  an  elastic  body,  that 
changes  its  form  with  every  stroke,  but  re- 
covers it  again  when  the  impelling  force  is 
removed. 

BODY.  In  the  phrase  '  to  bear  a  body,' 
a  term  applied  by  painters  to  any  colour 
which  is  of  a  nature  to  be  ground  so  free- 
ly, and  to  mix  with  oil  so  entirely,  as  to 
seem  one  thick  oil  of  the  same  colour. 

BODY.  Of  a  chymical  vessel,  that 
which  holds  the  matter  in  distillation. 
Body  of  a  punip,  the  tliickest  part  of  the 
barrel  or  pipe.  Body,  in  an  army,  any 
number  of  forces  united  under  one  com- 
mander. 

BOHEA  TEA.  One  of  the  superior 
kinds  of  tea  that  comes  from  China. 

BOILING  POINT.  The  fixed  point  or 
degree  of  heat  required  to  produce  the 
ebullition  or  boiling  of  a  fluid.  Every  li- 
quid has  a  fixed  point  at  which  boiling 
commences,  and  this  is  called  the  boiling 
point.  Thus  water  begins  to  boil  at  the 
temperature  of  212°.  After  a  liquid  has 
begun  to  boil,  it  will  not  become  hotter, 
for  although  a  stronger  heat  makes  all  li- 
quids boil  more  rapidly,  yet  it  does  not  in- 
crease their  temperature. 

BOLE.  A  friable  earth  of  the  argillace- 
ous kind,  which  unites  with  water  so  as  to 
form  a  paste.  The  Armenian  bole,  or  bole 
armeniac,  is  a  bright  red  coloured  earth, 
so  called  from  Armenia,  the  country  from 
which  it  is  procured. 

BOLL.  A  measure  of  two  bushels. 

BOLOGNA  STONE.  A  phosphoric 
stone,  first  found  at  Bologna  in  Italy.  It 
is  a  gray  soft  sulph\ireous  stone,  about  the 
size  of  a  large  walnut,  which  shines  in 
the  dark  after  calcination.  This  stone  is 
the  native  sulphate  of  carytes. 

BOLSTER.  A  soft  pillow  for  a  broken 
limb  5  in  Farriery,  it  is  the  name  of  those 
parts  of  a  saddle  which  are  raised  upon 
the  bows  to  receive  the  rider's  thighs. 

BOLSTER.  A  sea  term,  for  a  piece  of 
timber  cut  and  placed  for  the  easement  of 
the  cable. 

BOLT.  An  iron  pin  used  for  strength- 
ening timber. 

BOLUS.  An  internal  medicine,  of  a 
consistency  thicker  than  honey, 

BOMB.  A  hollow  hall  of  cast  iron, 
filled  with  combustibles,  and  discharged 
from  a  mortar  into  towns,  when,  by  burst- 
ing, it  causes  much  mischief. 


62 


BON 


BOMBARDMENT.  The  discharging  of 
bombs  into  a  besieged  place. 

BOMBIC  ACID.  An  acid  liquor  con- 
tained in  a  reservoir  near  the  anns  of  the 
silkworm. 

BOMBKETCH.  A  small  vessel  built 
and  strengthened  with  large  beams,  for 
the  use  of  mortars  at  sea. 


BOMPERNICKEL.  A  name  given  in 
derision  to  the  German  rye-bread,  signify- 
ing, good  for  nothing. 

BONA  FIDE.  With  good  faith  ;  with- 
out fraud  or  subterfuge. 

BOND  (in  Law).  An  obligation  or 
covenant  in  writing  to  pay  any  sum,  or 
perform  any  contract. 

BOND  (in  Carpentry).  The  binding  of 
any  two  pieces  together  by  tenanting,  mor- 
ticing, &.C.  In  Masonry,  it  is  the  disposi- 
tion of  stones  or  bricivs  in  a  building,  so 
that  they  most  aptly  fit  together  ;  stones 
having  their  length  placed  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  are  called  headers,  and 
those  whose  length  extends  along  the  face 
or  exterior  of  the  wall  are  called  stretchers. 

BOND-TIMBERS.  The  horizontal  tim- 
bers bedded  in  stone  or  brick  wails,  for 
etrengthsning  the  masonry. 

BONDSMAN.  One  bound  or  giving  se- 
curity for  another. 

BONE.  A  hard,  dry,  insensible  part  of 
the  body,  composed  of  a  spongy  reticular 
substance,  and  an  oily  matter  called  mar- 
row. There  is  also  a  considerable  portion 
of  phosphate  of  lime  that  enters  into  their 
composition.  The  bones  of  the  human 
body  are  in  number  about  250. 

BONE.  A  sea  term,  in  the  phrase  '  To 
carry  a  bone  in  her  mouth,'  applied  to  a 
fihip  when  she  makes  the  water  foam  be- 
fore her  in  sailing. 

BONE-LACE.  Lacs  made  of  bobbins 
that  are  formed  from  bones. 

BONES.  A  sort  of  bobbins  made  of 
trotter-bones,  for  weaving  bone  lace. 

BONES.  A  name  in  Matliematics  given 
to  Lord  Napier's  rods  for  facilitating  arith- 
metical calculations. 

BONING.  A  term  among  surveyors,  to 


BOO 

denote  the  laying  poles  upon  the  ground 
in  such  a  manner  that  all  may  lie  in  a 
straight  line. 

BONNET  (in  Heraldry).  A  cap  of  vel- 
vet worn  without  a  coronet. 

BONNET.  A  sea  term,  for  the  addition 
of  a  small  sail  made  to  fasten  with  latct>- 
ings  to  the  foot  of  the  other  sails. 

BONNET  (in  Fortification).  A  small 
work  composed  of  two  faces,  usually  raised 
before  the  saliant  angle  of  the  counteii»- 
scarp. 

BONZE.  A  priest  in  China,  Japan,  and 
Farther  India  who  wears  a  chaplet  of 
beads  about  his  neck,  and  carries  a  staff, 
having  a  wooden  bird  at  one  end. 

BOOBY.  A  South  American  bird  of  the 
pelican  tribe. 

BOOK.  Any  folded  leaves  vs^hich  are 
or  may  be  written  upon  ;  also  a  general 
name  for  any  literary  composition,  but 
more  particularly  any  composition  large 
enough  tobs  formed  into  a  volume.  Before 
the  ase  of  books  or  volumes  things  wera 
committed  to  writing  on  stone,  wood,  bark, 
&c.  The  Decalogue  was  written  on  tables 
of  stone  ;  so  likewise,  as  we  learn  from 
Josephus,  the  children  of  Seth  wrote  their 
inventions  and  astronomical  observations 
on  two  columns,  one  of  brick  and  the  other 
of  stone,  the  latter  of  which  was  standing 
in  his  day.  Hesiod's  works  were  originally 
written  upon  tables  of  lead  ;  Solon's  laws 
upon  wooden  planks,  &c.  and  the  Parian 
Chronicle,  or  a  chronicle  of  the  affairs  of 
Athens,  on  marbles,  which  are  now  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Arundelian.  The 
Scythians,  Celts,  and  their  several  de^ 
scendants,  the  Goths,  Teutones,  &c.  also 
used  to  write  on  trees  vv^hatever  they 
thought  worthy  to  preserve  in  writing. 
Tables  of  wood,  box,  and  ivory  were  also 
common  among  the  ancients  ;  but  we  find 
that  the  Romans  were  accustomed  to  write 
upon  tables  of  wax,  by  means  of  a  style 
or  bodkin,  so  contrived  that  they  could 
also  erase  what  they  pleased.  The  finest 
and  thinnest  parts  of  the  bark  of  trees,  as 
of  the  lime,  the  ash,  the  maple,  and  the 
elm,  were  also  employed,  whence  the  Lat- 
in name  liber  signifies  both  book  and  bark. 
The  English  word  book  is  derived  imme>» 
diately  from  the  Saxon  boec,  Low  Gep- 
man  bok.  High  German  buch ;  and  is 
either  from  buch,  which  signifies  a  beech, 
because  the  bark  of  this  kind  of  tree  was 
used  ;  or  from  biegen,  to  bend,  because 
the  leaves  were  folded  or  bent  into  the 
form  of  a  book.  When  books  were  rolled 
up,  they  were  on  that  account  called 
volumen,  a  volume,  a  name  afterwards 
given  to  paper  and  parchment  folded  toge- 


BOO 

ther.  Sometimes  the  roil  consisted  of  seve- 
ral sheets  of  bark  fastened  together  and 
rolled  upon  a  stick,  called  an  umbilicus. 
Before  the  introduction  of  printing,  books 
were  become  so  scarce  in  the  middle  ages, 
that,  in  Spain,  one  and  the  same  copy  of 
the  Bible,  St.  Jerome's  Epistles,  and  some 
few  volumes  of  ecclesiastical  offices  served 
several  different  monasteries.  Since  that 
period  the  increase  of  books  has  been  pro- 
digious ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  dilfer- 
ent  editions,  modes  of  printing,  size,  type, 
and  other  particulars  connected  either 
with  the  external  form  or  internal  con- 
tents, the  knowledge  cf  books  has  become 
a  particular  study  and  pursuit,  under  the 
name  of  bibliography. 

BOOKBINDING.  The  process  of  bind- 
ing books,  or  putting  the  sheets  together 
into  the  form  of  books.  The  bookbinder 
receives  the  sheets  which  compose  a  book 
immediately  from  the  prmter,  and  after 
having  folded  them  in  the  order  of  the  sig- 
natures, or  letters  at  the  bottom  of  the  page, 
they  are  first  beaten  with  a  hammer  on  a 
stone,  to  make  them  lie  close  and  smooth  ; 
after  which  they  are  put  into  a  press,  and 
sewed  with  bands,  or  strips  of  leather  fas- 
tened at  certain  distances,  which,  being  all 
glued  together  very  firmly,  form  the  back 
of  tlie  book,  to  which  the  pasteboards  are 
attached  by  means  of  the  bands,  so  as  to 
form  the  sides.  In  all  this  process  of  fix- 
ing on  the  sides,  much  art  and  nicety  is 
required  in  rounding  the  back,  and  keeping 
the  whole  firmly  fixed  in  the  press.  After 
this  the  book  is  put  into  the  cutting-press 
between  two  boards,  one  lying  even  w^ith 
the  press  for  the  knife  to  run  upon,  the 
other  above,  for  the  knife  to  run  against. 
In  this  manner  the  leaves  and  boards  are 
cut  to  form  an  even  edge.  The  next  ope- 
ration is  the  sprinkling  ofthe  leaves,  which 
15  done  by  means  of  a  brush  dipped  in 
vermilion  and  sap  green.  The  covers  of 
leather,  &c.  being  first  moistened,  are  cut 
to  the  size  ofthe  book,  smeared  with  paste, 
and  then  stretched  successively  over  the 
back  and  the  two  sides,  after  having  taken 
off  the  four  angles,  and  indented  and  plat- 
ted the  cover  at  the  head  band.  When 
thus  far  finished,  the  book  is  covered  and 
bound  between  two  bands  and  set  to  dry. 
It  is  aftei-wards  washed  with  paste  and 
water,  and  then  sprinkled  with  a  brush, 
unless  it  is  to  be  marbled,  which  is  done 
by  making  spots  with  vitriol.  The  book 
is  then  glazed  with  the  white  of  an  eggr, 
and,  lastly,  polished  with  a  hort  iron. 
The  letters  and  ornaments  are  made  with 
gilding  tools,  or  brass  cylinders,  rolled 
along  by  a  handle  :  to  apply  the  gold,  the 


BOO 


63 


leather  is  glazed  with  a  liquor  made  of 
the  white  of  eggs,  diluted  with  water, 
and  when  nearly  dry  the  gold  is  laid  on. 
Such  is  the  process  when  a  book  is  fully 
bound  ;  but  books  may  sometimes  be  only 
sewed  and  have  a  paper  cover,  when  they 
are  said  to  be  sewed :  sometimes  the 
boards  are  covered  with  paper  oni}'^  when 
they  are  said  to  be  in  boards  ;  and  some- 
times they  have  a  leather  covering  on  the 
back,  extending  a  small  way  over  each 
side,  when  they  are  said  to  be  half  bound. 
EOOK-KEEl'iNG.  The  art  of  keeping 
accounts,  or  recording  tlie  mercantile  trans- 
actions of  a  man,  so  thathe  may  thoroughly 
know  the  whole  state  of  his  affairs,  or  any 
part  of  them,  with  ease  and  despatch. 
Accounts  may  be  kept  either  by  single  or 
double  entry  ;  the  former  of  which  may 
answer  the  purpose  wliere  the  dealings  are 
on  a  small  scale,  but  merchants,  whose  con- 
cerns are  extensive,  keep  their  books  accor- 
ding to  the  double  entry,  or  Italian  method. 
In  single  entry  two  books  only  are  wanted, 
namely,  a  journal,  or  day  book,  in  which 
the  transactions  of  the  day,  as  they  occur 
in  the  course  of  business,  are  entered  ;  and 
the  ledger,  or  post  book,  in  which  all  the 
accounts  drawn  out  of  the  journal  are 
placed  under  the  proper  name,  either  on 
the  debtor  or  creditor  side.  Those  who 
keep  their  accounts  by  double  entry,  iiave 
occasion  for  several  books,  the  three  prin- 
cipal of  which  are,  the  waste  book,  the 
journal,  and  the  ledger.  The  waste  book 
is  a  book  containing  an  inventory  of  a 
merchant's  effects  and  debts,  with  a  dis- 
tinct record  of  all  his  dealings.  The  act  of 
placmg  any  transaction  under  a  given  ac- 
count is  called  the  entry  ;  if  placed  on  the 
Dr.  or  debtor's  side,  it  is  debiting  the 
account  :  if  placed  on  the  Cr.  or  creditor's 
side,  it  is  crediting.  The  waste  book  opens 
with  the  inventory,  which  consists  of  two 
parts  ;  namely ,  in  the  first  place,  of  a  man's 
effects,  and  what  is  due  to  him ;  and  in 
the  next  place,  what  is  due  by  him.  After 
the  inventory  follow  the  daily  transactions 
as  they  occur  in  business.  The  accounts  of 
persons  are  debited  under  their  respective 
names  when  they  become  indebted  to  the 
merchant,  and  credited  when  the  merchant 
becomes  indebted  to  them.  Accounts  of 
property  are  debited  when  they  come  into 
his  possession,  and  credited  when  they  go 
out  of  it.  In  the  same  manner  the  accounts 
of  profit  and  loss  are  kept,  which  are  de- 
bited on  account  of  a  loss,  and  credited  on 
account  of  a  gain.  Those  marked  Dr.  are 
placed  on  the  left  side,  and  those  marked 
Cr.  on  the  opposite  side,  marked  Contra  Cr. 
This  book  should  contain  the  names  of  per- 


64 


BOO 


Bons  with  whom  the  merchant  deals,  the 
conditions  of  bargains,  the  terms  of  pay- 
ment, the  quantity,  quality,  and  prices  of 
goods,  with  every  other  particular  needful 
to  be  recorded.  The  journal,  or  day  book, 
is  intermediate  between  the  waste  book 
and  the  ledger,  wherein  the  transactions 
recorded  in  the  waste  book  are  prepared 
to  be  carried  to  the  ledger,  by  having  the 
proper  debtors  and  creditors  ascertained 
and  placed  in  order.  In  the  journal,  per- 
sons and  things  are  debtors  to  other  persons 
and  things  as  creditors,  and  in  this  it  agrees 
with  the  ledger,  but  in  other  respects  it 
agrees  with  the  waste  book.  Every  case 
or  transaction  entered  into  the  journal  is 
called  a  journal  post,  or  entrance.  The 
ledger  is  the  principal  book,  in  which  all 
the  several  articles  of  each  particular  ac- 
count that  lie  scattered  in  other  books, 
according  to  their  several  dates,  are  col- 
lected and  placed  together  in  such  manner 
that  the  opposite  parts  of  every  account 
are  directly  set  fronting  one  another,  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  same  folio  ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  debtor,  or  dz^btor  part,  is  entered 
on  the  left  or  debtor  sid*  of  its  own  account, 
where  it  is  charged  debtor  to  the  cr&ditor 
part ;  and  the  creditor,  or  creditor  part,  is 
posted  to  the  right  or  creditor  side  of  its 
account,  and  made  creditor  by  the  debtor 
part.  Hence  it  is  that  the  Italian  method 
of  book-keeping  is  said  to  be  by  double 
entry,  because  every  single  case  of  the 
waste  book  requires  to  be  entered  twice  in 
the  ledger,  that  is,  once  for  the  debtor  and 
once  for  the  creditor.  In  addition  to  the 
above  three  books,  most  merchants  have 
several  other  books,  as  the  cash  book, 
which  contains  in  debtor  and  creditor  all 
the  cash  that  comes  in  and  goes  out ;  the 
debt  book,  in  which  are  entered  all  sums 
that  become  due,  either  to  be  received  or 
paid,  by  bills  of  exchange,  notes  of  hand, 
&c.  ;  besides  this,  some  merchants  require 
a  book  of  invoices,  a  book  of  commissions, 
a  book  of  orders  or  advices,  &c.  according 
to  the  nature  of  their  transactions. 

BOOKSELLER.  One  who  deals  or 
trades  in  books,  particularly  one  who  sells 
the  books  printed  by  others,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  publisher,  who  sells  the 
books,  that  are  printed  on  his  own  account. 
The  bookselling  business  has  always  held  a 
higher  rank  than  any  other  common  trade  ; 
and  on  the  continent,  as  at  Tubingen,  Salis- 
burg,  and  Paris,  booksellers  class  with  the 
members  of  the  learned  professions,  and 
have  the  privileges  of  students  at  the  uni- 
versity. On  the  introduction  of  printing, 
the  bookseller,  printer,  and  scholar  were 
one  aF»d  the  same  person. 


BOR 

BOOKWORM.  A  little  insect  which 
breeds  and  eats  holes  in  books,  especially 
when  damp. 

BOOM.  A  sea  term,  for  a  long  pole  to 
extend  the  bottoms  of  particular  sails,  as 
the  jib  boom,  studding  sail  boom.  The 
boom  of  a  harbour,  a  strong  iron  chain 
thrown  across  a  harbour,  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  an  enemy. 

BOOR.  Properly,  a  peasant ;  particu- 
larly applied  to  the  rude  peasantry  of 
Russia. 

BOOT  OF  A  COACH.  The  space  un- 
derneath between  the  coachman  and  the 
body  of  the  coach. 

BOOTES.  A  northern  constellation,  con- 
sisting of  fifty-four  stars,  according  to  Mr. 
Flamstead. 

BORACIC  ACID.  An  acid  drawn  from 
borax  by  combustion. 

BORAX.  A  substance  dug  out  of  wells 
in  Thibet,  and  imported  from  India.  It 
is  sometimes  in  the  form  of  solid  grains, 
sometimes  in  large  crystals,  enclosed  in  a 
fatty  matter. 

BORDER,  or  BORDURE.  An  ordinary 
in  Heraldry,  so  called  because  it  borders 
round,  and  as  it  were  hems  in  the  field. 
Borders  are  charged  with  things  natural 
and  artificial,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
field 


BORDERERS.  Those  who  lived  on  the 
borders  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  were 
formerly  engaged  in  perpetual  hostilities. 

BORE.  The  hollow  of  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance. 

BORE-COLE,  or  Curled  Colewort. 
A  hardy  sort  of  kale,  which  is  improved 
by  the  frost. 

BORER..  A  piercer,  or  instrument  to 
bore  holes  with. 

BORING.  The  method  of  piercing  the 
earth  in  search  of  minerals. 

BOROUGH.  From  the  German  burg  ; 
it  formerly  signified  a  fenced  town,  but  in 
England  is  now  taken  for  any  corporate 
town  that  is  not  a  city,  and  that  sends 
members  to  parliament :  in  Scotland  there 
are  still  royal  burghs,  or  boroughs,  that  are 
held  of  the  king.  Rotten  Boroughs,  are 
ancient  towns,  with  the  privilege  of  send- 
ing members  to  Parliament,  which  are 
now  reduced,  and  have  but  a  few  persons 
'  living  in  them, 


BOT 

BOROUGH-ENGLISH.  A  customary 
descent  of  land  in  some  places  to  the 
younger  sons. 

BOS.  The  generic  name  in  the  Linneean 
system  for  all  animals  of  the  ox  tribe,  as 
the  bison,  buffaloe,  common  ox,  musk  ox, 
&c. 

BOTANY.  The  science  which  teaches 
the  knowledge  of  plants,  as  to  their  dis- 
criminating characters,  structure,  growth, 
culture,  diseases,  and  the  like.  Plants  are 
distinguished  into  natural  orders,  as  trees, 
the  stems  of  which  send  forth  branches 
from  the  middle  and  top :  shrubs,  the  stems 
of  which  send  forth  branches  from  the 
bottom  :  undershrubs,  when  the  stems  of 
the  shrubs  perish:  herbs, which  bear  flowers 
and  seeds,  and  then  die  ;  if  they  die  at  the 
end  of  one  year  they  are  called  annuals,  if 
at  the  end  of  two  years  biennials,  if  they 
last  three  or  more  years  they  are  perennials: 
fungi  are  fleshy,  coriaceous,  or  woody : 
algcG,  or  seaweeds,  have  neither  stems  nor 
leaves :  mosses,  which  have  only  leaves 
and  fruit :  ferns,  that  never  send  forth  more 
than  one  leaf  on  a  footstalk  :  grasses, 
which  are  distinguished  by  their  stem, 
which  is  a  culm  or  straw :  lilies,  which 
have  a  tuberous  or  bulbous  root :  palms, 
which  have  an  arboreous  stem,  from  which 
the  leaves  grow,  and  not  the  branches. 

The  parts  of  plants  are  distinguished 
generally  into  the  root,  the  stem,  the  bud, 
the  leaf,  tlie  inflorescence,  and  the  fructifi- 
cation. The  root  is  the  part  through  which 
the  plant  derives  nourishment  from  the 
earth  ;  a  plant  is  either  annual,  biennial,  or 
perennial,  according  to  the  time  that  the 
root  lasts.  Roots  are  sometimes  called 
Jleshy,  when  they  consist  of  a  fleshy  pro- 
longation ;  fibrous,  when  they  consist  of 
many  fibrous  prolongations ;  tuberoius, 
when  they  consist  of  a  thick  fleshy  sub- 
stance, as  the  potatoe  ;  bulbous,  when  they 
consist  of  a  bulb  or  fleshy  body,  provided 
with  several  coats,  as  the  onion  or  the  lily  ; 
granulated,  when  they  have  a  cluster  of 
little  bulbs,  as  in  the  saxifrage  ;  creeping, 
when  they  have  a  horizontal  prolongation 
of  the  root  growing  under  the  earth,  and 
sending  forth  new  plants  of  its  kind,  as 
couchgrass. 

The  stem  is  the  prolongation  of  the  plant 
above  the  soil,  proceeding  from  the  root. 
The  woody  stem  of  trees  is  the  trunk  •,  that 
which  is  herbaceous  is  the  stalk,  and  be- 
longs only  to  herbaceous  plants  ;  but  the 
stalk  of  grasses,  rushes,  and  similar  plants, 
is  called  the  culm  ;  and  when  the  stalk 
bears  flowers  and  fruits  immediately  from 
the  root,  and  not  leaves,  it  is  a  scape,  as 
In  the  primrose  and  cowslip  ;  the  stalk 


BOT 


^ 


which  springs  from  the  stem  or  branches, 
bearing  the  flower  and  fruit,  is  the  pedun- 
cle or  flower  stalk  ;  that  which  bears  the 
leaf  only  is  the  petiole,  or  footstalk. 

The  bud  is  that  part  of  the  plant  which 
contains  the  embryo  of  the  leaves,  flowers, 
&c.,  and  serves  as  their  hybernaculum,  or 
winter  receptacle.  The  bud  is  guarded  by 
scales,  and  furnished  with  gum,  or  wool, 
as  an  additional  defence.  The  moss  bud 
is  a  roundish  longish  body,  proceeding  from 
the  mother  plant,  and  becoming  itself  a 
new  one  ;  the  gongylus  is  a  knob  belong- 
ing to  the  seaweed,  which  falls  off"  on  the 
death  of  the  mother  plant,  and  becomes  a 
new  one. 

The  leaf  is  the  herbaceous  production 
from  the  ascending  stem;  when  tlie  stalk 
and  leaf  are  so  intimately  connected  that 
they  cannot  be  distinguished,  this  is  called 
a  frond,  as  in  the  palms  and  the  algte.  To 
the  leaf  belong  several  appendages,  which 
serve  either  for  ornament  or  some  specific 
use,  as  the  bractes,  or  floral  leaf,  that 
stands  near  or  between  the  flowers,  form- 
ing a  tuft,  as  in  the  pineapple;  the  stipula, 
a  small  leaf  that  appears  on  the  stem,  in 
the  place  of  a  footstalk;  the  sheath,  a  pro- 
longation of  the  leaf  that  rolls  itself  round 
the  stem,  as  in  grasses;  the  ascidium,  or 
bottle,  afoliaceous  cylindrical  hollow  body, 
■which  is  generally  furnished  with  a  cover, 
andcontains  water;  theampulla, or  bladder, 
a  round  hollow  body  at  the  roots  of  water 
plants;  the  gland,  a  round  body  situated 
on  the  leaves,  which  serves  as  an  organ  of 
respiration;  the  spine,  or  thorn,  that  rises 
in  the  interior  of  the  plant,  as  in  the  sloe; 
the  aculeus,  or  prickle,  that  issues  from  the 
bark;  the  cirous  clasper,  or  tendril,  a  fili- 
form body  which  serves  to  support  weak 
plants,  as  in  the  vine,  &c.;  the  arista,  or 
awn,  a  pointed  beard  in  grasses;  the  pili, 
hairs,  fine  slender  bodies,  Avhich  include  all 
kinds  of  pubescence,  as  bristles,  wool,  &c. 
some  of  which  discharge  a  poison,  as  in  the 
nettle. 

The  inflorescence  is  the  mode  of  flower- 
ing, which  differs  very  much  in  different 
plants,  and  is  distinguished  intoverticillus, 
the  whorl,whichconsists  of  several  flowers, 
standing  at  intervals, surrounding  thestem, 
as  in  the  mint;  the  racemus,  the  raceme, 
a  peduncle  with  short  lateral  branches,  as 
in  the  currant  and  the  vine,&c. ;  the  corym- 
bus,  or  corymb,  an  erect  raceme,  the  lower 
peduncles  of  which  are  so  lengthened  as  to 
be  of  equal  height  with  the  upper;  when 
the  peduncles  take  their  rise  from  the  same 
centre,  but  the  subdivisions  are  irregular, 
it  is  a  cyme;  when  the  peduncles  riso 
from  the  same  centre,  but  the  whole  is 


66 


BOTANY. 


disposed  in  regular  order,  it  is  an  umbel; 
the  capital uni  has  many  flowers,  standing 
thick,  so  as  to  form,  a  head,  as  in  the  globe- 
amaranth;  the  fasciculus, fascicle  or  bundle, 
a  number  of  simple  peduncles  rising  at  the 
foot  of  the  stem  from  several  points,  as  in 
the  sweetwilliam;  the  spica,  or  ear,  as  in 
wheat  and  barley;  the  panicula,  or  pani- 
cle, in  which  the  flowers  or  fruits  are 
scattered  on  branches  unequally  divided, 
as  in  the  oat  grass;  the  spadix,  so  called 
from  the  spadix  vagina,  or  sheath,  which 
contains  the  flower  stalks;  the  amentum, 
or  catkin,  a  long  stem  thickly  covered 
with  scales,  under  which  are  the  flowers 
or  essential  parts,  as  in  the  willow  and 
hazel;  the  sorus,  or  mass,  an  inflorescence 
peculiar  to  the  ferns,  which  have  masses 
of  seed  capsules  in  their  fronds. 

The  fructification  consists  of  the  flower 
and  the  fruit.  The  principal  parts  of  the 
flower  are,  1.  The  calyx,  or  flowercap,  or 
envelope  of  green  leaves,  which,  when  it 
immediately  encloses  the  flower,  is  a  peri- 
anth; when  it  contains  many  flowers  in 
one  is  an  anthodium;  when  it  consists  of 
many  leaves  surrounding  the  flower,  as  in 
umbelliferous  plants,  is  an  involuere.  The 
calyx  of  grasses  is  called  the  glume;  when 
it  rolls  itself  round  the  stem,  as  in  some 
grasses,  it  is  called  the  vagina,  or  sheath; 
and  in  some  aquatic  plants  the  spatha,  or 
spathe.  2.  The  corolla,  or  blossom,  the 
envelope  of  small  leaves  of  various  colours 
which  constitute  the  flower  properly  so 
called;  the  divisions  of  the  corolla  are 
called  the  petals;  the  parts  of  the  corolla 
are  the  tubus,  the  tube,  the  hollow  under- 
part  of  a  corolla  that  has  but  one  petal; 
limbus,  the  border  or  opening  of  the  co- 
rolla; labia,  the  lips;  barba,  the  beard; 
rictus,  the  gape  between  the  extremities  of 
the  lips;  faux,  the  throat  or  the  opening  of 
the  tube;  nectarium,  the  nectary,  which 
commonly  serves  to  secrete  a  sweet  juice; 
this  is  sometimes  in,  the  shape  of  a  hood, 
and  is  called  the  cucuUus,  or  hood,  as  in 
the  aconite  or  monkshood;  sometimes  in 
the  shape  of  a  spur,  called  calcar,  as  in  the 
violet;  also  in  that  of  an  arch,  a  crown, 
&c.  3.  The  stamen  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  flower,  which  consists  of  the  filament 
or  thread  that  supports  the  anther;  anthera, 
the  anther,  a  hollow  cellular  body;  and 
pollen,  the  powder  or  fine  dust  contained 
in  the  anther.  4.  The  pistil,  the  second 
essential  part  of  a  flower,  stands  in  the 
centre  of  the  cirrle  formed  by  the  stamen, 
and  consists  of  the  gerrnen,  the  rudiments 
of  the  future  fr'-.it  or  seed;  the  stylus,  style 
or  shaft,  asmail  stalk  seated  on  the  germen; 
«.nd  the  stigma,  the  top  of  the  style. 


The  fruit  proceeds  from  the  germen,  and 
consists  of,  1,  the  pericarpium,  pericarp, 
or  seed  vessel,  a  hard  hollow  body,  that  ia 
of  different  kinds,  as  capsula,  a  capsule,  or 
thin  coat,  divided  into  cells;  a  siliqua,  or 
pod,  a  dry  elongated  pericarp,  consisting 
of  halves  or  valves,  as  in  the  mustard;  the 
legumen,  the  legume,  as  in  the  pea  kind; 
nux,  the  nut,  a  pericarp  covered  with  a 
hard  shell;  drupa,  or  drupe,  a  nut  covered 
with  a  fleshy  coat,  as  in  the  plum;  bacca., 
the  berry , a  succulent  fruit  containing  many 
seeds,  as  the  gooseberry,  the  currant,  &c. 
2.  The  semen,  or  seed,  that  part  of  the  plant 
destined  for  propagation,  consists  of  dif- 
ferent parts,  as  the  cotyledones,  colyledona 
or  seed  leaves;  corculum,  the  circle  or  little 
heart,  the  germ  of  the  new  plant;  hylum, 
the  eye,  the  deep  sear  in  the  seed  which 
has  been  occupied  by  the  circle;  plumula, 
the  plumule,  or  that  part  of  the  circle 
which  ascends  to  form  the  leaves;  rostel- 
lum,  the  other  part  of  the  circle,  which 
descends  to  form  the  root.  Besides  the 
seed  is  furnished  with  different  appendages, 
as  arillus,  the  aril,  a  soft  membrane  ex- 
tended over  the  seed;  pappus,  the  down; 
Cauda,  the  tail;  rostrum,  the  beak;  and 
various  spines,  or  hooks,  &c.  which  serve 
to  attach  the  seeds  to  difterent  bodies,  and 
promote  their  dispersion.  3.  1  he  basis,  or 
base,  is  the  receptacle  or  body  on  which 
the  flower  stands,  the  principal  part  of 
which  is  the  thalamus,  or  fruit  bed;  when 
this  is  round  or  oblong  it  is  called  pelta, 
a  target ;  when  plateshaped,  scutella,  a 
shield;  when  convex,  tuberculum,  &c. 

Besides  the  science  of  botany  compre- 
hends also  a  knowledge  of  plants  a^  to  their 
vegetation,  anatomy,  chymical  composi- 
tion, and  diseases,  which  are  all  included 
under  the  physiology  of  plants.  The  veg 
etation  of  plants  may  be  distinguished  into 
germination,  when  the  seed  begins  to  burst; 
vernation,  when  the  buds  begin  to  burst; 
virginity,  when  the  flowers  or  buds  are  not 
yet  unfolded;  defoliation,  when  the  leaves 
in  autumn  begin  to  fall  ofl";  sleep,  when 
during  the  night  the  leaves  hang  down; 
ffistivation,  when  the  flower  is  in  perfec- 
tion; fructification,  when  the  anthers 
communicate  the  fructifying  dust  to  tho 
neighbouring  parts. 

1  he  anatomical  structure  of  plants  com- 
prehends the  cuticle,  the  cortex  or  outer 
bark;  the  liber,  or  inner  hark;  the  libur- 
num,  or  soft  wood;  lignum,  the  wood; 
medulla,  the  pith;  the  air  vessels,  which 
are  the  conductors  of  the  air;  the  adducent 
or  spiral  vessels,  which  proceed  with  or 
are  entwined  round  the  air  vessels;  the 
reducent  vessels,  which  are  supposed  to 


BOTANY. 


67 


eerve  the  purpose  of  transpiration;  the 
lymphatics,  which  are  reticularly  united; 
the  cellular  texture,  a  delicate  membrane 
surrounding  all  the  vessels,  and  containing 
a  resinous  juice,  as  in  the  fir  tribe,  and  a 
gummy  juice  in  fruit  trees;  the  glands, 
which  serve  as  secretory  vessels. 

The  principal  chymical  constituents  of 
plants  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
but  chiefly  the  former,  besides  which  azote, 
sulphur,  and  other  simple  substances,  may 
be  found  in  small  quantities.  The  princi- 
pal compound  substances  which  form  the 
sensible  ingredients  of  plants  are,  the  acids, 
mucilage,  sugar,  starch,  albumen,  gluten, 
fixed  and  volatile  oil,  wax,  resin,  camphor, 

The  principal  diseases  to  which  plants 
are  incident  are,  fissures,,  or  a  separ-atixju 
of  the  solids  into  long  clefts,  arising  from 
an  extreme  fulness  of  juice;  premature 
defoliation,  when  the  leaves  fall  off  before 
the  usual  period;  albigo  mildew,  a  whitish 
mucilaginous  coating  of  the  leaves  of 
plants,  which  causes  their  decay;  rubigo, 
rust  which  appears  on  the  leaves  and  stems 
of  many  plants;  lepra,  leprosy,  which  af- 
fects the  trunk  ;  gallie,  galls,  occasioned 
by  flying  insects;  verrucas,  warts;  besides 
hiBmorrage,   canker,  exulceration,  &c. 

BOTANY,  History  of.  As  the  practice 
of  cultivating  plants  both  for  pleasure  and 
utility  was  coeval  with  the  first  formation 
of  man,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the 
science  of  botany  was  one  of  the  earliest 
studies  which  engaged  the  attention  of  in- 
quirers. Aristotle,  in  his  history  of  ani- 
mals, has  many  remarks  on  pla-nts,  draw- 
ing a  comparison  between  their  mod«  of 
growth  and  that  of  animals,  and  pointing 
out  in  what  animal  and  vegetable  life  agree 
and  in  what  they  differ.  His  disciple, 
Theophrastus,  has  devoted  a  whole  work 
to  his  favourite  subject,  and  has  not  only 
marked  the  distinctions  between  trees, 
shrubs,  herbs,  and-  flowers,  but  treated  of 
the  different  parts  of  plants,  as  the  root, 
stem,  Jeaf,  and  fruit;  showing  their  diver- 
sity in  form,  habit,  colour,  mode  of  growth, 
and  other  interesting  particulars,  which 
he  has  illustrated  by  giving  the  names  of 
not  less  than  five  hundred  different  plants, 
by  way  of  example.  Except  the  descrip- 
tions or  allusions  of  the  poets  to  favourite 
plants,  there  is  nothing  further  to  be  found 
on  the  subject  of  botany  until  the  time  of 
the  Romans.  Virgil, in  his  Georgics, speaks 
}f  the  uses  and  culture'  of  several  p'ants 
ionnected  with  husbandry.  Pliny,  in  his 
■Statural  History,  describes  not  less  than  one 
housand  species  of  plants,  but  without  any 
•ther  order  than  in   connexion   with  the 


places  where  they  were  indigenous.  An- 
tonius  Musa  describes  the  virtues  of  the 
plant  betony.  Columella  treats  of  plants  in 
an  agricultural  point  of  view.  Dioscorides, 
Galen,  Ombasiris,  Paulus  -^geneta,  and 
Artius  have  described  the  medicinal  vk- 
tues  of  plants  much  at  large.  After  these 
writers  the  subject  of  botany  appears  to 
have  been  almost  forgotten,  otherwise 
than  it  was  pursued  by  the  Arabians  in 
conjunctictn  with  the  science  of  medicine. 
In  Europe,  at  least,  we  find  that  it  was 
altogether  neglected  until  the  sixteenth 
century ,  when  a  n  umber  of  botanists  sprung 
up  in  Germany,  England,  Holland,  Italy, 
and  France,  who,  as  their  works  testify, 
prosecuted  the  subject  with  great  zeal. 
Prosper  ALpinus  wrote  several  books  on 
the  plants  of  Egypt  and  other  exotics. 
Clusius,  a  French  botanist,  wrote  on  the 
rarer  kind  of  plants.  Many  other  botanists 
in  this  and  the  following  centuries  wrote 
general  histories  of  the  plants  whicli  came 
within  their  observation,  particularly  Cas- 
salpinus  in  his  work  De  Plantis,  libri  xvi.; 
Delechamp,  in  his  Historia  Generalis  Plan- 
tarum;  J.  Bauhin,  in  his  Historia  Plan- 
tarum;  C.  Bauhin,  in  his  Phytopinax; 
Gerarde,  in  his  Herbal;  Parkinson,  in  his 
Theatrum  Botanicum;  Ray,  in  his  Historia 
Pia'ntarum;  Commelinus,  in  his  Hortus 
Malabaricus;  Tournefort,  in  his  Institu- 
tiones  Rei  Herbariag;  Boerhaave,  in  his 
Index  alter  Plantarum  Horti  Academiei 
Lugduni;  Vaiilant,  in  his  Botanicon  Par- 
isiense;  besides  Fuchsius,  iMatthiolus,Dod- 
onasus,  Camerarius,  Bregnius,  Rheedius, 
Brunfels,  Plukenet,  Plumier,  &c. 

Cassalpinus,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
was  the  first  who  properly  systematized 
botany.  He  formed  fifteen  classes  from 
the  fruit  and  the  situation  of  the  corculum. 
Since  his  time  many  systems  have  been 
formed  from  different  parts  of  the  plants. 
Ray  chose  the  flower,  fruit,  and  external 
appearance  of  the  plants  for  the  founda- 
tion of  his  system.  Camellus  framed  a 
system  from  the  valves  of  the  capsule, 
calling  his  classes  pericarpia  fora,  uni- 
fora,  bifora,  &c.  Rivinus  selected  the 
corolla,  dividing  the  plants  into  flores  regu- 
lares,  compositas,  and  irregulares,  and 
these  again  into  monopetali,  dipetall,  &;c. 
Haller  formed  a  natural  system  from  the 
cotyledons,  the  calyx,  the  corolla,  the 
stamina,  and  the  sexes  of  the  plants  ;  but 
the  system  most  generally  adopted  before 
the  time  of  Linnaus  was  that  of  Tourne- 
fort. He  divided  plants  into  herbce  et 
sufFrutices,  arbores  et  frutices,  and  these 
again  into  herbs  floribus  monopetalis, 
carapaniformibus,infundebi!lformibus,&;c. 


68  EOT 

LintiiEUSj  the  most  eminent  naturalist  of 
all  who  went  before  him  or  followed  after 
him,  was  born  the  beginning  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  and  having  devoted  his 
attention  to  the  vegetable  as  well  as  the 
animal  and  mineral  kingdoms,  framed  a 
system  for  the  whole,  called  after  him  the 
Linnasan  system,  which  has  been  univer- 
sally adopted  by  scientific  men  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  His  system  is  composed  of 
classes,  orders,  genera,  species,  and  varie- 
ties. The  class  is  the  largest  of  all  the 
divisions,  having  under  it  the  orders  as 
subdivisions  5  the  genera  are  contained  in 
the  order,  the  species  in  the  genera,  and 
the  variety  in  the  species.  This  system,  as 
respects  plants,  is  also  called  the  sexual 
system,  because  it  embraces  the  sexes  of 
plants  in  the  scheme.  The  classes,  twenty- 
four  in  number,  are  distinguished  either 
according  to  the  number  or  situation  of  the 
stamens,  filaments,  anthers,  or  male  and 
female  flowers,  in  each  plant,  as  monan- 
dria,  for  those  having  one  stamen  ;  dian- 
dria,  for  those  having  two  stamens  ;  trian- 
dria,  for  those  having  three  stamens  ;  so 
tetrandria,  pentandria,  hexandria,  heptan- 
dria,  octandria,  enneandria,  and  decandi'ia 
for  those  havmg  from  four  to  ten  stamens. 
Those  having  from  eleven  to  seventeen 
stamens  were  included  under  the  class  tjo- 
decandria  ;  those  having  many  stamens 
inserted  in  the  calyx  under  the  class  icos- 
andria  ;  those  having  twenty  stamens  and 
upwards  under  polyandria  ;  those  having 
four  stamens  in  one  flower,  two  longer 
than  the  others,  didynamia  ;  those  having 
six  stamens,  two  shorter  than  the  rest, 
tetradynaraia;  those  having  their  filaments 
connected  into  the  form  of  a  cylinder  or 
tube,  monodelphia ;  those  having  two 
such  cylinders,  diadelphia  ;  those  having 
the  anthers  formed  into  a  tube,  syngene- 
Bia  ;  those  having  the  stamens  standing  in 
the  style,  gynandria  ;  those  having  sta- 
mens, and  pistils  in  separate  flowers,  but 
in  one  plant,  monoecia  ;  those  having  the 
stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  plants, 
dioficia  ;  those  having  stamens  and  pistils 
separate  in  some  flowers  and  united  in 
others,  polygamia ;  those  having  these 
parts  of  fructification  either  not  well  as- 
certained, or  not  to  be  numbered  with  cer- 
tainty, cryptogamia. 

The  orders,  or  subdivisions  of  the  clas- 
ses, from  the  first  to  the  thirteenth  class 
inclusive,  are  marked  by  the  number  of 
pistils  in  each  plant,  as  monogynia  for 
those  iiaving  one  pistil,sodigynia,trigynia, 
tetragynia,  pentagynia,  hexagyaia,  and 
polygynia,  for  those  having  two,  three, 
four,  five,  Bix,    seven,    or  more  pistils. 


BOW 

The  two  orders  gymuospermia,  fur  thosa 
having  the  seed  naked,  and  angiospermia, 
for  those  whose  seeds  are  contained  in  a 
pericarp,  belong  to  class  didynamia  ;  the 
two  orders  siliculosa  and  siliquosa,  for 
those  whose  seeds  are  contained  in  a  sili- 
qua  of  different  sizes,  belong  to  class  tetra;- 
dynamia.  In  most  of  the  other  classes  the 
orders  are  marked  by  the  number  of  stai- 
mens  in  each  plant,  except  syngenesia,  in 
which  the  orders  polygamia  sequalis,  poly- 
gamia superflua,  polygamia  frustanea, 
polygamia  necessaria,  and  polygamia  seg- 
regata  mark  the  connexion  of  the  flower. 
Under  the  last  class,  cryptogamia,  are 
contained  four  orders,  filices,  the  ferns  j 
musci,  the  mosses  ;  algas,  the  seaweeds ; 
and  fungi,  the  funguses,  or  mushrooms. 

BOTTOM.  The  ground,  or  lowest  part 
of  any  thing  ;  as  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  or 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  or  a  harbour ;  whence 
the  phrases,  'to  go  in  foreign  bottoms,' 
speaking  of  ships  ;  '  sandy  gravelly  bot- 
toms,' speaking  of  harbours,  &c. 

BOTTOMRY  (in  Commerce).  Borrow- 
ing money  on  the  bottom  of  a  ship  ;  that 
is,  when  the  master  of  a  ship  engages  that 
if  the  money  so  borrowed  be  not  paid  by 
the  time  appointed,  the  ship  itself  shall  be 
forfeited ,  also  the  lending  money  to  a 
merchant  on  any  adventure,  the  interest 
to  be  paid  on  the  return  of  the  ship,  but  to 
be  lost  if  she  is  lost. 

BOTTS.  Worms  that  breed  in  the  in- 
testines of  horses. 

BOULDER  WALLS.  Walls  built  of 
round  flints  or  pebbles. 

BOUND.  A  sea  term,  for  a  ship  cons- 
fined  to  a  particular  spot  or  direction  ;  as 
wind  bound,  ice  bound,  homeward  bound. 

BOUNTY.  A  sum  of  money  given  by 
government  to  men  who  enlist  as  soldiers, 

BOUTS-RIMES.  Certain  rhymes  dis- 
posed in  order,  and  given  to  a  poet,  toge- 
ther with  a  subject,  to  be  filled  up  with 
verses  ending  in  the  same  word  and  in 
the  same  order. 

BOW.  A  sea  term,  for  an  instrument 
fixed  on  a  staff",  with  vanes,  for  taking  the 
sun's  altitude  at  sea;  also  the  rounding 
parts  of  the  ship's  side,  distinguished  by 
the  starboard  and  leeboard  into  the  weather 
and  lee  bow. 

BOW.  The  name  of  several  things  so 
called  from  their  curved  figure,  as  the  bow 
of  a  key,  the  arched  part  to  receive  the 
finder  5  the  bow  of  a  saddle,  the  piece  of 
wood  on  each  side,  laid  archwise  to  receive 
the  upper  part  of  a  horse's  back ;  bow 
of  a  violin,  the  round  stick  furnished  with 
hair,  with  which  the  performer  plays. 

BOW.    An     instrument    for    shooting 


BRA 

arrows.  The  long  bow,  the  favourite  of 
the  English  army  in  former  times,  is 
simply  a  bow  with  a  string  fixed  at  each 
end,  to  which  the  arrow  was  applied.  It 
is  used  with  great  dexterity  by  the  Tartars 
of  Asia,  and  the  savages  of  America. 


BRE 


69 


BOWSPRIT.  A  mast  projecting  over 
the  stem  or  head  to  carry  the  sail  forward. 

BOWYER.  A  bowmaker  ;  the  bowyers 
are  one  of  the  city  companies  in  London. 

BOX.  Any  case  of  wood,  iron,  orleather, 
which  serves  for  conveying  or  keeping 
things. 

BOX.  A  plant,  which  is  of  two  kinds  ; 
namely,  the  dwarf  box  that  is  used  for 
borders  in  gardens,  and  the  box  tree,  which 
Is  a  shrub  or  tree.  The  wood  of  this  is 
yellow  and  hard. 

B.  R.  In  England,  an  abbreviation  for 
Bancus  Regis,  the  Court  of  King's  Bench. 

BRACE.  What  holds  a  thing  tight,  as 
the  braces  of  a  drum  ;  in  Carpentry,  a 
piece  of  timber  which  serves  to  keep  the 
frame  work  tight ;  in  Printing,  a  crooked 

linemarkedthus      which  serves  to.enclose 

words  that  are  to  be  together. 

BRACELET.  An  ornament  for  the  arm 
or  wrist  ;  also  a  piece  of  defensive  armour 
for  the  arm. 

BRACHMANS,  or  BRAMINS.  The 
priests  or  philosophers  among  the  Hindoos; 
eo  called  from  their  god  Brahma,  to  whose 
worship  they  devote  themselves. 

BRACKET.  A  kind  of  stay  in  the  form 
of  a  knee,  or  shoulders  on  which  shelves  are 
made  to  rest ;  also  in  Shipbuilding,  a  kind 
of  knee  for  the  support  of  the  gratings. 

BRADS  (among  Artificers).  A  kind  of 
nails  used  in  building,  which  haveno  heads 
like  other  nails,  as  joiners'  brads,  flooring 
brads,  batten  brads. 

BRAIN,    The  soft  contents  of  the  cra- 


nium or  skull,  consisting  of  the  cerebrum, 
cerebellum,  and  medulla  oblongata,  which 
are  surrounded  by  three  membranes,  called 
meninges,  or  mats,  as  the  dura  mater,  pia 
mater,  and  arachnoides.  The  substance  of 
the  brain  is  distinguished  into  outer  and 
inner-,  the  former  is  called  corticalis,  cene- 
rea,  or  glandulosa  ;  the  latter,  medullaris, 
alba,  or  nervea.  It  is  generally  supposed 
to  be  the  seat  of  the  soul,  or  that  part 
where  all  the  senses  terminate. 

BRAN.  The  husk  of  ground  wheat. 

BRANCH.  A  shoot  from  the  main  bough 
of  a  tree  ;  also  several  things  similar  in 
figure,  as  the  antlers  or  shoots  of  a  stag's 
horn  •,  the  branches  of  veins,  branches  of  a 
river,  branches  of  abridle,  that  is,  the  two 
pieces  of  bended  iron  that  bear  the  bit- 
mouth,  the  chains,  and  the  curb. 

BRANCHI^.  Gills  in  the  anatomy  of 
fishes,  organs  of  respiration  answering  to 
the  lungs  in  other  animals,  with  which  all 
fishes  are  provided,  except  the  cetaceous 
tribe  and  the  lamprey.  They  are  eight  ill 
number,  and  serve  the  fish  to  take  in,  and 
throw  out  water  with  the  air. 

BRANCHiOSTEGIOUS.  An  order  of 
fishes  in  the  Linnsean  system,  including 
such  as  have  gills  without  bony  rays,  as 
the  pipe  fish,  sucker,  frog  fish,  &c. 

BRANDY.  A  spirituous  and  inflamma- 
ble liquor,  made  from  the  lees  of  wine  by 
distillation.  Its  constituent  parts  are  wa- 
ter, alcohol,  and  a  little  oil  or  resin .  Bran- 
dy is  said  to  have  been  first  manufactured 
in  Languedoc. 

BRANT-JFOX.  A  sort  of  black  and  red 
fox. 

BRASIL  WOOD.  A  sort  of  wood  so 
denominated  because,  as  is  supposed,  it 
was  first  brought  from  Brasil.  It  is  red  and 
heavy,  so  as  to  sink  in  water,  takes  a 
good  polish,  and  yields  beautiful  orange 
and  red  colours,  which  are  used  by  dyers. 
Yv^hen  chewed  it  has  a  sweetish  taste. 

BRASS.  A  factitious  compound  metal, 
of  a  yellow  colour,  consisting  of  eopper 
and  about  one  third  of  its  weight  of  zinc. 

BRAWN.  The  muscular  or  fleshy  part 
of  the  body,  particularly  that  of  the  boar. 

BREACH.  A  gap  made  in  the  works 
of  a  town  by  the  besiegers. 

BREACH  (in  Law).  The  violation  of  a 
contract ;  breach  of  pound,  is  the  break- 
ing any  place  where  cattle  are  distrained  ; 
breach  of  prison,  an  escape  by  breaking 
out  of  prison. 

BREAD.  A  light,  porous,  spongy  sub- 
stance, prepared  by  fermentation  and 
baking,  from  the  flour  of  wheat,  rye,  or 
barley.  Wheaten  bread  is  distinguished 
into  white  bread,  which  is  made  of  the 


TO 


BRE 


finest  flour,  and  brown  bread,  of  flour  hav- 
ing some  of  the  bran  in  it. 

BREAD-FRUIT-TREE.  The  autocar- 
pus  of  Linnasus,  a  tree  growing  in  some 
of  the  Oceanic  islands,  so  called  because 
the  fruit,  which  is  milky  and  pulpy,  sup- 
plies the  place  of  bread  to  the  inhabitants. 
This  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  forty  feet. 


^~"^  ^m 


i  MEAK.  a  sea  term,  for  that  part  of 
a  deck  where  the  descent  to  the  next  deck 
below  it,  commences  j  in  Printing,  the  short 
line  which  ends  a  paragraph. 

BREAKERS.  Billows  that  break  vio- 
lently  over  rocks  that  lie  under  the  surface 
of  the  sea. 

BREAKING  GROUND.  A  military 
term,  for  opening  the  trenches  and  be- 
ginning the  works  for  a  siege. 

BREAKING  IN.  The  discipline  of  first 
training  a  colt  to  be  useful. 

BREAKWATER.  The  hull  of  a  vessel 
or  any  erection  of  wood  or  stone,  placed 
at  the  entrance  of  a  harbour  to  break  the 
force  of  the  water,  such  as  the  Breakwa- 
ter lately  erected  in  Plymouth  Sound, 
England,  and  that  in  Delaware  Bay. 

BREAM.  A  fish  of  the  carp  kind,  that 
grows  fast  and  has  a  broad  body.  The 
Bea  Bream,  otherwise  called  the  Red  Gilt 
Head,  is  a  fish  of  a  red  colour,  with  the 
Iris  silvery. 


BREAST.  The  anterior  part  of  the 
thorax. 

BREASTFAST.  A  sea  term,  for  the 
large  rope  employed  to  confine  a  ship 
sideways  to  a  wharf  or  quay. 

BREASTPLATE.  A  piece  of  defensive 
armour  worn  on  the  breast ;  in  Ilorseman- 
Bhip,  a  leathern  strap  running  from  one 


BRI 

side  of  tiie  saddle,  across  the  horse's  breast; 
to  the  other,  to  keep  it  in  its  place. 

BREAST  PLOUGH.  A  sort  of  plough 
which  is  driven  forward  by  the  breast, 
and  is  used  in  England  in  paring  off  turf 
from  the  land. 

BREASTWORK.  A  military  term,  for 
works  thrown  up  as  high  as  the  breast  of 
the  besieged  ;  a  sea  term,  for  the  balus- 
trade of  the  quarter  deck. 

BRECCIA,  or  Pudding-stonb.  A  sort 
of  aggregate  earth,  consisting  of  fragments 
of  stones  conglutinated.  The  beautiful 
pillars  in  the  Representatives  Hall  in  the 
Capitol  at  Washington  are  of  this  stone. 

BREECH.  The  hinder  part  of  a  gun, 
from  the  cascabel  to  the  bore  ;  also  a  sea 
term,  for  the  angle  of  knee  timber  In  a 
ship, 

BREEDING.  That  part  of  husbandry 
which  consists  in  the  rearing  of  cattle  o» 
live  stock  of  different  kinds,  particularly 
by  crossing  or  mingling  one  species  oi 
variety  with  another,  so  as  to  improve  the 
breed, 

BRESSUMMER.  A  binding  interstic© 
or  girder  to  different  parts  of  a  house. 

BREVET,  A  military  term,  for  pro- 
motion  in  the  army  without  additional 
pay. 

BREVIARY.  A  book  containing  the 
daily  service  of  the  Romish  church. 

BREWING.  The  art  of  making  malt 
liquor,  such  as  ale,  beer,  porter,  &c.  which 
much  resembles  the  process  of  making  tea. 
The  proper  ingredients  used  in  brewing  are 
malt,  hops,  and  water,  in  certain  propor- 
tions, according  to  the  required  strength  of 
the  liquor.  Eighteen  gallons  of  good  ale  and 
nine  gallons  of  table  beer  may  be  drawa 
from  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  malt ;  but  to 
make  strong  beer  only  six  gallons  are 
reckoned  to  one  bushel  of  malt.  Among 
the  pernicious  and  unlawful  ingredients 
used  by  brewers  are  an  extract  of  the 
coculus  indicus,  hartshorn  shavings,  gin 
ger,  Spanish  juice,  orange  powder,  liquo- 
rice, caraway  seeds,  and  sulphuric  acid^ 

BRIBERY.  The  receiving  of  any  ra- 
ward  or  gift  for  corrupt  purposes. 

BRICK.  An  artificial  kind  of  stone, 
composed  of  clay,  coal  ashes,  and  sand, 
duly  mingled  together,  dried  by  the  sun 
and  hardened  by  the  fire.  Bricks  are 
distinguished,  according  to  their  quality, 
into  marls  and  stocks,  -which  latter  are 
either  gray  or  red,  according  to  the  coloiu 
of  the  earth. 

BRICKLAYER.  One  whose  trade  is  to 
build  with  bricks. 

BRIDGE.  A  structure  raised  over  rivere, 
&c.  and  consisting  of  one  or  more  arches. 


BRI 

The  principal  parts  of  a  bridge  are  the 
piers,  or  avails,  built  for  the  support  of  the 
arches  ;  the  parapet,  or  breastwall,  made 
to  protect  the  passengers,  the  banquet, 
pavement,  or  raised  footpath,  and  the  abut- 
ments or  extremities  of  the  bridge,  which 
rest  on  the  banks.  The  principal  arches 
employed  in  bridge  building  are  those  of 
the  semicircular  or  elliptical  form,  the  cate- 
narian arch,  and  the  arch  of  equilibrium, 
which  last  is  esteemed  to  be  the  best,  be- 
cause it  is  equally  strong  in  every  part. 


ES.IDGE.  A  milrcaiy  term,  for  any 
contrivance  by  which  soldiers  can  cross  a 
river,  as  a  bridge  of  boats,  formed  by 
boats  joined  sideways,  and  covered  with 
planks;  or  a  bridge  of  rushes,  formed  of 
bundles  of  rushes  bound  fast  together  and 
covered  with  planks.  Such  temporary 
bridges  are  called  flying  bridges. 

BRIDGE.  The  name  of  several  things 
similar  in  figure  to  a  bridge,  as  the  bridge 
of  the  nose,  the  gristle  which  parts  the 
nostrils;  the  bridge  in  a  violin,  &;c.  the 
perpendicular  arch  which  supports  the 
Btrings;  the  bridge,  among  Gunners,  is  the 
name  for  the  two  pieces  of  timber  which 
go  between  the  transums  of  a  gun  carriage 
on  which  the  bed  rests. 

BRIDLE.  A  part  of  the  furniture  of  a 
horse's  head,  which  serves  to  guide  the 
animal.  The  principal  parts  are  the  bitt, 
or  snaffle,  which  goes  into  the  horse's 
mouth;  the  curb,  or  chain  of  iron,  that 
funs  over  the  beard  of  the  horse;  the  head- 
stall, or  leather  that  goes  round  the  head; 
the  fillet,  that  lies  over  the  forehead;  the 
throatband,  that  goes  under  the  throat;  and 
the  reins, which  serve  for  the  rider. 

BRIEF  (in  Law).  An  abridgment  of  a 
Client's  case,  made  out  for  the  instruction 
of  counsel  on  a  trial  at  law;  also  a  license 
in  England  to  make  collections  for  repair- 
ing churches,  losses  by  fire,  &;c.  This  last 
sort  of  brief  is  now  abolished  by  statute. 

BRIEF  (in  Music).  A  measure  of  quan- 
tity, which  contains  two  strokes  down  in 
beating  time,  and  as  many  up. 

BRIG.  A  small  merchant's  vessel  with 
two  masts. 

BRIGADE.  A  military  term,  for  a 
party  or  division  of  soldiers,  whether  horse 


BRO  71 

or  foot,  under  the  command  of  a  briga- 
dier. 

BRIGANTTNE.  A  small  light  vessel, 
which  can  both  row  and  sail  well,  being 
adapted  either  for  fighting  or  for  chase. 


BRIMSTONE.  The  vulgar  name  for 
sulphur. 

BRINE.    Water  impregnated  with  salt. 

BRISKET.  TJiat  part  of  the  breast  of 
an  animal  that  lies  nearest  the  ribs. 

BRISTLE.  The  hair  of  swine,  which  is 
much  used  by  brushmakers,  particularly 
that  imported  from  Russia. 

BRISTOL  HOT  WATER.  Mineral 
waters  of  the  lowest  temperature  of  any  in 
England,  the  constituent  parts  of  which  are 
carbonic  acid,  gas,  lime,  and  magnesia, 
besides  the  muriatic  and  vitriolic  acids. 

BRITANNIA.  The  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  the  island  of  Britain,  which  is 
represented  on  their  medals  under  the 
figure  of  a  female  resting  her  left  arm  on 
a  shield.  Also  a  species  of  ware  made  of 
block  tin. 

BROADSIDE.  A  sea  term,  for  a  dis- 
charge  of  all  the  guns  on  one  side  of  a  ship. 

BROADSWORD.  A  sword  with  a 
broad  blade,  chiefly  designed  for  cutting. 

BROCADE.  A  kind  of  stuff  or  cloth  of 
gold. 

BROCOLI.  An  Italian  plant  of  the 
cauliflower  kind, 

BROGUE.  A  defective  pronunciatioB 
of  a  language,  particularly  applied  to  the 
Irish  manner  of  speaking  English. 

BROKEN  LETTER.  A  term  in  Print- 
ing for  the  breaking  the  orderly  succession 
in  which  the  letters  stood  in  a  line  or  page, 
and  mingling  them  together. 

BROKER.  One  who  concludes  bargains 
or  contracts  for  merchants,  as  exchange 
brokers,  ship  brokers,  &c. 

BROKERAGE.  What  is  paid  to  a  brokef 
for  his  trouble. 


72 


BUD 


BROME  GRASS.  A  sort  of  grass  much 
resembling  the  oat;  whence  it  has  also 
been  called  oat  grass. 

BRONZE.  A  mixed  metal,  composed 
principally  of  copper,  with  a  small  portion 
of  tin  and  other  metals. 

BRONZING.  The  art  of  varnishing 
wood,  plaster,  and  ivory,  so  as  to  give  them 
the  colour  of  bronze. 

BROOCH.  A  collar  of  gold  formerly 
worn  about  the  necks  of  ladies. 

BROOM.  A  flowering  shrub,  having  a 
papilionaceous  flower,  which  becomes  a 
short  roundish  swelling  pod,  containing  a 
kidney  shaped  seed  in  each. 

BROOM.  A  besom,  which  in  England  is 
frequently  made  of  the  broom  shrub,  and 
serves  for  sweeping  a  house. 

BRUTA.  The  second  order  of  animals 
of  the  class  mammalia  in  the  Linn^an 
system,  comprehending  those  animals 
which  have  no  fore  teeth  in  either  jaw,  as 
bradypus,  the  sloth;  mynycophaga,  the 
ant-eater;  rhinoceros,  the  rhinocerus;  ele- 
phas,  the  elephant,  <fcc. 

BRUTE-WEIGHT.  A  term  employed 
when  merchandises  are  weighed  with  the 
cases,  &.C.  in  distinction  from  the  net 
weight. 

BUBBLE.  Abladderin  water,  oravesi- 
cle  filled  with  air;  also  a  cheating  project, 
such  as  the  South  Sea  bubble  in  1720,  and 
numerous  projects  of  a  similar  character 
which  have  been  set  afloat  within  the  last 
few  years,  to  the  ruin  of  many. 

BUCCANEERS.  A  general  name  for 
the  pirates,  who  used  to  make  war  on  the 
Spaniards  in  their  West  India  posses- 
sions. 

BUCK.  A  ma'e  deer  ofthe  fallow  kind; 
also  a  male  rabbit. 

BUCKET.  A  kind  of  pail  made  of 
leather. 

BUCKLE.  A  fastening  for  a  shoe,  or 
the  harness  of  a  horse,  by  means  of  an  iron 
tongue  within  a  hoop. 

BUCKLER.  An  ancient  p'ece  of  defen- 
sive arninnr,  made  of  wicker  work,  and 
worn  on  the  arm. 

BUCKR  AM.     A  sort  of  stiffened  cloth. 

BUCK  WH  RAT,  otherwise  called 
Brank.  a  sort  of  grain  that  is  used  in 
England  as  fo  )d  for  sw-ne.  It  is  much 
used  in  America  for  making  a  very  pa'ata- 
ble  kind  of  cakes,  ft  is  also  preferred  for 
fattening  fowls.  The  flowers  grow  in  a 
spike,  or  branched  from  the  wings  of  the 
leaves. 

BUCOLICS.  Pastoril  poems,  so  called 
from  the  Vuc  ilica  of  Vircil. 

BUD.  7'hat  part  of  a  plant  which  con- 
tains the  embryo  ofthe  leaves, flowers,  &lc. 


BUL 

BUDDHA.  The  name  ofa  deity  among 
the  people  of  India. 

BUDDLE.  A  frame  to  receive  the  mine- 
ral ore  after  it  is  separated  from  the  coarser 
parts. 

BUDGET.  Properly,  a  bag  or  knapsack 
that  may  be  easily  carried;  also,  in  Eng- 
land, the  annual  statement  ofthe  finances 
made  by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
in  the  House  of  Commons. 

BUFF.  A  sort  of  thick  leather  prepared 
from  the  skin  ofthe  buffalo. 

BUFFALO.  A  wild  ox  a  native  of  Af- 
rica. It  is  domesticated  in  Italy  and  soxae 
other  countries  and  used  for  draught.  It 
has  horns  resupinated  and  flat  on  the  fore 
side,  a  tough  skin,  black  hair,  small  head, 
and  no  dewlap. 


BUFFET.  A  sort  of  cupboard  for  plate, 
glasses,  &c. 

BUGLEHORN.  A  horn  formerly  used 
much  in  hunting,  and  now  iu  the  army. 


BUILDING.  The  art  of  raising  build- 
ings according  to  given  designs,  which  is 
properly  practical  architecture;  also  the 
structure  so  raised. 

B  U  L  B  O  US 
PLANTS.  The 
name  of  such  plants 
as  have  a  fleshy,  - 
scaly  root,  called  a 
buib,  as  the  leek, 
onion,  <Stc. 


BULGED.  A  sea  term  for  a  ship  when 
she  has  struck  off"  some  of  her  timbers 
upon  a  rock  or  anchor. 

BULK.  The  whole  contents  of  a  ship  in 
her  hold. 

BULL.    The  male  of  cattle,  the  female 


BUL 

of  which  is  called  cow  ;  when  the  male 
is  cut  he  is  called  an  ox. 


BUR 


73 


BULL.  A  brief  or  mandate  issued  by 
the  Pope,  and  sealed  with  the  bulla,  a 
leaden  or  gold  seal. 

BULL-DOG.  A  dog  of  true  English 
breed,  so  called  from  his  property  of  attack- 
ing the  bull,  whence  he  was  formerly  used 
in  the  cruel  sport  of  bullbaiting. 

BULLET.  A  name  for  the  leaden  balls 
with  which  small  fire  arms  are  loaded. 

BULLETIN.  In  Europe  an  official  ac- 
count of  public  transactions,  or  matters  of 
general  interest,  as  the  state  of  the  king's 
health,  &c. 

BULLFINCH.  A  small  European  bird 
of  a  cinereous  colour,  having  its  head  and 
wings  black,  and  coverts  of  the  tail  white. 
It  is  easily  tamed,  and  may  be  taught  to 
speak. 


BULL-FROG.  A  remarkable  species  of 
the  frog  in  North  America,  so  callecl  be- 


catise  its  voice  resembles  the  distant  low- 
ing of  an  ox. 
BULLFIGHT.  A  cruel  sport  in  Spain 


and  Portugal,  where  wild  bulls  are  en- 
countered by  men  on  horseback. 

BULL-HEAD.  A  sort  offish,  having  its 
head  much  broader  than  its  body. 

BULLION.  Gold  or  silver  in  the  mass, 
before  it  is  wrought  into  coin. 

BULL'S  EYE.  A  mark  in  the  shape  of 
a  bull's  eye,  at  which  archers  shoot  by  way 
of  exercise. 

BULL-TROUT.  A  sort  of  salmon  about 
two  feet  in  length. 

BUM-BOAT.  A  sort  of  wherry  used 
about  harbours,  to  carry  provisions,  &c. 
for  sale,  to  ships  lying  at  a  distance. 

BUNT  (a  Sea  Term).  The  middle  part 
of  a  sail  formed  into  a  sort  of  bag,  or  hol- 
low, that  the  sail  may  gather  more  wind. 

BUNTLINES.  Small  lines  which  serve 
to  force  up  the  bunt  of  the  sail,  for  the 
better  furling  it  up. 

BUOY.  A  short  piece  of  wood  or  close 
hooped  barrel  fastened  by  a  rope  to  the 
anchor,  to  point  out  its  situation.  It  is  also 
a  piece  of  wood  or  cork  fastened  by  achain, 
serving  to  point  out  dangerous  places  in  or 
near  a  harbour. 


BUPHAGA,  or  Beefeater.  A  sort  of 
bird  of  the  order  picae,  found  in  Africa. 
It  is  so  called  because  it  alights  on  the 
backs  of  cattle,  and  picks  holes  in  them  to 
get  at  the  larvee  of  the  gad-fly,  on  which 
it  lives. 

BUFRESTIS.  An  insect  of  the  coleop- 
terous order,  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy 
of  its  colours,  which  emulate  the  polish  of 
the  finest  metals. 

BURDEN  (a  Sea  Term).  Whatever  can 
be  stowed  in  a  hold,  or  the  number  of  tons 
which  it  can  carry.  Beasts  of  burden,  in 
Husbandry,  are  those  which  are  fitted  for 
bearing  burdens,  or  drawing  weights. 

BURGAGE  (in  Law).  In  England  a 
kind  of  tenure  by  which  the  inhabitants 
of  cities  or  boroughs  held  their  lands  or 
tenements  of  the  king. 

BURGESS.  In  England  an  inhabitant 
of  a  borough,  or  one  who  possesses  atene^ 
ment  therein  ;  it  is  now  more  commonly 
taken  for  the  representative  of  a  borough 
town. 

BURGLARY  (in  Law).  The  breaking 
and  entering  the  dwelling  of  another  in 
the  night,  with  the  intent  to  commit  some 
felony,  whether  the  felonious  intent  be 
put  in  execution  or  not. 

BURGUNDY  PITCH.  The  juice  of  the 


74  BUT 

fir  tree  boiled  in  water,  and  strained 
through  a  linen  cloth. 

BUFxJVING-GLASS.  A  concave  or  con- 
vex glass,  commonly  spherical,  which  col- 
lects the  rays  of  the  sun  towards  a  common 
point,  called  the  focus.  The  burning  glass 
of  M.  de  Villette  was  three  feet  eleven 
inches  in  diameter,  and  it  burnt  at  the 
distance  of  three  feet  two  inches  ;  by  it 
were  melted  a  silver  sixpence  in  seven 
minutes  and  a  half;  a  King  George's  half- 
penny in  sixteen  minutes,  which  ran  in 
thirty-four  minutes  ;  a  diamond  weigh- 
ing four  grains  lost  seven-eighths  of  its 
weight.  That  of  Buffon  was  a  polyhedron, 
six  feet  broad,  and  as  many  high,  consist- 
ing of  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  small 
mirrors,  or  flat  pieces  of  looking-glass, 
each  six  inches  square,  by  means  of  which, 
with  the  faint  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  month 
of  March,  he  set  on  fire  boards  of  beech 
wood  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  dis- 
tance. 

BUENING  OF  WOMEN.  A  supersti- 
tious practice  inHindostan,  for  the  widows 
to  burn  themselves  on  tire  funeral  piles  of 
their  husbands. 

BURNISHER.  A  round  polished  piece 
of  steel,  serving  to  smooth  and  give  a  lustre 
to  metals. 

BUSHEL.  Dry  measure,  containing  four 
pecks,  or  eight  gallons. 

BUSH-HARROW.  An  implement  of 
husbandry  for  harrowing  grass  lands,  and 
covering  grass  or  clover  seeds.  It  consists 
of  a  frame  with  three  or  more  bars,  in 
wliich  bushes  are  interwoven. 

BUSKIN.  A  kind  of  high  shoe,  anciently 
worn  by  tragedians  :  also  a  sort  of  leather 
stocking  serving  the  purpose  of  a  boot. 

BUSTARD.  A  species  of  European  bird 
of  which  there  are  several  varieties.  The 
GreatBustard  is  the  largest  land  bird  known 
in  England.  It  seems  to  bear  a  remote 
affinity  to  the  Ostrich. 

BUTCHER  BIRD.  A  sort  of  shrike 
remuKJh    f <  i    its  ferocity  towards  the 


hitle  birds,  which  it  kills,  and  tc-aringthem 
to  pieces,  sticks  them  on  thorns. 


BUZ 

BUST.  The  figure  or  portrait  of  a  per- 
son in  relievo,  showing  only  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body. 

BUTT.  A  measure  of  wine,  containing 
126  gallons. 

BUTTEND.  The  largest  end  of  a  piece 
of  timber  nearest  to  the  root. 

BUTTER.  A  fat  unctuous  substance, 
procured  from  the  cream  of  milk  by  churn- 
ing ;  a  term  in  Chymistry  for  substances 
of  similar  consistency,  as  butter  of  anti- 
mony, butter  of  bismuth,  butter  of  wax, 
&c. 

B  UTTERBUR.  A  plant  with  a  floscular 
flower,  consisting  of  many  florets. 

BUTTERFLOWER.  A  yellow  flower, 
which  abounds  in  the  meadows  in  May. 

BUTTERFLY.  A  beautiful  insect,  so 
called  because  it  first  appears  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  season  for  butter.  That 
which  seems  to  be  powder  upon  the  wings 
of  this  insect  is  an  innumerable  quantity 
of  feathers,  which  are  only  to  be  discerned 
through  a  microscope.  The  butterfly  first 
appears  in  the  state  of  the  caterpillar,  which 
is  called  the  larva,  and  afterwards  in  that 
of  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis,  from  which  it 
comes  forth  in  its  perfect  state. 


The  larva. 


The  chrysalis. 


BUTTOCK.  The  breech  or  haunch  of  an 
animal,  next  to  the  tail  :  also  a  sea  term, 
for  that  part  of  a  ship  which  forms  her 
breadth,  right  astern  from  the  tuck  up- 
wards. 

BUTTON.  Any  thing  in  around  form 
which  serves  to  fasten,  particularly  what 
is' used  in  garments  ;  also  a  part  of  the  cas- 
cabel  in  a  gun  or  howitzer,  which  is  in 
the  form  of  a  button. 

BUTTRESS.  A  kind  of  butment,  built 
archwise,  serving  to  support  a  building  or 
wall. 

BUZZARD.  A  very  sluggish  bird  of 
the  hawk  kind.  The  Turkey  Buzzard 
known  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States  is  a  species  of  Vulture. 

BY-LAW.  A  private  law  made  within 
some  particular  place  or  jurisdiction. 


CAD 


CAL 


75 


C. 


C,  the  third  letter  and  second  consonant  of 
the  alphabet ;  as  a  numeral,  C  stands  for 
100,  and  CC  for  200,  &c. ;  in  Music,  it  is 
the  highest  part  in  the  thorough  bass  ;  as 
an  Abbreviation  it  stands  for  Christ,  as 
A.  C.  Anno  Christi,  or  ante  Christum ;  also 
for  Companion,  as  C.  B.  Companion  of  the 
Bath, 

CAABA.  An  Arabic  term  for  the  house 
of  God,  a  part  of  the  temple  of  Mahomet  in 
Mecca. 

CABALA.  A  traditional  or  mysterious 
doctrine  among  the  ancient  Jews,  which 
they  say  was  delivered  by  word  of  mouth 
to  flloses,  and  by  him  to  the  fathers. 
Among  Christians,  the  cabala  is  an  abuse 
of  certain  passages  of  Scripture  for  magical 
purposes. 

CABBAGE  TREE.  A  tree  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  so  called  from  the  resem- 
blance which  its  leaves  bear,  to  those  of 
the  cabbage  plant. 

CABIN.  The  apartment  in  a  vessel  for 
the  officers  and  superior  passengers. 

CABINET.  In  England,  the  closet  or 
private  room  in  the  king's  palace,  where 
councils  are  held  ;  also  the  ministers  of  the 
king,  who  are  summoned  to  attend  such 
councils.  In  the  United  States,  the  term  is 
applied  to  the  four  secretaries  and  the  at- 
torney general  at  Washington,  considered 
as  counsellors  of  the  President. 

CABLE.  A  sea  term  for  a  strong  rope, 
which  serves  to  keep  a  ship  at  anchor. 

CABLE'S  LENGTH.  The  measure  of 
130  fathoms. 

CACOETHES.  An  ill  habit  or  propen- 
sity 5  as  the  cacoethes  scribendi,  an  itch 
for  authorship. 

CACOPHONY.  A  bad  tone  of  the  voice, 
proceeding  from  the  ill  disposition  of  the 
organs. 

CADENCE  (in  Grammar).  The  fall  of 
tlie  voice  ;  also  the  flow  of  verses  or  peri- 
ods 5  in  Music,  it  is  a  pause  or  suspension 
at  the  end  of  an  air,  resembling  points  or 
vir gules  in  prose  ;  in  Dancing,  cadence  is 
used  when  the  steps  follow  the  notes  and 
measures  of  the  music  ;  in  the  Manege  the 
cadence  is  the  measure  or  proportion  obser- 
ved by  a  horse  in  all  his  motions,  when  he 
is  thoroughly  managed. 

CADET.  One  who  is  trained  up  for  the 
army  by  a  course  of  militaiy  discipline  • 
such  as  the  cadets  at  the  military  college 
at  West  Point. 

CADETSHIP.    The  commission  given 


to  a  cadet,  to  enter  the  East  India  Compa- 
ny's service  in  England. 

CADI.  A  magistrate,  or  sort' of  justice 
of  the  peace,  among  the  Arabs  and  Turks. 

CADMIA.  A  sort  of  mineral  among  the 
ancients,  now  called  cobalt. 

CADUCEUS.  A  name  for  Mercury's 
rod  or  sceptre,  which  on  medals  is  an  em- 
blem of  peace.  It  was  carried  by  the  Ro- 
man heralds  when  they  went  to  proclaim 
peace. 


C^SAR.  A  title  or  name  given  to  the 
twelve  emperors  of  Rome,  who  succeeded 
Julius  Csesar. 

CAGMAG.  Old  geese  are  so  called, 
which  are  sent  up  to  the  London  market 
for  sale, 

CAIRNS.  Heaps  of  stones  in  a  conical 
form,  which  are  frequently  to  be  met  with 
in  Scotland  and  Wales. 

CAISSON.  A  wooden  chest  filled  with 
bombs  or  powder,  and  buried  under  some 
work  to  blow  it  up ;  also  the  frame  used  in 
laying  the  foundations  of  a  bridge. 

CALAMANCO.  A  kind  of  woollen  stuff 
manufactured  in  England  and  Brabant.  It 
has  a  fine  gloss,  and  is  chequered  in  the 
warp. 

CALAMARI^.  The  third  natural  order 
of  plants  in  the  Linnsan  system,  contain- 
ing the  reeds  resembling  grasses. 

CALAMINARIS,  or  Lapis  Calamina- 
Ris.  The  calamine  stone,  or  oxyde  of  zinc 
among  the  chymists ;  a  kind  of  bituminous 
fossile  earth,  which,  when  mixed  with 
copper,  produces  brass. 

CALCAREOUS.  The  third  order  of  the 
class  earths  in  the  system  of  Gmelin,  con- 
sisting of  chalk,  limestone,  spar,  gypsum, 
marble,  marl. 

CALCINATION.  The  solution  of  a 
mixed  body  by  the  means  of  heat  or  any 
corroding  substance,  as  mercury,  aquafor- 
tis, &c.,  wiiereby  it  is  reduced  to  powder. 
The  body  so  reduced  was  named  a  calx,  in 
common  language  a  cinder,  and  in  chy mis- 
try  an  oxide. 

CALCULx\TION.  The  act  of  computing 


76 


CAL 


several  sums  by  means  of  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  division,  &c. 

CALCULUS,  or  Stone.  A  name  gene- 
rally given  to  all  hard  concretions,  not 
bony,  wliicli  are  formed  in  the  bodies  of 
animals. 

CALENDAR.  A  distribution  of  time 
into  months,  weeks,  and  days  throughout 
the  year,  together  with  an  account  of  the 
festivals,  and  other  such  matters  as  serve 
for  the  daily  purposes  of  life.  Calendars 
vary  according  to  the  different  forms  of 
the  year,  and  the  divisions  of  time  in  differ- 
ent countries,  as  the  Roman  and  Julian 
Calendars  used  by  the  Romans,  the  Gre- 
gorian and  Reformed  Calendars  among  the 
moderns. 

CALENDAR  MONTH.  The  came 
given  to  the  months  as  they  stand  in  the 
almanack. 

CALIBER.  The  thickness  or  diameter 
of  any  thing,  particularly  of  the  bore  of  a 
cannon. 

CALIBER  COMPASSES.  A  particular 
instrument  used  by  gunners  for  measuring 
the  diameters  of  shot,  shells,  &.c.  They 
resemble  other  compasses,  except  in  their 
legs,  which  are  arched,  in  order  that  the 
points  may  touch  the  extremities  of  the 
arch. 


CALICO.  A  kind  of  cloth  made  of  cot- 
ton, originally  made  in  the  East  Indies. 
It  is  so  called  from  Callicut,  a  town  on  the 
coast  of  Malabar,  where  it  was  first  manu- 
factured. The  manufacture  of  calicoes 
has  been  successfully  introduced  into  the 
United  States. 

CALICO  PRINTING.  Theart  of  dying 
cotton,  linen,  and  other  cloths  topically ; 
that  is  by  printing  figures  here  and  there 
in  different  colours,  and  leaving  some  parts 
of  the  cloth  without  any  figures. 

CALIPH,  in  the  Arabic  Khalifa,  which 
signifies  successor.  A  title  assumed  by  the 
successors  of  Mahomet,  who  reigned  in 
Bagdad. 

CALKERS.  Persons  employed  in  calk- 
ing vessels ;  that  is,  driving  oakum  and 
other  things  into  the  seams  of  vessels,  to 
keep  out  the  water. 

CALL.  An  artificial  pipe  made  to  catch 
quails  J  also  a  sea  term  for  a  whistle  or 


CAM 

pipe,  used  in  calling  the  sailors  to  their 
duty. 

CALL  OF  THE  HOUSE.  In  England, 
a  parliamentary  term  for  an  imperative 
call  or  summons  sent  to  every  member  to 
attend  on  a  particular  occasion. 

CALOMEL.  Mercury  well  pounded  with 
sulphur  J  it  is  also  called  a  muriate  of  mer- 
cury. 

CALORIC.  A  modem  term  for  fire,  or 
that  principle  which  produces  the  sensation 
of  heat,  which  is  supposed  to  be  something 
independent  of  the  body  in  which  it  ia 
found. 

CALVARY.  The  name  of  a  cross  tn 
Heraldry,  as  it  is  borne  in  coats  of  arms. 
It  is  so  called  because  it  resembles  the  cross 
on  which  our  Saviour  suffered. 

CALVINISM.  The  doctrines  of  Cal- 
vin, the  Geneva  reformer,  and  his  adhe- 
rents, on  predestination,  reprobation,  &c 

CALUMET.  An  Indian  pipe,  which 
was  otherwise  called  the  Pipe  of  Peace, 
because  it  served  the  bearer  as  a  pass  or 
safe  conduct  among  the  neighbouring  tribes 
of  Indians.  It  was  very  similar  to  the  ca- 
duceus,  or  Mercury's  wand,  of  the  an- 
cients. 

CALX.  A  fine  powder  remaining  after 
the  calcination  of  metals  and  other  mine- 
ral substances ;  also  another  name  for  lime. 

CALYCIFLORiE.  The  sixteenth  nat- 
ural order  of  plants  in  the  Linnaean  system, 
comprehending  those  plants  which  have 
only  a  calyx,  in  which  the  stamina  are  lo- 
ser ted. 

CALYPTRA.  The  tender  skin  in  mosses 
that  loosely  covers  the  top  of  the  theca, 
like  a  cup. 

CALYX.  A  general  name  for  the  cop 
of  a  flower,  or  that  part  of  a  plant  which 
surrounds  and  supports  the  other  parts  of 
a  flower. 

CAMBERED.  A  sea  term,  applied  to  a 
deck,  the  flooring  of  which  is  highest  in  the 
middle. 

CAMBRIC.  A  sort  of  veiy  fine  white 
linen,  made  of  flax.  Fabrics  of  cotton 
made  in  imitation  of  this  are  also  called 
cambric. 

CAMEL.  A  well  known  quadruped, 
remarkable  for  its  swiftness  and  its  power 
of  subsisting  for  many  days  without  water. 
It  is  mild  and  gentle,  unless  particularly 
provoked,  patient  of  hunger,  and  capable 
of  carrying  great  burdens.  The  flesh  and 
milk  of  this  animal  constitute  the  principal 
food  of  the  inhabitants  of  Arabia  and  the 
countries  of  which  it  is  a  native.  The  Ara- 
bian camel,  which  is  otherwise  called  a 
dromedary,  has  but  one  hunch,  the  Bactri- 
an  camel  has  two.    This  latter  species  ig 


CAM 

used  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  central 
Asia.  The  Arabian  species  is  generally 
used  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  Af- 
rica.   This  animal  is  borne  in  coats  of 


CAN 


77 


;  CAMELOPARD  or  Giraffe.  A  re- 
markable animal  found  only  in  the  middle 
and  southern  regions  of  Africa.  It  is  the 
tallest  of  all  animals,  being  about  17  feet 
high.  It  feeds  on  the  tops  of  trees.  It  is 
very  timid  but  defends  itself,  when  attack- 
ed, by  kicking.  It  is  capable  of  putting  out 
its  tongue  to  the  length  of  17  inches,  and 
this  is  so  flexible  that  it  may  be  reduced  at 
the  point  so  as  to  pass  through  a  lady's 
ring.  There  are  two  living  animals  of  this 
kind  now  in  Europe. 


CAMEO.  A  sort  of  onyx  stone,  having 
various  figures  upon  it ;  in  Natural  History, 
a  sort  of  pellucid  gem. 
:  CAMERA  LUCIDA.  An  optical  instru- 
ment invented  by  Dr.  Hook,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  image  of  any  object 
7* 


appear  on  the  wall  in  a  light  room,  either 
by  day  or  night.  This  name  has  since  been 
applied  to  an  instrument  invented  by  Dr. 
Wollaston,  for  drawing  objects  in  true  per- 
spective. 

CAMERA  OBSCURA.  An  optical  ma- 
chine or  apparatus,  representing  an  artificial 
eye,  by  which  the  images  of  external  ob- 
jects, received  through  a  double  convex 
glass,  are  shown  distinctly,  and  in  their 
native  colours. 


CAMLET.  A  sort  of  stuff  originally  made 
of  camel's  hair  and  silk  mixed,  but  now  of 
wool  and  silk. 

CAMP.  The  spot  of  ground  where  an 
army  rests  and  intrenches  itself, 

CAMPAIGN.  The  space  of  time  during 
which  an  army  is  kept  in  the  field. 

CAMPANACE^.  One  of  Linnfeus's 
natural  order  of  flowers,  including  those 
that  are  bell-shaped,  as  the  campanula,  con- 
volvulus, &c. 

CAMPANULA,  or  Bell  Flower.  A 
sort  of  plants,  mostly  perennials,  and  bear- 
ing a  bell-shaped  flower. 

CAMPHOR.  A  vv'hite  concrete  crystal- 
line substance,  of  an  acrid  bitter  taste,  and 
a  penetrating  smell.  It  was  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  a  resin  which  was  procured 
from  a  tree,  much  like  a  walnut  tree, 
growing  in  Borneo,  and  thence  called  the 
camphor  tree  ;  but  modern  chymists  con- 
sider it  to  be  a  peculiar  substance  not  to 
be  classed  either  with  the  oils  or  the  resins. 
It  is  procured  from  the  volatile  oil  of  seve- 
ral plants,  as  rosemary,  sage,  lavender, 
&c. 

CAN.  A  drinking  vessel ;  particularly 
that  used  by  sailors. 

CANAL.  An  artificial  river,  provided 
with  locks  and  sluices,  and  sustained  by 
banks  and  mounds. 

CANARY  BIRD.  A  singing  bird  of  a 
greenish  colour,  formerly  bred  in  the  Cana- 
ries, and  nowhere  else.  These  birds  are 
now  bred  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  Ameri- 


78 


CAN 


ca,  and  their  colours  are  various  shades  of 
yellow  and  green. 


CANCELLATION  (in  Law).  Expung- 
ing the  contents  of  a  deed  or  instrument, 
by  striking  two  lines  through  it. 

CANCER,  the  Crab  (in  Astronomy).  A 
constellation,  and  the  fourth  sign  in  the 
zodiac,  marked  thus  gz,  which  the  sun  en- 
ters on  the  twenty-first  of  June,  thence 
called  the  summer  solstice. 

CANCER,  Tropic  of.  A  small  circle 
of  the  sphere,  parallel  to  the  equator,  and 
passing  through  the  beginning  of  Cancer. 

CANCER  (in  Medicine).  A  hard  ulcer- 
ous and  exceedingly  painful  swelling,  and 
generally  seated  in  the  glandulous  part  of 
the  body. 

CANDLE.  A  long  roll  or  cylinder  made 
of  tallow,  wax,  or  spermaceti,  in  which  is 
included  a  wick  of  cotton  or  rush,  for  the 
purpose  of  burning.  Good  tallow  is  made 
of  the  fat  of  sheep  and  bullocks  in  equal 
portions.  The  wick,  which  is  made  of 
several  threads  of  cotton  twisted  together, 
must  be  fine,  sufficiently  dry,  and  properly 
twisted,  or  otherwise  the  candle  will  yield 
an  unsteady  light.  The  tallow  is  prepared 
by  chopping  the  fat  and  boiling  it  in  a 
copper,  the  scum  which  is  taken  from  it  in 
the  boiling  is  called  greaves,  which  is  made 
into  cakes  that  are  sold  for  fatting  poultry. 
Candles  are  made  either  by  dipping  or  in 
moulds,  the  former  of  which  are  the  com- 
mon candles.  When  candles  are  to  be 
dipped,  the  workman  holds  three  of  the 
broaches,  with  the  cottons  properly  spread, 
between  his  fingers,  and  dips  them  into  the 
tallow  vat,  then  hangs  them  to  cool,  and 
when  cooled  dips  them  again  and  again 
until  they  are  of  the  required  size.  The 
mould  in  which  mould-candles  are  made 
is  mostly  of  pewter,  made  to  the  diameter 
and  length  of  the  candle  wanted ;  at  the 
extremity  of  it  is  the  neck,  which  is  pierced 
to  receive  the  cotton,  one  end  of  which 
comes  out  at  the  neck,  and  the  remainder 
is  placed  in  the  mould  in  such  manner  in 


CAN 

a  perpendicular  direction,  as  that  it  should 
be  in  the  middle  of  the  candle  ;  after  this 
the  mould  is  filled  with  boilingtallow,  and 
left  to  cool.  Wax  candles  are  made  by 
pouring  with  a  ladle  melted  wax  on  the 
tops  of  a  number  of  wicks,  tied  by  the 
neck  at  equal  distances  round  an  iron 
circle  suspended  directly  over  a  large  basin 
of  copper  tinned. 

CANDLEMAS  DAY.  The  festival  ob- 
served on  the  second  of  February,  by  Cathr- 
olics  and  Episcopalians,  in  commemoration 
of  the  purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

CANDY.  A  preparation  of  sugar  made 
by  melting  and  crystallizing  it  several 
times. 

CANDYTUFT.  An  annual  that  is  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  bearing  a  white  or  purple 
flower.  • 

CANE.  A  kind  of  strong  Indian  reed, 
used  for  walking  sticks ;  also  the  plant 
which  yields  the  sugar,  and  grows  freely 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  parts  of 
North  and  South  America.  The  skin  of 
the  sugar  cane  is  soft,  and  the  spongy  mat- 
ter or  pith  it  contains,  very  juicy.  It  is  now 
extensively  cultivated  in  Louisiana,  and 
Alabama. 


CANE  (in  Commerce).  A  long  measure 
of  different  dimensions  in  different  coun- 
tries, from  two  to  five  yards. 

CANIS  (in  Astronomy).  The  name  of 
two  constellations  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere; namely,  Canis  Major  and  Canis 
Minor. 

CANKER.  A  cancerous  affection  which 
occurs  frequently  in  fruit  trees  ;  also  a  fun- 
gous excrescence  in  the  feet  of  horses. 

CANNIBAL.     A  man  eater. 

CANNON.  A  piece  of  ordnance,  or  a 
great  gun  for  a  battery,  which  is  mounted 


CAN 

on  a  carriage :  the  principal  parts  of  a 
cannon  are  tlie  muzzle,  or  mouth,  the  en- 
trance of  the  bore  or  the  hollow  part  which 
receives  the  charge  ;  the  chase,  or  the  Avhole 
space  from  the  muzzle  to  the  trunnions ; 
the  trunnions,  or  two  solid  cylindrical 
pieces  of  metal,  which  project  from  the 
piece,  and  by  which  it  is  supported  on  the 
carriage  ;  the  vent,  which  in  small  firearms 
is  called  the  touchhole,  a  small  hole  pierced 
at  the  end  of  the  bore  or  chamber,  for  the 
purpose  of  priming  the  piece  with  powder, 
or  to  introduce  the  tube  in  order,  Avhen 
lighted,  to  set  fire  to  the  charge  ;the  cham- 
ber, that  part  of  the  bore  or  hollow  of  the 
piece  where  the  powder  is  lodged  which 
forms  the  charge ;  the  breech,  the  solid 
piece  behind,  the  hindermost  part  of  which 
is  called  the  cascabel.  That  part  next  to 
the  breech  is  called  the  reinforce,  which 
ia  made  stronger  to  resist  the  force  of  the 
powder.  The  ornaments  of  a  cannon  are 
the  muzzle,  astragal,  and  fillets,  the  chase 
astragal  and  fillets,  the  reinforce  ring,  and 
the  breech  mouldings.  The  first  cannon 
was  used  in  1304,  on  the  coast  of  Den- 
mark. 


CAP 


79 


CANOE.  A  little  vessel  or  boat  used 
by  the  Indians,  which  is  made  all  of  one 
piece,  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree  hollowed. 

CANON.  A  law,  or  ordnance  of  the 
church.  The  Canon  Law  consists  of  rules 
di-awn  from  Scripture,  from  the  writings 
of  the  ancient  fathers,  from  the  ordinances 
of  councils,  and  the  decrees  of  the  pope. 

CANON.  A  dignity  in  a  cathedral 
diurch. 

CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE,  That  body 
of  books  of  the  Holy  Scripture  which  serves 
for  a  rule  of  faith  and  practice. 

CANONIZATION.  The  act  of  enrolling 
any  one  among  the  number  of  the  saints, 
which  is  the  practice  of  the  Romish  church, 
and  performed  by  the  pope. 

CANOPUS  (in  Astronomy).  A  bright 
star  of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  rudder 
of  the  ship  Argo. 

CANTATA.  A  piece  of  music  for  one, 
two,  or  more  voices,  chiefly  intended  for  a 
single  voice  with  a  thorough  bass. 

CANTEEN.  A  suttling  house  for  both 
officers  and  men  ;  also  a  small  vessel  of  tin 


plate  or  wood,  in  which  soldiers  on  their 
march  carry  their  liquor. 

CANTERBURY-BELL.  A  fine  flower 
much  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  plant  is 
biennial,  and  the  flower  is  white  or  blue, 
and  of  an  oblong  figure. 

CANTHARIDES,  or  Spanish  Flies. 
A  species  of  shining  beetle,  powdered  and 
used  for  raising  blisters. 

CANTON.  A  division  or  small  parcel 
of  a  countiy,  such  as  the  cantons  of  Swit- 
zerland. 

CANTON  (in  Heraldry).  An  ordinary, 
so  called  because  it  occupies  but  a  cantel 
or  corner  of  the  escutcheon. 

CANVAS,  or  CANVASS.  The  cloth 
on  which  painters  usually  draw  their  pic- 
tures ;  and  also  that  of  which  the  sails  of 
vessels  are  made. 

CAP.  In  general,  any  covering  for  the 
head  ;  sometimes  of  a  particular  make,  as 
a  cardinal's  cap. 

CAP.  The  name  of  several  things  simi- 
lar in  figure  or  use,  as  the  cap  of  a  great 
gun,  a  piece  of  lead  laid  over  the  touchhole ; 
the  cap  in  a  ship,  the  square  piece  of  tim- 
ber placed  over  the  head  of  a  mast. 

CAP  (in  Architecture),  The  uppermost 
part  of  any  member,  as  the  capital  of  a 
column,  the  cornice  of  a  door,  &.c. 

CAP  OF  MAINTENANCE  (in  Heral- 
dry). One  of  the  regalia  or  ornaments  of 
state,  carried  before  the  king  of  Great 
Britain  at  the  coronation  and  other  great 
solemnities. 

CAPE  (in  Geography).  A  promontory 
or  headland  projecting  into  the  sea  farther 
than  the  rest  of  the  coast,  as  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  Cape  St.  Vincent,  &c. 

CAPELLA.  A  star  of  the  first  magni- 
tude in  Auriga. 

CAPER-BUSH.  A  shrub  or  tree,  the 
bud  or  flower  of  which  is  converted  into 
a  pickle  called  caper. 

CAPILLARY.  An  epithet  for  what  is 
as  fine  as  a  hair.  Capillary  tubes  are  pipes 
of  the  fineness  of  a  hair,  by  which  various 
phenomena  in  physics  and  hydrostatics  are 
displayed.  Capillary  vessels,  in  Anatomy, 
the  smallest  and  extreme  parts  of  the  mi- 
nutest ramifications  of  the  veins  and  arte- 
ries. 

CAPITAL.  The  chief  or  head  of  a  thing, 

CAPITAL  (in  Geography).  The  chief 
town, 

CAPITAL  (in  Architecture),  The  np- 
permost  part  of  a  column,  serving  as  the 
head. 

CAPITAL  (in  Printing),  The  large  let- 
ters, which  serve  as  initials,  or  in  titles, 

CAPITAL  (in  Commerce).  The  stock 
or  fund  of  a  trading  company. 


80 


CAP 


CAPITOL.  The  building  at  Washington 
in  which  Congi-css  meets.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  on  a  hill  and  is  by  fai-  the  most 
splendid  edifice  in  America. 

CAPITULATION.  A  treaty  between 
the  besieged  and  the  besiegers  of  ai\y 
place,  whereby  the  former  surrender  it, 
and  themselves,  on  certain  conditions. 

CAPIVI.  A  tree  of  Brazil,  tlie  flower  of 
which  resembles  a  rose.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  sixty  feet. 

CAPRICoilN.  A  southern  constellation, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
which  the  sun  enters  on  the  21st  of  De- 
c-ember.   It  is  marked  thus,  l^p. 

CAPRICORN,  Tropic  of,  A  small  cir- 
cle of  the  sphere,  parallel  to  the  equinoctial, 
passing  through  the  beginning  of  Capricorn 
or  the  winter  solstice,  which  is  the  sun's 
greatest  southern  declination,  namely,  23 
degrees  and  a  half. 

CAPRIOLE.  A  caper  or  leap  in  danc- 
ing, like  a  goat's  leap. 

CAPSICUM.  A  plant,  native  of  South 
America,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a  pod,  and 
tlie  strongest  kind  of  pepper,  known  by 
the  name  of  Cayenne  Pepper. 

CAPSTAN.  A  large  piece  of  timber 
resembling  a  windlass,  placed  behind  the 
mainmast.  It  is  a  cylinder  with  levers, 
used  to  weigh  anchors,  to  hoist  up  or  strike 
down  topmasts,  &:c. 


r  ' 


CAPTAIN.  A  commander  of  a  company 
of  foot  or  a  troop  of  horse ;  and  in  tlie 
naval  or  merchant  service,  the  commander 
of  a  vessel:  also  in  gi-ammar  schools  in 
England  the  head  boy  of  his  class. 

CAPTION  (in  Law).  The  act  of  taking 
any  person  by  any  judicial  process. 

CAPUCHIN.  An  order  of  Franciscan 
monks  in  the  Romish  church,  so  called  from 
their  capuch  or  hood  sewed  to  theu-  habits. 

CAPUT  MORTUUM.  The  inert  resi- 
duum of  any  body,  remaining  after  all  the 


CAR 

volatile  and  humid  parts  have  been  ex- 
tracted. 

CAR.  A  small  carriage  of  burden,  drawu 
by  one  or  two  horses. 

CVRABINE,  or  CARBINE.  A  sort  of 
short  gun,  between  a  musket  and  a  pistol, 
having  its  barrel  two  feet  and  a  half  long. 

CARACAL.  An  animal  resembling  the 
Lynx,  found  in  the  liot  climates  of  Asia. 

C.\RACT,  or  CARAT.  The  weight  of 
24  grains ;  or  one  scruple  24  carats  make 
one  ounce.  This  is  the  standard  weight  by 
which  the  fineness  of  gold  is  distmguished. 
If  the  gold  be  so  fine  that,  in  pmifying,  16 
loses  nothing,  or  but  very  little,  it  is  said 
to  be  gold  of  24  carats  ;  if  it  lose  one  carat, 
it  is  said  to  be  gold  of  23  carats. 

CARAT  (in  weighing  of  Diamonds,  &c.) 
A  weight  of  four  grains. 

CARAVAN.  A  company  of  merchants 
or  pilgruns  in  Asia  or  Africa,  who  go  in 
an  organized  body  through  the  deserts. 

CARAVANSERA.  A  large  building  m 
the  East,  or  an  inn  for  the  reception  of 
travellers  and  the  caravans.  The  building 
commonly  forms  a  square,  in  the  middle 
of  which  is  a  spacious  court,  and  under 
the  arches  or  piazzas  that  surround  it, 
there  runs  a  bank,  raised  some  feet  above 
the  ground,  where  the  merchants  and  tra- 
vellers take  up  their  lodgings,  the  beasts 
of  burden  being  tied  to  the  foot  of  the 
bank. 

CARBON.  The  pure  inflammable  part 
of  charcoal,  free  from  all  the  hydrogen 
and  earthy  or  metallic  particles  which 
charcoal  usually  contains.  By  its  union 
with  oxygen,  it  produces  two  gaseous  sub- 
stances, the  first  of  which  was  formerly 
called  fixed  air,  now  carbonic  acid ;  and 
the  second,  containing  less  oxygen,  the 
oxide  of  carbon. 

CARBONATES.  Salts  formed  by  the 
combination  of  carbonic  acid  with  diflerent 
bases,  as  carbonate  of  copper,  &c. 

CARBUNCLE.  A  precious  stone,  of  the 
colour  of  a  burnmg  coal. 

CARBURET.  A  substance  formed  by 
the  combination  of  carbon  with  metals. 

CARCASS  (in  Building).  The  shell  or 
timber  work  of  a  house  before  it  is  lathed 
and  plastered,  or  the  floors  laid  ;  in  Gun- 
nery, an  iron  case,  filled  with  combustible 
materials,  and  discharged  from  a  mortar 
after  the  manner  of  a  bomb. 

CARD.  An  instrument  like  a  comb, 
which  is  used  in  combing  or  disentangling 
wool. 

CARD  OF  A  COMPASS.  The  circular 
paper  on  which  the  points  of  a  compass 
are  marked. 

CARD.  See  Cards. 


CAR 

CARDIACS.  Medicinea  that  tend  to 
strengthen  the  heart. 

CARDINAL.  A  dignitary  in  the  Romish 
Church,  and  one  of  its  chief  governors,  of 
which  there  are  seventy  in  number.  They 
constitute  a  college,  by  and  from  whom 
the  pope  is  chosen. 

CARDINAL  POINTS.  The  four  points 
or  divisions  of  the  horizon,  namely,  the 
north,  south,  east,  and  west. 

CARDINAL'S  CAP,  or  Caedi.val 
Flower.  A  plant  so  called  because  its 
flower,  by  the  intense  redness  of  its  colour, 
seems  to  emulate  the  scarlet  cap  of  a  car- 
dinal. 

CARDINAL'S  CAP,  or  HAT.  A  cap 
or  hat  of  a  peculiar  form,  which  is  worn 
by  cardinals. 


CAR 


81 


CARDINAL  VIRTUES.  The  four  vir- 
tues of  prudence,  temperance,  justice,  and 
fortitude. 

CARDS.  Pieces  of  pasteboard  of  an 
oblong  figure,  and  different  sizes,  made 
into  packs  of  52  in  number,  and  used  by 
way  of  amusement  in  different  games. 
They  are  painted  with  various  figures, 
namely,  hearts,  spades,  diamonds,  clubs, 
and  kings  and  queens.  They  are  said  to 
have  been  introduced  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  to  divert  Charles  VI.  king  of 
France,  who  had  fallen  into  a  state  of 
melancholy.  By  the  hearts,  coeurs,  were 
meant  the  gens  de  choeur,  choirmen  or 
ecclesiastics,insteadofwhich  the  Spaniards 
use  chalices.  The  spades,  in  Spanish  espa- 
das,  swords,  were  intended  to  represent  the 
nobility,  who  wore  swords  or  pikes.  The 
diamonds,  or  carreaux, designated  the  order 
of  citizens  or  merchants.  The  trefle,  tre- 
foil leaf  or  clover  grass,  was  an  emblem  of 
the  husbandman  ;  this  is  called  clubs  with 
U5,because  the  Spaniards  have  bastos, clubs, 
on  their  cards.  The  knaves  represent  the 
servants  of  the  knights.  The  four  kings 
were  intended  for  David,  Alexander,  Cae- 
sar, and  Charlemagne,  who  established  the 
four  great  monarchies  of  the  Jews,  Greeks, 
Romans,  and  Franks.  The  four  queens 
were  supposed  to  represent  Argine,  i.  e. 
regina,  the  queen  by  descent,  Esther,  Ju- 
dith, and  Pallas.  The  moulds  or  blocks  used 


for  making  cards  were  exactly  like  those 
which  were  shortly  afterwards  used  in  the 
making  of  books. 

CAREENING.  The  heavhig  a  ship  on 
one  side,  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  car 
calking  the  other  side. 

CARGO  (inCommerce).Themerchan  disc 
and  effects  that  are  laden  on  board  a  ship. 

CARICATURE  (From  the  Italian  Cari- 
catura).  A  distorted  way  of  representing 
objects,  so  as  to  make  them  appear  ridicu- 
lous. 

CARIES.  A  disease  of  the  bones ;  a  kind 
of  rottenness. 

CARINA.  A  keel  j  the  name  given  by 
Linneeus  to  the  lower  concave  petal  of  a 
papilionaceous  or  butterfly-shaped  flower, 
as  the  pea,  which  resembles  the  keel  of  a 
ship  in  its  shape. 

C.\RLINE  THISTLE.  A  plant  of  the 
thistle  kind,  which  is  sometimes  used  me- 
dicinally. 

CARLING3.  Short  pieces  of  timber 
which  serve  to  support  and  strengthen  the 
larger  beams  in  a  ship. 

CARMAN.  One  who  la  employed  la 
carrj-ing  goods  from  the  wharfs  to  the 
merchant's  warehouses. 
"  CARMELITES.  An  order  of  monka 
who  were  first  founded  on  Mount  Car- 
mel. 

CARMINATIVES.  Medicines  which 
expel  wind. 

CARJONE.  A  dross  or  powder  of  a 
deep  red  colour,  procured  from  cochineal, 
and  used  for  painting  in  miniature. 

CARNATION.  A  beautiful  sort  of  clove 
pink,  having  its  bright  colours  equally 
marked  all  over  the  flowers. 

CARNATION  (in  Painting).  The  flesh 
colour. 

CARNIVAL,  or  CARNAVAL.  A  sea- 
son of  mirth  and  festivity,  particularly  ob- 
sen-ed  by  the  Italians  and  generally  by 
Catholics  from  Twelfth  Day  until  Lent. 

CARNIVOROUS.  An  epithet  applied 
to  animals  that  feed  on  flesh. 

CAROTIDS.  Two  arteries  in  the  neck, 
which  convey  the  blood  from  the  aorta  to 
the  brain. 

CARP.  A  fresh-water  fish  fitted  for 
stocking  ponds,  as  it  spawns  three  times  a 
vear. 

CARPENTER'S  RULE.  A  tool  gene- 
rally used  in  taking  dimensions,  and  cast- 
ing up  the  contents  of  timber  and  the  artifi- 
cer's work. 

CARPENTRY.  The  art  of  cutting, 
framing,  and  joining  large  pieces  of  wood, 
for  the  uses  of  building :  it  is  subservient 
to  architecture,  and  is  divided  into  House 
Carpentry  and  Ship  Carpentrj'.    Carpen- 


82 


CAR 


try  differs  from  joining  only  inasmucii  as 
the  work  is  coarser,  larger,  and  not  so 
curious. 

CAEPET.  A  sort  of  stuff  wrought  either 
with  the  needle  or  the  loom,  and  used  as  a 
covering  for  the  floor.  Persian  and  Turk- 
ish carpets  are  most  in  esteem. 

CARRIAGE.  In  general,  a  vehicle  for 
canying  goods  and  persona  ;  in  Gunneiy, 
the  machine  upon  which  the  gun  is  mount- 
ed ;  in  Carpentry,  the  frame  of  timber-work 
which  supports  the  steps  of  wooden  stairs. 
CARRIERS.  All  persons  carrying  goods 
for  hire  ;  also  a  sort  of  pigeons  that  are  used 
In  conveying  letters  to  a  distance. 

CARROT.  A  fleshy  root,  cultivated  as 
a  garden  vegetable. 

CART.  A  small  carnage  with  two 
wheels,  used  in  husbandry. 

CART-HORSE.  An  inferior  kind  of 
horse,  used  in  husbandry. 

CARTE  BLANCHE.  A  blank  paper, 
delivered  to  a  person  to  be  filled  up  as  he 
pleases ;  applied  generally  in  the  sense  of 
unlimited  terms  granted  to  a  person. 

CARTEL.  An  agreement  between  two 
states  at  wax  for  the  exchange  of  prison- 
ers, 

CARTILAGE.  A  part  of  the  animal 
body,  harder  and  drier  than  a  ligament, 
and  softer  than  a  bone ;  its  use  is  to  render 
the  articulation  of  the  bones  more  easy. 

CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES.  Those 
having  cai-tilaginous  instead  of  bony  skele- 
tons. 

CARTOON.  A  design  made  on  strong 
paper,  to  be  afterwards  calked  through, 
and  transferred  to  the  fresh  plaster  of  a 
wall  to  be  painted  in  fresco,  such  as  the 
famous  cartoons  of  Raphael  now  in  the 
palace  of  Hampton  Court,  England. 

CARTOUCH.  A  case  of  wood  holding 
about  four  hundred  musket  balls,  besides 
iron  balls,  from  six  to  ten,  to  be  fired  out  of 
a  howitzer. 

CARTOUCHES.  Blocks  or  modillions 
used  in  the  cornices  of  wainscoted  apart- 
ments ;  also  ornaments  representing  a  scroll 
of  paper. 

CARTRIDGE.    A  case  of  paper  or  parch- 
ment filled  with  gunpowder,  and  used  in 
the  charging  of  guns. 
CARVEL.    A  small  ship  or  fly-boat. 
CARVING.    The  art  of  cutting  wood 
into  various  forms  and  figiu-es. 

CARYATIDES  (in  Architecture).  A 
sort  of  columns  or  pillars  shaped  like  the 
bodies  of  women,  and  in  the  dress  of  the 
Carian  people.  They  were  intended  to 
represent  the  Carian  women  who  were  ta- 
ken captives  by  the  Athenians. 
CARYOPHYLLE^.    A  natural  order 


CAS 

of  plants,  consisting  of  such  as  have  pink- 
like flowers. 

CASE.  Any  outside  covering  which 
serves  to  enclose  a  thing  entirely,  as  pack- 
ing cases  or  knife  cases  ;  in  Carpentry,  the 
case  of  a  door  is  the  wooden  frame,  in 
which  it  is  hung ;  in  Printing,  it  is  a  frame 
of  wood,  with  numerous  small  partitions 
for  the  letters. 

CASE  (in  Grammar).  An  accident  of 
nouns  which  have  different  inflexions  or 
terminations. 

CASE-HARDENING.  A  method  of 
preparing  iron,  so  as  to  render  its  outer 
surface  hard,  and  capable  of  resisting  any 
edged  tool. 

CASE-KNIFE.    A  large  kitchen-knife. 

CASEMENT.  A  window  that  opens  on 
hinges. 

CASE-SHOT.  Musket  balls,  stones,  old 
iron,  &c.  put  into  cases  and  shot  out  of 
great  guns. 

CASH.  Ready  money,  distinguished 
from  bills. 

CASHEW  CURASSOV^T,  A  bird  about 
the  size  of  a  hen  turkey  found  in  Jamaica 
and  the  northern  parts  of  South  America. 
(See  CuRAssow.) 

CASHEW-NUT.  The  fruit  of  the  cas- 
hew, that  abounds  in  Jamaica  and  Barba- 
does.  From  this  nut  is  expressed  a  juice 
that  is  made  into  a  pleasant  wine. 


CASHIER.  The  keeper  of  the  cash  or 
money,  which  it  is  his  business  to  receive 
and  pay. 

CASHIERS  OF  THE  BANK.  Officers 
of  the  Bank  who  sign  the  notes  that  are 
issued  out, 

CASHIERING.  A  dishonourable  dis- 
missal of  an  officer  or  soldier  from  the 
service. 

CASHMERE.      A    country   in    India 


CAS 

which  gives  name  to  a  valuable  kind  of 
cloth,  and  costly  shawls  manufactured 
there  from  the  wool  of  a  species  of  goat 
peculiar  to  Thibet. 

CASSAVI.  An  American  tree,  bearing 
a  bell-shaped  flower.  Its  root,  when  dried 
and  ground  to  flour,  was  converted  into 
bread  by  the  original  inhabitants. 

CASSIA  FISTULA,  or  Pudding  Pipe 
Tree.  A  very  large  tree,  a  native  of  Al- 
exandria and  the  West  Indies,  which  bears 
a  long  cylindrical  taper  or  flat  pod,  divided 
into  many  cells,  in  each  of  which  is  a  hard 
seed  lodged  in  a  clammy  black  substance, 
which  is  purgative,  and  is  known  in  medi- 
cine by  the  name  of  the  Purging  Cassia, 
or,  simply,  Cassia. 

CASSIOPEIA.  A  northern  constella- 
tion. 

CASSiaUE,  or  CACiaUE.    A  sove- 
reign lord  among  the  ancient  Americans. 
CASSOCK.    A  vestment  worn  by  cler- 
gymen under  their  gowns. 

CASSOWARY.  A  large  bird  of  the  os- 
trich kind,  found  only  in  Java,  and  the 
Asiatic  Islands.  It  is  second  in  size  only 
to  the  Ostrich. 

CAST.  The  name  of  figures  or  small 
statues  in  bronze. 

CASTE.  The  name  of  different  tribes 
in  Hindostan,  of  which  the  Brahmins  is 
tiie  most  noble.  The  second  is  that  of  the 
soldiers,  the  third,  that  of  merchants  and 
husbandmen,  the  fourth  that  of  laborers  in 
various  employments. 

CASTING  (among  Sculptors).  The 
taking  of  casts  or  impressions  of  figures, 
busts,  fcc. ;  in  a  foundeiy,  the  running  of 
metals  into  any  mould  prepared  for  this 
purpose. 

CASTLE.  A  fortress  or  place  rendered 
defensible  by  nature  and  art.  Castles,  be- 
ing an  emblem  of  grandeur,  are  frequently 
borne  in  coats  of  arms. 


CAT 


83 


CAST  IRON.  The  iron  as  it  is  extract- 
ed from  the  ores  by  means  of  casting. 

CASTOR.  A  soft,  grayish  yellow  sub- 
stance found  in  the  bags  of  the  beaver. 


near  its  groin.  In  a  warm  air,  the  castor 
grows  by  degrees  hard,  brittle,  and  of  a 
dark  colour. 

CAT.  A  well  known  animal  nearly  al- 
lied to  the  tiger,  is  either  domestic  or  wild. 
The  wild  or  mountain  cat,  is  borne  in  coats 
of  arms  as  an  emblem  of  liberty,  vigilance, 
and  forecast. 

The  animals  of  the  cat  family  known  in 
North  America,  are  the  Cougar,  vulgarly 
cahed  Panther ;  the  wild  cat,  or  catamount, 
an  animal  three  times  the  size  of  the  do- 
mestic cat,  and  having  a  short  tail ;  and  the 
Lynx.  The  domestic  cat  is  a  tame  variety 
of  the  European  cat.  It  is  not  a  native  of 
tlris  countiy. 


CAT.  A  sea  term  for  a  ship  usually 
employed  in  the  coal  trade  j  also  a  sort 
of  strong  tackle  for  drawing  up  the  an- 
chor ;  also  a  militaiy  term  for  a  kind  of 
shed  under  which  soldiers  conceal  them 
selves  while  filling  up  a  ditch  or  mining  a 
wall. 

CATACOMBS.  Grottoes  or  subterrane- 
ous places  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  fr&- 
quently  found  in  Egypt  and  in  Italy. 

CATALOGUE.  A  list  of  books  or  any 
other  matters,  arranged  in  order,  for  pur- 
poses of  sale  or  reference. 

CATAMARAN.  A  sort  of  floating 
raft  originally  used  in  China  as  a  fishing 
boat. 

CATARACT.  A  high,  steep  place  or 
precipice  in  the  channel  of  a  river,  caused 
by  rocks  or  other  obstacles  stopping  the 
course  of  the  stream.  Niagara  is  the  most 
stupendous  cataract  in  the  world.  Also  a 
disease  in  the  eye,  arising  from  a  little  film 
or  speck,  which  swimming  in  the  aqueous 
humour,  and  getting  before  the  pupil,  caus- 
es a  dimness  of  sight  or  blindness. 

CATARRH.  A  defluxion  from  the  head, 
occasioned  bj'  cold. 

CAT  BIRD.  A  bird  common  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  a  bluish  gray  colour  which 
makes  a  noise  very  similar  to  the  mewing 
of  a  cat.  It  is  a  pretty  good  singer ;  its 
song  consists  of  imitations  of  the  notes  of 
other  birds. 

CAT-CALL.  A  harsh  sort  of  pipe,  imi- 
tating the  noise  of  a  cat. 


84 


CAT 


CATCH  (in  Music).  A  short  and  humo- 
rous song ;  also  a  eea  term  for  a  swift- 
sailing  vessel. 

CATCH-FLY.  A  plant  much  cultivated 
tn  gardens,  having  grass-like  leaves,  and 
a  long  stalk  terminated  by  a  cluster  of 
crimson  flowers. 

CATECHISM.  A  short  system  of  in- 
struction in  religion,  conveyed  in  question 
and  answers.  It  is  frequently  applied  to 
other  subjects. 

CATECHU.  A  juice  of  a  very  astringent 
quality,  pressed  from  out  of  several  Indian 
fruits. 

CATECHUMENS.  A  name  formerly 
given  in  the  Christian  church,  to  such  as 
were  prepared  to  receive  the  ordinance  of 
baptism. 

CATEGORY  (in  Logic).  A  name  for  the 
predicates  or  attributes  contained  under 
any  genus,  of  which  Aristotle  reckons  ten, 
namely,  substance,  quantity,  quality,  rela- 
tion, acting,  suffering,  time,  place,  situa- 
tion, and  habit. 

CATENARY.  A  curve  on  a  crooked 
line  formed  by  a  rope  when  hanging. 

CATERER.  A  provider  of  victuals  and 
other  necessaiies  m  the  king's  household, 
or  elsewhere. 

CATERPILLAR.  The  larva  produced 
from  the  egg,  which  is  transformed  first 
into  the  chrysalis  or  nymph,  and  after- 
wards into  the  butterfly. 

CATGUT.  A  name  for  the  strings  made 
of  the  intestines  of  sheep  or  lambs,  and 
used  in  musical  instruments,  &c. 

CATHEADS.  Two  strong  beams  of  tim- 
ber in  a  vessel  which  serve  to  suspend  the 
anchor  clear  of  the  bow. 

CATHEDRAL.  The  episcopal  church, 
or  a  church  where  is  a  bishop's  seat  or 
Bee. 

CATHERINE-WHEEL.  A  sort  of  fire- 
works constructed  in  the  form  of  a  wheel, 
which  is  made  to  turn  round  when  it  is 
let  off. 


CATHERINE-WHEEL  (in  Architec- 
ture). A  large  circular  ornament  in  Gothic 
windows. 

CATHOLIC.  An  epithet  properly  signi- 


CAV 

fying  universal ;  which  the  Romish  church 
assumes  to  itself  as  its  title  ;  whence  the 
name  of  Roman  Catholics  hasbeen  applied, 
since  the  Reformation,  to  the  followers  of 
the  Romish  doctrine  and  discipline. 

CATHOLIC  KING.  The  title  of  the 
king  of  Spain. 

CATHOLIC  PRIEST.  A  clergyman  or 
priest  ordained  to  say  mass  and  administer 
the  sacraments,  &c,  according  to  the  rites 
of  the  Romish  Church. 

CATKIN,  or  Ament  (in  Botany) .  A  long 
stem  thickly  covered  with  scales,  under 
which  are  the  flowers  and  the  essential 
parts  of  the  fruit,  which  is  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  to  a  cat's  tail.  Catkins 
are  to  be  found  on  the  hazel,  willow,  &c. 

CAT'S  EYE  (in  Mineralogy).  A  stone 
of  a  glistening  gray,  with  a  tinge  of  green, 
yellow,  or  white. 

CAT'S  HEAD.  A  very  large  kind  of 
apple. 

CAT'S-TAIL  GRASS.  A  kind  of  reed, 
bearing  a  spike,  like  the  tail  of  a  cat. 

CATTLE.  Horned  beasts,  that  feed  in 
pasture,  or  generally  all  four-footed  beasts 
that  serve  for  domestic  purposes,  including 
horses,  horned  cattle  and  sheep.  In  Eng- 
land horses  and  cows  are  called  black 
cattle. 

CAVALCADE.  A  pompous  procession 
of  horses  and  carriages,  &c. 

CAVALIER.  A  horseman;  a  person 
mounted  on  a  horse,  or  expert  in  horse- 
manship ;  in  Fortification,  a  work  raised 
within  the  body  of  a  place,  above  tbe 
other  works. 

CAVEAR,  or  CAVIAR.  The  spawn  or 
hard  roes  of  sturgeon,  made  into  cakes, 
salted  and  dried  in  the  sun,  much  used  in 
Russia  and  other  parts  of  the  continent. 

CAVERN.  A  natural  cave  or  hollow 
place,  in  a  rock  or  mountain. 

CAVETTO  (in  Architecture).  A  con- 
cave moulding,  the  curvature  of  whose 


section  does  not  exceed  tJie  quadrant  of  a 
circle. 


CEN 

CAUL.  A  membrane  in  the  abdomen 
Which  serves  to  cover  the  intestines. 

CAULIFLOWER.  The  finest  sort  of 
cabbage,  with  a  seeded  head. 

CAUSEWAY,  or  CAUSEY.  A  path 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  and 
paved  with  stones  or  gravel. 

CAUSTIC  CURVE.  A  curve  formed 
by  the  concourse  or  coincidence  of  the 
rays  of  light,  reflected  or  refracted  from 
any  other  curve. 

CAUSTICS.  Medicines  which,  when 
applied  to  any  part  of  the  body,  burn  it 
to  a  hard  crust. 
CAUTERY.  Any  burning  application. 
CAYENNE  PEPPER.  A  powder  pre- 
pared from  the  pods  of  several  species  of 
the  capsicum,  whicli  originally  came  from 
Cayenne,  but  is  now  brought  from  both 
the  Indies. 

CAYMAN.  The  American  alligator. 
C.B.  In  England,  Companion  of  theBath. 
C.  C.  Caius  College :  C.  C.  C.  Corpus 
Christi  College. 

CEDAR.  A  well  known  evergi'een,  very 
like  the  juniper  in  appearance,  which  de- 
lights in  cold  mountainous  places.  The 
leaves  are  much  narrower  than  those  of 
the  pine  tree,  and  the  seeds  are  produced 
in  large  cones.  Tlie  most  celebrated  spe- 
cies is  that  of  Lebanon,  which  is  also  found 
in  Russia  and  which  is  introduced  by  trans- 
planting into  various  parts  of  Europe  and 
America. 

CEILING.  The  inside  of  the  roof  or 
top  of  an  apartment,  in  distinction  from 
the  surface  of  a  floor. 

CELERY.  A  sort  of  parsley  much  used 
in  winter  salads, 

CELESTIAL  GLOBE.  An  artificial 
representation  of  the  heavens, 

CELL.  The  apartment  or  chamber  of  a 
monk  or  nun ;  also  a  small  close  apartment 
in  a  prison. 

CELLAR.  A  place,  commonly  under 
ground,  which  serves  as  a  store-room. 

CELLS  (in  Anatomy).  Bags  or  bladders 
where  fluids  are  lodged  3  in  Botany,  the 
partitions  in  the  husks  or  pods  of  plants 
where  the  seeds  are  lodged. 

CELLULAR  MEMBRANE.  One  of 
the  largest  membranes  in  the  human  body, 
of  a  vascular  texture,  fitted  for  holding  the 
fat. 

CEMENT.  A  compound  of  pitch,  brick- 
dust,  plaster  of  Paris,  &c.  used  by  chasers 
and  other  artificers  for  making  their  work 
firm. 
CEMETERY.  A  repository  for  the  dead. 
CENSOR.  A  magistrate  among  the  Ro- 
mans, who  valued  and  taxed  men's  estates, 
and  also  punished  any  acts  of  immorality.  I 
8 


CER 


85 


CENSORS.  In  modern  times,  persons 
of  learning  appointed  to  examine  all  books 
before  tliey  go  to  press,  and  to  see  that  they 
contain  nothing  contrary  to  good  morals. 
This  is  confined  to  despotic  countries. 

CENT.  An  abbreviation,  in  Commerce, 
for  centum,  a  hundred,  as  five  per  cent.j 
that  is,  five  pounds  interest,  discount,  or 
profit,  upon  every  hundred. 

CENTAURUS.  One  of  the  forty-eight 
old  constellations  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. 

CENTRE.  The  middle  point  of  any- 
thing, especially  of  a  circle  or  sphere. 

CENTRE-BIT.  A  carpenter's  tool,which 
makes  a  cylindrical  excavation  by  turning 
on  an  axis  or  centre. 


CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY.  That  point 
about  which  all  the  parts  of  a  body  in  any 
situation  balance  each  other. 

CENTRIFUGAL.  An  epithet  for  that 
force  which  causes  a  body  revolving  about 
a  centre,  or  about  another  body,  to  recede 
from  it. 

CENTRIPETAL.  An  epithet  for  that 
force  which  causes  all  bodies  to  tend  to- 
wards some  point  as  a  centre. 

CENTURION.  A  military  officer  among 
the  Romans,  wlio  liad  the  command  of  a 
hundred  men. 

CERES  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology). 
The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Vesta,  and 


goddess  of  corn  and  fruits.    She  first  taught 
men  the  art  of  cultivating  the  ground. 


86  CHA 

CERES.  One  of  the  newly  discovered 
planets. 

CENTURY.  The  space  of  a  hundred 
years. 

CERECLOTH.  Cloth  smeared  over  v^'ith 
glutinous  matter. 

CERIUM.  A  new  metal  obtained  from 
Sweden,  of  a  flesh-red  colour,  semitrans- 
parent,  becomes  friable  from  heat,  but  does 
not  melt. 

CERTIFICATE.  A  testimony  given  in 
writing,  to  declare  or  certify  the  truth  of 
any  thing. 

CERUMEN.  The  viscid  yellow  liquid 
which  flows  from  the  ear,  and  hardens  on 
exposure  to  the  air. 

CERUSS,  or  White  Lead.  A  sort  of 
calx  of  lead,  made  by  exposing  plates  of 
that  metal,  to  the  vapour  of  vinegar. 

CETE.  An  order  of  animals  in  the  Lin- 
naeen  system,  including  such  as  have 
breathing  apertures  on  the  head,  tail  hori- 
zontal, and  pectoral  fins  instead  of  feet ; 
as  the  dolphin,  porpoise,  and  grampus,  &c. 
Cetaceous  fish  suckle,their  young  like  land 
animals. 

CHAFF.  The  husks  of  corn  when 
threshed  and  separated  from  the  grain. 

CHAFFINCH.  A  bird  so  called  because 
it  delights  in  eating  chaff".  It  sings  very 
prettily. 

CHAFINGDISH.  A  utensil  for  warm- 
ing meat. 

CHAGREEN.    A  rough  kind  of  leather. 

CHAIN  (in  Surveying).  A  measure  of 
length,  made  of  a  certain  number  of  links 
of  iron  Avire,  serving  to  measure  a  certain 
quantity  of  ground.  Gunter's  Chain  con- 
sists of  a  hundred  such  links,  each  measu- 
ring 7.92  inches,  and  consequently  equal 
to  66  feet  or  4  poles.  I  square  chain= 
10,000  links=16  poles.  .10  square  chains 
=100,000  links=160  poles=l  acre. 

CHAIN.  A  series  of  rings  or  links  fit- 
ted into  one  another.  Chains  are  made  of 
various  metals,  sizes,  and  forms,  suited  to 
different  purposes.  The  gold  chain  is  one 
of  the  badges  of  dignity  worn  by  the  Lord 
Mayor  of  London. 


CJHAIN-BOAT.  A  sea  term  for  a  large 
boat  fitted  for  getting  up  mooring  chains, 
anchors,  &c, 

CHAIN-SHOT.    Two   buUeta   with  a 


CHA 

chain  between  them.  They  are  used  In 
sea  warfare  for  cutting  the  shrouds  and 
rigging  of  a  ship. 


CHALCEDONY.  A  sort  of  agate  or 
onyx  stone. 

CHALDRON.  A  dry  measure,  consist- 
ing of  36  bushels. 

CHALICE.  The  communion  cup  used 
at  the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist. 

CHALK.  A  kind  of  white  fossil,  of 
which  lime  is  made.  It  contains  a  little 
siliceous  earth,  and  sometimes  a  small  por- 
tion ofiron.  Black  chalk,  or  drawing  slate, 
is  a  gray  or  bluish-black  mineral,  that  is 
massive ;  the  fracture  glimmering  and  slaty. 

CHALLENGE.  In  general,  a  summons 
to  fight,  whether  in  a  duel,  or  in  a  pugilistic 
contest ;  in  Law,  an  exception  against  ju- 
rors made  by  the  party  put  on  his  trial. 

CHALYBEATE.  An  epithet  for  waters 
in  which  iron  forms  the  principal  ingredi- 
ent, as  the  waters  of  Tunbridge  Wells, 
England.    Ballston  in  the  United  States. 

CHAM.  The  title  of  the  emperor  oi 
sovereign  of  Tartary. 

CHAMELEON,  or  CHAMELEON. 
A  quadruped  of  the  lizard  tribe,  that  was 


originally  supposed  to  live  on  air,  but  is 
now  known  to  live  on-flies,  which  it  catches 
with  its  tongue.  Its  most  remarkable  cha- 
racteristic is,  that  it  assumes  the  colour  of 
the  thing  to  which  it  is  applied,  but  its  nat- 
ural colour  in  the  shade,  and  at  rest,  is  said 
to  be  a  bluish  gray. 

CHAMBER  (in  Gunnery).  That  part 
of  a  mortar  or  great  gun,  as  far  as  the  pow- 
der and  shot  reach  when  it  is  loaded. 

CHAMBER  (in  England).  A  court,  as 
the  Star  Chamber  ;  in  Commerce,  a  room 
set  apart  for  mercantile  business  ;  also  for 
keeping  treasures  and  stores,  as  the  Chan>- 
ber  of  London,  &c. 


CHA 

CHAMBER  OF  A  MINE.  The  place 
where  the  powder  is  confined,  that  is  to  be 
used  for  blowing  up  the  works. 

CHAMBERLAIN  (in  England).  An 
officer  who  has  the  care  of  any  particular 
chamber  or  place,  as  the  Lord  Great  Cham- 
berlain of  England,  a  great  officer  of  state, 
to  whom  belongs  the  government  of  the 
palace  at  Westminster  ;  the  Chamberlain 
of  London,  who  receives  the  rents  of  the 
city,  and  deposits  them  in  the  chamber  or 
treasury  of  London. 

CHAMBERS  (in  England).  Rooms  or 
apartments  belonging  to  the  inns  of  court  j 
in  Anatomy,  two  spaces  between  the  ci-ys- 
talline  lens  and  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  di- 
vided off  by  the  iris. 

CHAMELEON.     See  Chameleon, 

CHAMOIS,  or.  The  Wild  Goat,  which 
inhabits  the  Alpine  mountains,  having 
horns  erect,  round,  and  smooth. 


CHA 


87 


CHAMOMILE.  An  odoriferous  plant, 
which  has  a  very  bitter  taste,  but  many 
medicinal  virtues. 

CHAMPAGNE.  A  fine  French  wine, 
80  called  from  Champagne,  a  former  pro- 
vince of  France. 

CHAMPION  (in  Law).  The  combatant 
who  undertook  to  fight  in  the  trial  by  bat- 
tel, formerly  in  use  in  England. 

CHANCE-MEDLEY  (in  Law).  The 
accidental  killing  of  a  man,  not  without 
the  fault  of  the  killer,  but  without  any  evil 
intent. 

CHANCEL.  That  part  of  a  church  be- 
tween the  altar  and  communion  table,  and 
the  rails  or  balustrade  by  which  it  is  en- 
closed. This  applies  particularly  to  Caih- 
olic,  and  Episcopal  Churches. 

CHANCELLOR  (in Englanu).  Anoffi- 
cer  of  state,  known  by  the  title  of  the  Lord 
High  Chancellor  of  England,  and  the  chief 
person  next  to  the  sovereign  in  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  ;  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  is  an  officer  who  has  the  prin- 
cipal management  of  the  king's  revenue. 
The  term  is  applied  to  the  first  judge  of  the 
Chancery  Court  in.  the  stats  of  New  York. 


CHANCERY,  The  Court  of  (in  Eng- 
land). The  highest  court  of  judicature  in 
the  realm  next  to  the  Parliament.  The 
Lord  Chancellor  presides  in  this  court ;  and 
is  assisted  by  the  Vice-chancellor,  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  the  Masters  in  Chan- 
cery, &.C. 

CHANCES,  Doctrine  of.  A  branch 
of  modern  mathematics,  which  treats  of 
the  probabilities  of  certain  events  taking 
place. 

CHANNEL.  The  middle  or  deepest 
part  of  any  sea ;  also  a  strait  or  narrow  sea 
between  two  lands,  as  St.  George's  Chan- 
nel, between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  the  British  or  English  Channel,  prop- 
erly called  the  Channel,  between  England 
and  France. 

CHANTRY.  A  chapel  anciently  joined 
to  some  cathedral  or  parish,  where  mass 
used  to  be  said  daily  for  the  souls  of  the 
founders. 

CHAOS.  A  dark  and  rude  mass  of 
matter,  out  of  which  the  heathen  philoso- 
phers supposed  the  world  was  formed. 

CHAPEL.  In  England,  a  smaller  kind 
of  church,  which,  being  built  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  parish  church,  is  denomi- 
nated a  chapel  of  ease. 

CHAPERON.  A  hood  or  cap,  particu- 
larly that  worn  by  the  knights  of  tiie 
garter. 

CHAPLAIN.  In  England,  originally 
signified  one  who  performed  divine  service 
in  a  chapel,  but  now  more  commonly  one 
who  attends  upon  the  king,  or  other  person 
of  quality,  for  the  performance  of  his  cleri-- 
cal  duties  in  the  family.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  clerg>'nian  attached  to  the 
navy  or  army. 

CHAPLET.  A  wreath  or  garland  worn 
about  the  head.  Chaplets  are  borne  In 
coats  of  arms,  as  trophies  or  ensigns  of 
military  prowess. 

CHAPTER.  A  body  of  the  clergy  be- 
longing to  a  cathedral,  collegiate,  or  con- 
ventual church  ;  also  the  place  of  their 
meeting,  in  England. 

CHARACTER.  Any  mark  which  sei  vea 
as  a  sign  to  denote  some  particular  object, 
as  the  astronomical  characters,  mathemati- 
cal characters,  &c. 

CHARADE.  A  sort  of  riddle,  the  sub- 
ject of  which  is  a  word  of  one  or  two 
syllables. 

CHARCOAL.  The  substance  from  wood 
half  burnt,  which  is  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder. 

CHARDS  OF  ARTICHOKES.  The 
leaves  of  artichoke  plants  bound  in  straw 
till  they  lose  part  of  their  bitterness,  and 
become  white. 


88  CHE 

CHAREWOMAN,  or  CHARWOMAN. 

In  England,  a  woman  who  goes  out  by  the 
day  to  job. 

CHARGE  (in  Law).  The  instructions 
given  by  the  judge  to  the  jUiy  3  in  Ecclesi- 
astical Law,  the  instructions  given  by  a 
bishop  to  the  clergj'  of  his  diocess. 

CHARGE  (in  Gunnery).  The  quantity 
of  powder  and  ball,  or  shot,  with  which  a 
gun  is  loaded  ;  in  Electricity,  the  accumu- 
lation of  electric  matter  on  one  surface  of 
an  electric  machine;  in  Heraldry,  whatever 
is  borne  on  coats  of  arms;  in  Painting,  an 
exaggerated  representation  of  a  person. 

CH.^RGE  OF  LEAD.  A  weight  con- 
sisting of  36  pigs,  each  pig  containing  6 
stone  all  but  2  lbs. 

CHARIOT.  An  ancient  car,  in  which 
armed  men  used  to  ride  to  battle.  They 
were  furnished  with  scythes,  hooks,  and 
other  offensive  weapons. 


CHARMS.  Incantations  or  verses  used 
by  magicians  and  sorcerers. 

CHARR.  A  small  fish  of  the  salmon  kind. 

CHARTER.  In  England,  a  writing  or 
letter  patent,  whereby  the  king  grants  pri- 
vileges to  towns,  corporations,  <fec.  whence 
the  name  of  Magna  Charta,  or  the  Great 
Charter  of  Liberties  granted  to  the  people 
of  the  whole  realm.  In  the  United  States, 
Charters  are  granted  by  the  State  legisla- 
tures, or  by  Congress. 

CHARTS.  Draughts  or  descriptions  of 
coasts ;  or,  in  general,  projections  of  some 
parts  of  the  sea  in  plans  for  the  use  of 
sailors. 

CHARYBDIS.  A  vortex  or  gulf  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Sicilian  straits,  which  is 
much  celebrated  by  the  ancient  writers ; 
but  its  exact  situation  is  not  known  in  the 
present  day. 

CHASSEURS.  A  select  body  of  light 
Infantry  in  the  French  army. 

CHASTE-TREE.  A  tree  growing  to 
the  height  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  having  the 
leaves  fingered  like  those  of  hemp. 

CHATEAU. Formerly  a  castle  or  baronial 
seat  in  France,  now  simply  a  country  seat. 

CHATTELS  (in  Law).  Personal  goods. 

CHECKY  (in  Heraldry).    A  term  for 


GHE 

tlie  shield,  or  any  part  of  it,  when  it  is  di- 
vided into  cheques  or  squares. 

CHEEKS.  A  general  name  among 
mechanics  for  pieces  of  timber  in  any  ma- 
chine, which  are  two  of  a  kind. 

CHEESE.  The  curd  of  milk  separated 
from  the  whey ,  then  pressed  and  hardened, 
and  afterwards  left  to  dry. 

CHEESECAKES.  A  sort  of  cakes  made 
of  curds,  sugar,  buttei-,  &c. 

CHEESE-PRESS.  A  press  in  which 
the  curds  are  pressed  for  making  cheese. 

C  HEESE-VAT.  The  case  in  which  curds 
are  pressed  into  the  form  of  a  cheese. 

CHEF-D'(EUVRE.  A  masterpiece  ot 
superior  performance  of  any  artist. 

CHEMISTRY.     See  Chymistry. 

CHERRY.  The  well  known  fruit  of  a 
tree  which  was  introduced  into  Britain  at 
the  time  of  its  invasion  by  the  Romans. 

CHERUBIM.  An  order  of  angels  com- 
posed of  various  animals,  as  a  man,  an  ox, 
an  eagle,  and  a  lion. 

CHERVIL.  An  umbelliferous  plant, 
whose  leaves  are  divided  into  many  seg- 
ments. 

CHESS.  A  very  difficult  game,  perform- 
ed with  little  round  pieces  of  wood,  on  a 
board  divided  into  sixty-four  squares* 
Each  side  has  eight  men,  consisting  of  a 
king,  queen,  two  knights,  two  bishops,  and 
two  rooks  or  castles,  besides  eight  pawns 
or  foot  soldiers ;  which  are  all  moved  ac- 
cording to  certain  rules. 

CHESS-BOARD.  The  board  on  which 
the  game  of  chess  is  played. 


ii 


11:^ 


a: 


aaSl^M 


1 


CHESS-ROOK.  Another  name  for  the 
castles  which  stand  at  the  outer  corners  of 
the  chess  board. 

CHEST  (in  Anatomy).  The  breast,  tho- 
rax, or  that  part  of  the  human  body  which 
contains  the  heart  and  lungs. 

CHESTNUT.  A  tree  bearing  a  very 
roughcoated  fruit  of  the  same  name.  The 
wood  was  formerly  much  valued  as  timber 
in  England,  and  is  now  used  in  the  finer 
kinds  of  joinery  work.    In  the  United 


CHI 

States  it  is  seldom  employed  except  as  tim- 
ber or  fuel. 

CHEVALIER.  Literally  a  knight  or 
horseman,  answering  to  the  English  cava- 
lier. 

CHEVAUX  DE  FRISE  (in  Fortifica- 
tion). A  sort  of  tm-npikes  or  tomnequots, 
consisting  of  spars  of  wood  set  into  a  piece 
of  timber,  and  armed  with  a  short  spike, 
80  as  to  point  all  ways.  They  serve  to 
stop  up  breaches. 


CHI 


89 


CHEVRON  (in  Heraldiy).  One  of  the 
honourable  ordinaries,  representing  two 
rafters  of  a  house  joined  together  in  chief, 
such  as  carpenters  set  on  the  highest  part 
■if  a  house  to  support  the  roof 


CHIARO  OBSCURO.  See  Claro 
Obscuro. 

CHICKWEED,     An  annual. 

CHIEF  (in  Hcraldr\').  One  of  the  hon- 
Mrable  ordinaries,  which  occupies  the  head 
or  upper  part  of  the  escutcheon.  As  the 
head  is  the  chief  part  of  a  man,  so  is  the 
chief  the  principal  part  of  the  escutcheon, 
and  contains  a  third  part  of  the  field. 


CHIEF.  The  head  man  of  a  tribe  of 
Indians. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS.  A  hilly  dis- 
trict of  Buckinghamshire,  England,  which 
has  belonged  to  the  crown  from  time  im- 


memorial, having  the  office  of  Steward  of 
the  Chiltern  Hundreds  attached  to  it.  By 
the  acceptance  of  this  office,  any  member 
of  parliament  is  enabled  to  va.cate  his  seatj 
for  as  no  member  can  retain  his  seat 
after  accepting  an  office,  so  likewise  every 
member  wishing  to  vacate  his  seat  is  obli- 
ged to  do  it  in  this  manner ;  that  is,  in  the 
usual  phrase,  '  accept  the  Chiltern  Hun- 
dreds.' 

CHIZvl^RA  (in  the  Heathen  Mytholo- 
gy'). A  monster  feigned  to  be  like  a  lion 
in  the  forepart,  a  dragon  behind,  and  a 
goat  in  the  middle. 

CHIxMES  OF  A  CLOCK.  A  particular 
apparatus,  by  which  tlie  clock  at  certain 
times  is  enabled  to  play  certain  tunes. 

CHLMNEY.  That  part  of  a  house  which, 
by  the  means  of  a  funnel,  serves  to  cany 
oft'  the  smoke.  Various  devices  liave  been 
tried  to  prevent  the  smoking  of  chimneys, 
as  the  carrying  them  up  zigzag,  or  narrov.er 
at  the  top  than  at  the  liottom,  and  the  like, 
which  have  all  been  found  ineiilctual.  It 
is  novv-  supposed  that  cliimnej's  should  be 
tjuilt  as  nearly  perpendicular  as  possible, 
should  be  free  from  all  ronghi'.ess  in  the 
inside,  and  be  a  little  wider  at  the  top  than 
at  the  base. 

CHINTZ.  A  fine  Indian  painted  calico. 
Also  cotton  goods  made  elsewhere  in  imi- 
tation of  it. 

CHIP  saUIRREL.  A  beautiful  little 
striped  animal  common  in  the  woods  of 
North  America. 

CHINCHILLA.  A  beautiful  little  animal 
of  Peru,  probably  of  the  rat  kind,  which 
produces  a  fur  much  in  use. 


\ 


CHIROMANCY.  The  pretended  ai-t  of 
foretelling  a  person's  fortune  by  the  lines 
in  his  hands. 

CHIVALRY.  The  name  anciently  given 
to  knislithood,  a  military  dignity  ;  also  the 
martial  exploits  and  qualifications  of  a 
knight.  Chivahy,  as  a  military  dignity, 
is  supijosed  hy  some  to  have  taken  its  rise 
from  the  cr:;sades,  because  these  expedi- 
tions gave  riic  to  many  chivalrous  exploits 


90 


CHR 


and  feats  of  arms  ;  but  it  is  evident  that 
its  origin  may  be  traced  much  liigher,  to 
the  northern  nations  who  settled  in  Europe 
on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire, 
wlaose  martial  habits  and  temper  led  them 
to  make  valour  and  prowess,  the  only 
sources  of  honour  and  distinction. 

CHIVES.  A  sort  of  small  onions. 

CHLORINE,  A  gaseous  body  of  a  green 
yellow  colour. 

CHLORITES.  A  kind  of  green  jasper, 
almost  as  pellucid  as  the  coarse  eme- 
rald. 

CHOCOLATE  (in  Commerce).  A  kind 
of  paste,  prepared  chiefly  from  the  cocoa 
nut,  with  a  mixture  of  other  ingredients. 

CHOCOLATE  TREE.  A  species  of  the 
cocoa  tree,  from  the  fruit  of  which  the 
chocolate  is  prepared, 

CHOIR.  That  part  of  a  cathedral  where 
the  service  is  performed. 

CHOKEDAMP  (in  Mining).  The  noxi- 
ous air  occasionally  found  at  the  bottom 
of  mines, 

CHOKEPEAR,  A  very  rough  tasted 
pear, 

CHOLERA  MORBUS,  A  disease  con- 
eisting  of  a  violent  perturbation  in  the 
belly,  accompanied  with  a  discharge  of 
bile  upwards  and  downwards. 

CHORD  (in  Geometry).  A  right  line, 
drawn  from  one  part  of  an  arc  of  a  circle 
to  another. 

CHORDS  (in  Music),  Strings,  by  the 
vibration  of  which  the  sensation  of  sound 
is  excited, 

CHOROGRAPHY.  A  part  of  geogra- 
phy, which  treats  of  the  description  of 
particular  countries. 

CHORUS,  A  company  of  persona  all 
singing  in  concert, 

CHRISM,  An  unction  or  anointing  of 
children,  which  was  formerly  practised  as 
soon  as  they  were  born, 

CHRIST.  Which  properly  signifies 
anointed,  is  the  name  of  the  ever  blessed 
Redeemer  of  the  world, 

CHISTENDOM,  The  whole  Christian 
world. 

CHRISTENING.  The  ceremony  of 
admitting  a  person  into  the  communion 
of  the  Christian  church,  by  means  of  bap- 
tism, or  sprinkling  with  water.  It  is  a 
term  particularly  applied  to.  infant  bap- 
tism. 

CHRISTIAN.  One  who  professes  the 
Christian  religion. 

CHRISTMAS,  A  festival  observed  in 
the  Christian  church,  on  the  twenty-fifth 
of  December,  in  commemoration  of  our 
Saviour's  nativity, 

GHilOMA.  A  soft  kind  of  music. 


CHR 

CHROMATICS,  That  part  of  optica^ 
which  explains  the  several  properties  of 
light  and  colour, 

CHRONICAL.  An  epithet  for  diseases 
of  long  duration. 

CHRONOLOGY.  The  science  whicH 
teaches  the  measures  and  divisions  of  time. 
The  divisions  of  time  are  either  natural  or 
artificial ;  the  natural  divisions  of  time  are 
the  year,  month,  week,  day,  and  hour, 
deduced  from  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  suited  to  the  purposes  of  civil 
life  ;  the  artificial  divisions  of  time  are  the 
cycle  or  period,  the  epoch,  and  the  aera 
or  epocha,  which  have  been  framed  for 
the  purposes  of  histoiy. 

CHRONOLOGY,  History  or.  Chro- 
nology, as  regards  the  natural  divisions  of 
time, wasdoubtless  coeval  withthecreation, 
for  we  learn  from  the  sacred  historian  that 
the  work  of  creation  was  performed  within 
the  period  of  a  week,  or  seven  days,  whence 
this  division  was  observed  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  fiom  them  transmitted  to  the  Egyp- 
tians and  other  nations^  But  the  Persians 
are  said  to  have  been  ignorant  of  such  a 
division.  The  Greeks  had  weeks  of  ten 
days,  and  the  Romans  weeks  of  eight  days. 
It  is  evident  from  the  names  of  the  days  of 
the  week  among  most  European  nations, 
that  we  derive  this  division  from  the  an- 
cient Celts  or  Scythians,  who,  in  all  pro- 
bability, at  the  dispersion  of  mankind  after 
the  deiuge,  borrowed  this  patriarchal  mode 
of  measuring  time.  The  year  is  that  divi- 
sion of  time  which  was  regulated  by  the 
motions  of  the  sun,  being  that  period  of 
time  in  which  the  sun  passes  through  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  This  division  was 
doubtless  formed  at  the  time  that  astro- 
nomical observations  were  first  made  ;  but 
the  Egyptians  are  the  first  people  on  record 
who  formed  this  division,  which  they  made 
to  consist  of  360  days,  and  subdivided  into 
12  months  of  30  days  each  ;  to  these  Tria- 
megistus  is  said  to  have  added  five  more 
days.  The  ancient  Jewish  year  was  the 
same  as  the  Egyptian  ;  but  on  their  de- 
parture from  Egypt  they  adopted  the  lunar 
year,  consisting  of  30  days  and  29  daya 
alternately,  and  in  order  to  make  it  agree 
with  the  solar  year,  they  sometimes  added 
H  or  12  days  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and 
sometimes  a  whole  month  after  a  certain 
number  of  years.  The  Greeks  also  reck- 
oned by  the  same  kind  of  year.  The 
ancient  Roman  year  was  also  lunar,  and 
at  first  consisted  of  10  months  of  30  and 
31  days ;  two  months  were  afterwards 
added  by  Numa  Pompilius,  which  con- 
sisted of  29  and  31  days,  making  in  the 
whole  355  days.    Julius    Cassar  first  re- 


CHRONOLOGY. 


91 


formed  the  calendar,  and  adopted  the  solar 
year  of  365  days  in  the  common  year, 
with  the  addition  of  a  day  in  every  fourth 
year,  called  Bissextile,  or  Leap  Year ;  in 
order  to  adjust  the  computation  to  the  true 
Bolar  year,  it  was  then  reckoned  365  days 
6  hours,  but  as  the  true  solar  year  was 
found  to  be  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes, 
48  seconds,  a  farther  reformation  of  this 
calendar  has  been  made  on  the  assumption 
that  the  solar  year  consists  of  365  days, 
5  hours,  and  49  minutes.  According  to  this 
computation,  which  was  made  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  in  1582,  and  thence  called 
the  Gregorian  style,  an  intercalation  of  one 
day  in  February  should  be  made  every 
fourth  year,  and  that  the  sixteen  hundredth 
year  of  the  Christian  eera,  and  every  fourth 
century  hereafter,  should  be  a  bissextile  or 
leap  year.  One  day  consequently  is  to  be 
intercalated  in  the  years  2000,  2400,  2800, 
&CC.;  but  in  the  intervening  centuries  1700, 
1800,  1900,  2100,  &c.  it  is  to  be  suppressed, 
and  they  are  to  be  reckoned  common. 
Moreover  as  the  equinoxes  had  fallen  back 
ten  days  and  the  full  moons  four  days, 
since  the  Nicene  council,  a.  d.  325,  he 
ordained  that  ten  days  should  be  cut  off 
after  the  fourth  of  October,  so  that  the  fifth 
should  be  the  fifteenth.  Thismodeof  reckon- 
ing, which  is  now  introduced  in  most  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  is  called  the  New  Style, 
to  distinguish  it  from  tho  Old  Style,  or  the 
former  reckoning.  This  is  however  still 
not  perfectly  correct,  for  as  the  excess  of 
the  Julian  year,  within  the  space  four 
centuries,  is  three  days,  one  hour,  and 
twenty  minutes,  that  of  the  Gregorian  is 
one  hour  and  twenty  minutes  within  the 
same  period,  or  about  a  day  in  7200  years. 
Besides  these  alterations  in  the  form  and 
length  of  the  year,  attempts  had  been  made 
by  the  Greeks  at  an  early  period  to  adjust 
in  their  reckonings  the  lunar  year  to  the 
solar  year,  for  which  purpose  they  hit  on 
the  device  of  framing  cycles  or  series  of 
years,  which  being  numbered  in  an  orderly 
manner  from  first  to  last,  should  return  to 
the  same  point  of  reckoning  from  which 
they  commenced.  The  first  of  these  cycles 
was  framed  by  Cleostratus,  about  532  years 
before  Christ.  It  consisted  of  eight  years, 
or  2922  days,  during  the  course  of  which 
96  lunations  would  elapse  of  29  and  30 
days  alternately,  together  with  three  inter- 
calary months.  By  this  cycle  he  proposed 
to  adjust  the  lunar  to  the  solar  year,  so 
that  at  the  conclusion  of  each  cycle  the 
moon  should  be  renewed,  but  he  failed  in 
his  object,  for  at  the  end  of  16  years 
there  was  found  to  be  an  error  of  three 
days,  which  in  the  space  of  160  years  would 


amount  to  more  than  a  whole  month.  The 
Metonic  Cycle,  formed  by  Meton  at  the 
commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
for  the  purpose  of  correcting  the  former, 
consisted  of  19  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
the  sun  and  moon  would  be  in  the  same 
quarter.  This  cycle,  which  was  so  much 
esteemed  by  the  Greeks  as  to  be  called 
the  Golden  Number,  nevertheless  failed  to 
the  amount  of  eight  or  ten  hours  at  the 
end  of  one  period,  and  of  three  days  in  133 
years.  The  cycle  of  Eudoxus  was  an  im- 
provement on  that  of  Cleostratus,  by  sub- 
tracting a  month  of  30  days  from  a  period 
of  160  years,  which  was  supposed  to  be 
equal  to  the  difference  that  would  subsist 
at  the  expiration  of  that  period  between  the 
solar  and  the  lunar  motions.  The  Calippic 
Period,  contrived  by  Calippus  at  the  new 
moon  of  the  summer  b.  c.  331,  was  in- 
tended as  an  improvement  upon  that  of 
Melin,  which  it  multiplied  by  four,  so  as 
to  make  a  period  of  76  years,  or  27,759  days. 
As  940  lunations  are  equal  to  97,758  days, 
9  hours,  5  minutes,  and  9  seconds,  which 
is  only  40'  29"  57'"  less  than  76  solar 
tropical  years,  it  follows  that  the  lunar 
motion,  according  to  this  calculation,  did 
not  vary  more  than  14  hours,  13  minutea, 
and  22  seconds,  wherefore  this  period  has 
been  chosen  to  form  the  basis  to  the  modern 
cycle  of  the  moon,  which  is  said  to  have 
commenced  one  year  before  the  Christian 
sera.  There  is  also  a  solar  cycle,  consist- 
ing of  a  series  of  28  years,  at  the  completion 
of  which  the  same  order  of  bissextile  and 
dominical  letters  return,  a  cycle  whicli 
came  into  use  in  the  early  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  besides  the  cycle  of  indiction,  or 
a  series  of  15  years,  introduced  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine ;  the  Epacts,  or  ex« 
cesses  of  any  solar  revolutions  above  the 
lunar,  which  were  introduced  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  the  time  when  Easter 
ought  to  be  celebrated;  the  Dionysian 
Period,  or  series  of  532  years,  formed  by 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  a  Roman  abbot,  by 
multiplying  the  solar  cycle  28  into  the  lunar 
19,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  new 
and  full  moons  to  the  same  day ;  and 
lastly,  the  Julian  Period,  invented  by 
Scaliger,  and  so  called  because  it  is  adapted 
to  the  Julian  year ;  this  is  a  series  of  years 
formed  by  the  multiplication  of  the  solar 
and  lunar  cycles  and  the  cycle  of  indiction 
into  one  another,  making  the  sum  of  7980 
Julian  years. 

The  application  of  chronology  to  history 
is  of  comparatively  modern  date.  In 
Homer  and  other  ancient  writers  there 
appears  to  have  been  no  idea  of  recording 
events  in  any  exact  order  of  time.    The 


92 


CHY 


succession  of  Juno's  priestesses  at  Argns 
eerved  Hellanicus  for  the  regulation  of 
his  history,  but  the  principal  Greek  his- 
torians followed  no  other  order  than  what 
was  furnished  by  the  series  of  events  which 
they  narrated.  The  Roman  historian  Livy 
defines  the  periods  of  the  events  described 
in  his  history  by  the  appointment  of  con- 
suls, and  afterwards  the  succession  of  em- 
perors and  kings  served  a  similar  purpose 
in  forming  the  histories  of  other  European 
nations  until  a  more  exact  computation  of 
time  began  to  be  observed. 

CHRONOMETER.  An  instrument  for 
the  exact  measurement  of  time. 

CHRYSALIS.  The  second  state  of  an 
insect,  which  it  passes  into  from  the  cater- 
pillar or  reptile  form,  previous  to  its  be- 
coming a  butterfly  or  a  moth,  &c. 


CHUB.  A  river  fish  of  the  carp  kind, 
so  called  on  account  of  its  great  head. 

CHURCH.  Properly  signifies  the  Lord's 
house ;  and  is  generally  applied  to  those 
buildings,  which  are  consecrated  to  the 
honour  of  God,  and  set  apart  for  his  wor- 
ship. The  term  church  is  also  taken  for 
the  body  of  professing  Christians. 

CHURCH  SERVICE.  The  common 
prayer,  collects,  and  other  parts  of  public 
worship,  performed  in  the  church  accord- 
ing to  the  forms  of  the  English  church. 

CHURCHWARDENS.  Officers  annu- 
ally chosen  in  the  English  church  by  the 
ministers  and  vestry,  to  take  care  of  the 
church,  churchyards,  &c. 

CHURN.  A  utensil  in  husbandly,  which 
is  used  in  making  butter,  by  a  long  and 
violent  agitation  of  the  cream. 

CHYLE.  A  white  juice  in  the  stomach, 
consisting  of  the  finer  and  more  nutritious 
parts  of  the  food,  which  is  received  into 
the  lacteal  vessels,  and  serves  to  form  tlie 
blood. 

CHYLIFICATION.  The  process  of  di- 
gestion, by  which  the  aliment  is  converted 
into  chyle. 

CHYME.  The  name  of  that  humour 
which  is  immediately  drawn  from  the  ali- 
ment, and  afterwards  by  a  farther  process 
ia  converted  into  chyle. 

CHYMISTRY.  The  science  wJjich 
teaches  the  composition  and  properties  of 
material  substances,  together  with  the 
changes  they  undergo.    Chymists  now  dis- 


CHY 

tinguish  bodies  generally  into  simple  and 
compound  substances. 

Simple  substances  comprehend  such  as 
have  liitherto  not  been  decompounded.  Of 
these  some  are  denominated  combustibles, 
because  they  can  undergo  combustion,  or, 
in  other  words,  can  burn,  as  hydrogen, 
carbon,  phosphorous,  and  borax,  besides 
the  alkalis,  earths,  and  metals.  Some  are 
supporters  of  combustion,  whicli,  though 
not  of  themselves  capable  of  undergoing 
combustion,  are  necessary  to  produce  this 
efiect  in  other  bodies,  of  which  there  are 
three,  namely,  the  three  gaseous  bodies, 
oxygen,  chlorine,  and  iodine.  There  is 
one  body,  namely,  azote  or  nitrogen  gas, 
which  is  properly  an  incombustible,  be- 
caiise  it  neither  undergoes  combustion  in 
itself  or  supports  it  in  other  bodies.  To 
this  list  of  simple  substances  must  be  added 
four  others,  which  are  considered  as  such 
by  modern  chymists,  namely,  light  and 
heat,  which  were  formerly  looked  upon  as 
properties  of  matter,  and  electricity  and 
galvanism.  Light,  heat,  and  electricity  are 
powerful  chymical  agents,  which  produce 
the  most  important  phenomena. 

Compound  substances  are  formed  by  the 
union  of  simple  substances  with  each  other, 
or  by  that  of  compound  substances  with 
others.  That  which  forms  the  basis  as  it 
were  of  the  combination  in  this  case,  is 
denominated  the  base  or  radical ;  this  may 
either  be  an  acidifiable  base  or  a  salifiable 
base,  thus  phosphorus  is  the  acidifiable 
base  in  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  is  the 
salifiable  base  in  the  sulphate  of  potash. 
Acids  hold  the  fiist  rank  among  the  com- 
pounds. These  are  formed  by  the  combi- 
nation of  oxygen  with  some  acidifiable 
base,  and  are  distinguished  according  to 
the  proportion  of  the  oxygen  which  enters 
into  the  acid  by  the  terminations  to  and 
ous,  as  nitric  acid  and  nitrous  acid,  sul- 
phuric acid  and  sulphurous  acid,  &c.,  the 
former  of  wliich,  namely,  the  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acid,  denote  the  large  dose  or 
portion  of  the  oxygen  ;  the  latter,  namely, 
nitrous  acid,  the  sihaller  portion.  There 
are  also  metallic  bases,  which  are  distin- 
guished V)y  the  termination  uvi,  as  potassi- 
um, the  base  of  potash  ;  sodium,  the  base 
of  soda.  When  the  compounds  possess  no 
sensible  properties  of  an  acid,  tlie  combi- 
nations with  oxygen,  chlorine,  and  iodine 
form  a  class  of  com])oun(ls  distinguished 
by  the  termination  idc  if  they  are  support- 
ers of  combustion,  and  et  if  they  are  com- 
bustibles, as  the  oxide,  chloride,  or  iodide 
of  arsenic,  potash,  soda,  &.C.,  the  sul- 
phuret  of  potassium,  phosphoret  of  car- 
bon, &LC. 


CHYMISTRY. 


Acids  for  the  most  part  combine  with 
alkalis,  earths,  and  metallic  oxides,  and 
form  another  important  class  of  compounds 
called  salts  ;  these  are  distinguished  by  the 
termination  of  ate  when  the  acid  contains 
the  larger  portion  of  oxygen,  and  that  of 
He  when  the  acid  contains  the  smaller 
portion  ;  thus  the  combination  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  potash  is  a  sulphate  of  potash, 
and  that  of  sulphurous  acid  with  potash  is 
a  sulphite  of  potash.  Salts  are  denomi- 
nated neutral  when  the  separate  qualities 
of  the  component  principles  are  not  appa- 
rent, but  when  the  acid  predominates  the 
prefix  super  is  added,  and  when  the  base 
predominates  it  is  denoted  by  the  prefix 
sub ;  thus  the  sulphate  of  potash  denotes 
the  salt  in  its  perfect  state,  without  any 
excess  of  the  sulphuric  acid  or  the  potash  5 
the  supersulphate  of  potash  is  the  same  salt 
with  an  excess  of  acid  5  the  subsulphate  of 
potash  is  the  same  salt  with  an  excess  of 
base.  When  an  acid  combines  with  two 
bases  this  class  of  compounds  is  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  triple  salts,  as  the 
tartrate  of  potash  and  soda,  that  is  the 
combination  of  tartaric  acid  with  potash 
and  soda. 

The  combinations  of  metals  with  each 
other  are  called  alloys,  except  those  which 
mercury  forms  with  any  other  metal,  which 
are  called  amalgams. 

To  this  list  of  compound  substances  must 
be  added  several  compound  combustibles, 
as  alcohol,  ether,  resins,  bitumens,  oils,  and 
also  soaps  formed  by  the  combination  of 
fixed  oils  with  alkalies,  earth,  and  metallic 
oxide.  Besides,  water  and  atmospheric 
air,  which  had  heretofore  been  looked  upon 
as  simple  substances,  are  now  ranked 
among  the  compounds. 

Chymical  action  consists  of  two  parts, 
namely,  decomposition  and  combination. 
When  the  constituent  parts  of  bodies  are 
separated  from  each  other,  the  bodies  are 
said  to  be  decomposed,  and  the  act  of 
separating  them  is  called  decomposition: 
on  the  other  hand,  when  bodies  are  so  in- 
timately united  as  to  form  new  and  distinct 
substances,  this  chymical  union  is  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  combination.  The 
chymical  investigation  of  bodies  therefore 
proceeds  in  two  ways,  namely,  by  analysis, 
that  is,  the  separation  of  bodies  by  a  series 
of  decompositions  and  combinations,  to 
come  at  the  knowledge  of  the  constituent 
parts ;  and  synthesis,  by  a  series  of  pro- 
cesses to  form  new  compounds,  and  these 
two  forms  of  investigation  may  accompany 
and  assist  each  other;  thus,  Epsom  salts 
may  be  analyzed  and  shown  to  consist  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  magnesia,  or  it  may  be 


synthetically  compounded  by  combining 
magnesia  with  sulphuric  acid,  when  Epsom 
salts,  in  the  form  of  crystals,  will  be  the 
result. 

Chymical  investigations  proceed  on  the 
principle  of  attraction,  in  its  difi^srent  forma 
of  affinity,  cohesion,  &c.,  and  also  on  that 
of  repulsion.  The  difierent  processes  re- 
quired in  this  investigation  are  solution, 
neutralization,precipitation,  volatilization, 
evaporation,  crystallization,  fusion,  diges- 
tion, calcination,  distillation,  sublimation, 
lexiviation,  reduction,  adulcoration,  deto- 
nation, fulmination,  &c.,  each  of  which 
terms  may  be  found  explained  in  its  proper 
place. 

CHYMISTRY,  Histort  of.  Chymistry 
as  a  practical  art  connected  with  metallur- 
gy, or  the  extraction  of  metals  from  theii 
ores,  was  of  high  antiquity,  for  we  learn 
from  Scripture  that  Tubal  Cain,  the  eighth 
from  Adam,  was  an  expert  artificer  in 
brass  and  iron.  Various  branches  of  the 
chymical  art,  such  as  the  preservation  of 
vinous  liquors,  dyeing,  tanning,  making 
glass,  and  various  preparations  in  pharma- 
cy and  cooking  were  in  use  at  a  very  early 
period :  besides  the  famous  Egyptian  philo- 
sopher, called  by  the  Greeks  Hermes,  aai 
the  Romans  Mercury,  is  reputed  to  have 
been  versed  in  many  chymical  arts,  and 
to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  chymical 
science,  at  least  in  that  nation.  From  the 
Egyptians,  Democritus,  a  Greek,  learned 
the  art  of  softening  ivory,  of  vitrifying 
plants,  and  imitating  precious  stones,  which 
he  communicated  to  his  countrymen.  After 
his  time  we  read  of  many  metallic  prepara- 
tions, as  ceruse,  verdigris,  letharge,  &c.  Di- 
oscorides  describes  the  distillation  of  mer- 
cury from  cinnabar ;  but  their  process  of 
distillation  consisted  in  the  separation  of 
the  air,  or  the  more  subtle  parts  of  water, 
from  the  rest  of  the  matter,  which  was  done 
by  putting  the  matter  to  be  distilled  into  a 
vessel,  the  mouth  of  which  was  covered 
with  a  wet  cloth,  and  by  this  means  the 
steams  of  the  ascending  vapour  were  con- 
densed, which  were  afterwards  procured 
by  wringing  out  the  cloth.  Such  is  the 
distillation  spoken  of  by  Galen,  Oribasiua, 
and  Paulus  ^gineta.  After  the  conquests 
of  the  Saracens  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries,  chymical^-esearches  began  to  be 
more  enlarged.  Geber,  Avicenna,  and 
other  Arabian  physicians  introduced  into 
the  materia  medica  many  preparations 
both  vegetable  and  mineral ;  but  the  know- 
ledge of  those  chymical  agents,  the  acids 
and  the  alkalis,  was  at  that  time  exceed- 
ingly imperfect,  for,  except  the  acetous 
acid  and  soda,  there  is  no  mention  of  these 


94 


CHY 


matters  until  many  years  after.  Roger 
Bacon  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  them  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  Raymond  Lully  only  hints  at  the 
existence  of  the  marine  acid. 

There  was  one  circumstance  at  this  period 
which  contributed  more  than  any  other  to 
the  improvement  of  chymistry,  that  was  the 
then  growing  attachment  to  the  study  of 
alchymy,  and  the  search  after  the  philoso- 
pher's stone,  which,  though  false  in  prin- 
ciple, yet  led  in  its  results  to  a  more 
extensive  acquaintance  with  the  compo- 
Bition  of  mineral  bodies.  After  the  intro- 
duction of  this  art,  which,  as  its  name 
denotes,  was  of  Arabian  origin,  we  read 
of  alcohol  and  the  newly  discovered  men- 
strua, which  were  powerfully  applied  to 
the  transmutation  of  metals  into  gold. 
Although  the  futility  of  such  pursuits  served 
to  bring  the  science  of  chymistry  for  some 
time  into  disrepute,  yet  the  knowledge 
which  was  acquired  of  metals  and  minerals 
by  such  repeated  operations  upon  them, 
was  turned  to  the  useful  purposes  of  medi- 
cine. To  the  alchymists  we  are  indebted 
for  the  methods  of  preparing  spirits  of 
wine,  aquafortis,  volatile  alkali,  vitriolic 
acid,  gunpowder,  &c.  In  the  improvement 
'of  medicine  by  means  of  chymistry,  Basil 
Valentine  stood  foremost.  In  his  Currus 
Triumphalis  Antimonii,  he  communicated 
to  the  public  a  number  of  valuable  anti- 
monial  medicines.  Paracelsus,  another 
chymical  professor,  was  so  sanguine  in  the 
application  of  his  favourite  science,  that  he 
opposed  himself  to  the  practice  of  Galen, 
and  endeavoured  to  cure  all  disorders  by 
chymical  preparations.  He  was  followed 
by  Van  Helmont,  Glauber,  and  Lemery, 
who  all  applied  their  knowledge  of  chymis- 
try to  the  service  of  medicine.  The  science 
of  metallurgy  at  the  same  time  made  cor- 
responding advances.  Agricola,  who  was 
a  contemporary  with  Paracelsus,  laid  the 
foundation  for  a  correct  knowledge  of 
metals.  Lazarus  Ecker,  Schulten,  and 
many  other  Germans,  described  the  pro- 
cesses of  assaying  metals.  Anthony  Neri, 
Dr.  Merret,  and  Kunkel,  the  discoverer  of 
the  phosphate  of  urine,  have  explained  the 
processes  of  making  glass,  enamels,  Sec. 
but  their  writings  were  not  entirely  free 
from  the  alchymical  illusions  of  the  day. 
Kircher  and  Conryngius,  who  followed 
them,  succeeded  in  purifying  the  science 
of  chymistry  from  these  errors.  Since  that 
time  chymistry  has  assumed  a  new  and 
eystematic  form,  to  which  the  writings  and 
discoveries  of  many  distinguished  men  in 
the  course  of  the  last  two  centuries  have 
materially  contributed,    as   Lord  Bacon, 


CIP 

Mr.  Boyle,  and  Sir  Isaac  Netvton  in  our 
country,  Boerhaave  in  Holland,  Geoffroy, 
Reaumur,  Lavoisier,  &c.  in  France,  and 
Stahl,  Hoffman,  and  Bergman  in  Germany. 
To  this  list  might  be  added  the  works  of 
Nicholson,  Henry,  Thomson,  Brande,  Ure, 
and  others  in  our  own  time,  who  have 
digested  the  improvements  and  corrected 
or  enlarged  them  by  farther  experiments. 
Chymical  investigations  are  also  now  mate- 
rially assisted  by  an  improved  apparatus, 
the  most  material  parts  of  which  are  the 
furnace,  retorts,  receivers,  alembics,  cucur- 
bits, matrasses,  crucibles,  cupels,  airpumps, 
pneumatic  trough,  stills,  blowpipes,  gasom- 
eter, &c. 

CIDER.  A  fermented  liquor,  made  from 
the  expressed  juice  of  apples.  It  is  the 
common  table  drink  of  New  England,  and 
the  middle  states. 

CIMA.  A  moulding,  something  like  an 
S,  otherwise  called  an  O  G,  ogee,  being  a 
wavelike  ornament. 


CINNABAR.  An  ore  of  mercury  com- 
bined with  sulphur. 

CINNAMON.  A  spice,  the  fragrant 
bark  of  a  low  tree  growing  on  the  island 
of  Ceylon  and  some  other  countries  of  Asia. 
Its  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  olive,  and 
the  fruit  resembles  the  acorn  or  olive,  hav- 
ing neither  the  smell  nor  taste  of  the  bark; 
both  yield  an  oil. 

CINaUEFOIL,  or  Five  Leaved  Grass. 
A  perennial.  This  plant  is  sometimes 
borne  in  coats  of  arms. 

CINaUE  PORTS.  The  five  ancient 
ports  on  the  east  coast  of  England,  oppo- 
site to  France,  namely,  Dover,  Hastings, 
Hithe,  Romney,  and  Sandwich,  to  which 
are  added  as  appendages  Rye  and  Win- 
chelsea.  They  have  particular  privileges, 
and  are  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Constable  of  Dover  Castle,  who,  by  his 
office,  is  called  Warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports. 

CIPHER.  An  arithmetical  character, 
by  which  some  number  is  noted ;  par- 
ticularly the  character  marked  thus  0,, 
which  by  itself  signifies  nothing,  but  set 
after  other  figures  it  increases  their  vaJuo 
by  tens. 


CIR 

CIRCLE.  A  plain  figure  bounded  by 
one  line  only,  called  the  circumference, 
as  B  C  D,  to  which  all  the  lines  drawn  to 
it  from  a  point  in  the  middle,  called  the 
centre,  as  A  B,  A  C,  and  A  D  are  equal 
to  each  other.  The  line  which  divides  it 
into  two  equal  parts  is  called  the  diameter, 
as  B  D.  Every  circle  is  supposed  to  be 
divided  into  360  parts  or  degrees,  where- 
fore angles  are  measured  by  the  arc  of  a 
circle,  thus  BAG,  which  is  a  right  angle, 
is  equal  to  the  arc  B  C,  or  90  degrees. 


CIRCUITS.  In  England,  certain  divi- 
sions of  the  kingdom,  through  which  the 
judges  pass  once  a  year,  or  oftener,  to  hold 
courts  and  administer  justice.  A  similar 
division  exists  in  the  United  States  In  re- 
spect to  the  national  court. 

CIRCULATION  (in  Anatomy).  The 
natural  motion  of  the  blood  in  a  living  an- 
imal, whereby  it  proceeds  from  the  heart 
to  all  parts  of  the  body  by  the  arteries,  and 
returns  to  the  heart  by  the  veins. 

CIRCUMFERENCE.  The  curve  line 
which  bounds  a  circle. 

CIRCUMFERENTOR.  An  instrument 
used  by  surveyors  for  taking  angles. 


CIRCUMFLEX.  An  accent  in  Gram- 
Eoar,  marked  in  Greek  thus  (  -),  in  Latin 
thus  (*),  to  regulate  the  pronunciation. 

CIRCUMLOCUTION.  The  describing 
a  thing  by  many  words,  which  might  be 
explained  by  a  few. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL.  An  epithet  in 
law,  for  evidence  drawn  indirectly  from 
circumstances,  as  distinguished  from  posi- 
tive proofs. 

CIRCUMVALLATION,  or  A  LINE 
OF  CIRCUMVALLATION.  A  trench 
thrown  up  quite  round  a  besieger's  camp. 


CIV  93 

CIRCUS.  A  circular  building  at  Rome, 
where  games  were  exhibited ;  it  is  now 
used  to  designate  a  place  where  feats  of 
horsemanship  are  exhibited.  In  Archi- 
tecture, an  assemblage  of  houses  built  go 
as  to  form  a  circle. 

CITRIC  ACID.    The  acid  of  limes. 

CITRON.  A  species  of  the  lemon,  which 
is  much  cultivated  in  Persia  and  the  warm 
climates  of  Europe. 


CITY.  In  England,  a  corporate  town 
having  a  bishop's  see,  and  a  cathedral 
town.  This  distinction  is  not  always  ol>» 
served  in  common  discourse,  for  they  say 
the  town  of  Ely,  which  is  a  bishop's  see, 
and  the  city  of  Westminster,  which  at 
present  has  no  see.  In  the  United  States 
the  term  is  applied  to  any  incorporated 
town,  which  has  a  mayor  and  aldermen. 
By  geographical  writers  it  is  loosely  applv 
ed  to  any  large  town. 

CIVET  CAT.  An  animal  of  the  weasel 
kind,  about  two  feet  in  length  exclusive  of 
the  tail.  It  is  a  native  of  warm  climates; 
but  many  of  them  are  kept  in  Europe,  par- 
ticularly in  Holland,  for  the  civet.  This  is 
taken  from  a  bag  under  its  tail,  and  is  a 
fat  substance,  having  the  smell  of  musk, 
and  used  as  a  perfume. 


CIVILIAN.  A  doctor  or  professor  of  the 

civil  law. 

CIVIL  LAW,  otherwise  called  Imferiai. 
Law.  The  law  of  the  Roman  empire, 
digested  from  the  laws  of  the  republic  and 


96 


CLE 


those  of  the  emperors,  and  adopted  by  most 
of  the  nations  of  Europe.  This  law  is  used 
under  certain  restrictions  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts,  England,  as  also  in  the  univer- 
sity courts  and  court  of  the  admiralty. 

CIVIC  CROWN.  A  garland  composed 
of  oak  leaves,  which  was  given  to  a  Roman 
soldier  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen. 


CIVIL  YEAR.  That  form  of  the  year 
which  each  nation  has  adopted  for  com- 
puting their  time  by.  The  civil  year  in 
Europe,  and  America,  consists  of  365  days 
for  the  common  year,  and  366  days  for  leap 
year,  which  happens  eveiy  fourth  year. 

CLARIFICATION.  The  making  any 
liquid,  by  a  chymical  process,  clear  from 
impurities. 

CLARINET.  A  wind  instrument  of 
the  reed  kind. 

CLARO,  or  Chiaro  Obscuro  (in  Paint- 
ing). The  art  of  distributing  to  advantage 
the  lights  and  shadows  of  a  piece. 

CLASS.  A  term  applied  to  the  general 
divisions  of  any  subject,  as  in  the  Linnaean 
system,  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  are 
divided  into  classes. 

CLASSICAL.  A  term  applied  to  authors 
of  standard  authority,  particularly  the 
writers  among  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans, 
whose  works  are  comprehended  under  the 
name  of  the  Classics. 

CLAVICLES.  The  two  channel  bones 
which  fasten  the  shoulder  bones  and  the 
breast  bone. 

CLAY.  A  sortof  fat  clammy  earth,  stiff, 
viscid,  and  ductile  to  a  great  degree.  The 
clays  are  opaque  and  noncrystallized  bo- 
dies, and  of  dull  fracture.  They  form  with 
water  a  plastic  paste,  possessing  consider- 
able tenacity,  which  may  be  hardened  with 
heat,  so  as  to  strike  fire  with  steel.  The 
principal  clays  are  porcelain  clay,  consist- 
ing of  silica  and  alumina;  marl  clay,  con- 
taining some  carbonate  of  lime  ;  pipe  clay, 
requiring  a  high  temperature  for  fusion; 
and  potter's  clay,  which  is  used  for  coarse 
pottery. 

CLEMATIS.  A  climbing  shrub,  other- 
wise called  the  Virgin's  Bower,  or  Wild 


CLO 

Climbers.  The  common  sort,  bearing  a 
bluish  flower,  is  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe, 

CLERGY.  A  general  name  for  all  per- 
sons in  holy  orders. 

CLERK  (in  Law).  A  clergyman;  in 
Commerce,  one  who  keeps  a  merchant's 
accounts. 

CLIENT.  One  who  retains  a  lawyer  to 
manage  or  plead  his  cause. 

CLIFF  or  CLEF  (in  Music).  A  mark 
set  at  the  beginning  of  a  song,  to  show  the 
key  in  which  the  piece  is  to  be  performed. 

CLIMATES.  Spaces  upon  the  surface 
of  the  terrestrial  globe,  contained  between 
two  parallels  of  latitudes,  so  far  distant 
from  each  other,  that  the  longest  day  on 
one  parallel,  ditfers  half  an  hour,  from  the 
longest  day  on  the  other.  It  is  also  used 
to  denote  the  general  character  of  the  wea- 
ther and  temperature,  in  any  given  place. 

CLOAK.  An  upper  loose  garment,  worn 
over  the  clothes  in  cold  or  rainy  weather. 

CLOCK.  A  machine  for  measuring  time, 
which  tells  the  hour  by  a  stroke  upon  a 
bell.  In  order  that  the  clock  may  be  an 
equable  measure  of  the  solar  day,  which  is 
unequal,  it  is  usual  forelocks  and  watches 
to  go  a  few  minutes  faster  or  Blower  than 
the  sun, 

CLOISTERS.  Covered  passages,  such 
as  were  formerly  attached  to  cloisters  or 
other  religious  houses. 

CLOTH.  Any  kind  of  stuff  that  is  wo- 
ven or  manufactured  in  the  loom,  whether 
it  be  made  of  wool,  hemp,  or  flax. 

CLOTHIER,  or  CLOTHWORKER. 
A  manufacturer  of  cloth.  In  the  United 
States,  it  is  applied  exclusively  to  those 
who  dress  and  colour  cloths. 

CLOVE.    An  Indian  spice,  the  fruit  of 


the  clove  tree,  which  grows  in  the  spico 
islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


COA 

CLOUD.  A  mass  of  vapour,  more  or 
less  opaque,  drawn  or  sent  out  of  the  earth 
into  the  atmosphere.  V\"hen  condensed 
into  water,  they  fall  in  rain. 

CLOVE  GILLIFLOVVER,  or  CLOVE 
PINK.  A  finer  kind  of  pink  cultivated  in 
gardens. 

CLOVER.  A  kind  of  three  leaved  giass 
or  trefoil  3  it  is  much  used  as  a  food  for  cat- 
tle. 

CLYSTER.  An  instrument  for  the  in- 
jection of  any  fluid  into  the  body. 

CO.     An  abbreviation  of  company. 

COACH.  A  carriage  of  pleasure,  state,  or 
business,  having  seats  to  front  each  other. 

COACH  DOG.  A  dog  beautifully  col- 
oured with  round  black  spots  on  a  white 
ground.  It  is  supposed  to  be  of  Dalmatian 
origin,  and  is  kept  as  a  handsome  atten- 
dant on  a  coach. 

COADJUTOR.  One  who  assists  anoth- 
er in  any  office. 

COAGULATION.  The  rendering  of  a 
fluid  body  of  a  thicker  consistence,  by 
drawing  out  some  part  of  it  in  vapours  by 
means  of  fire,  or  by  the  addition  of  some- 
thing by  which  it  is  decomposed. 

COAK.     See  Coke. 

COAKING.  A  sea  term,  for  the  opera- 
tion of  uniting  two  or  more  pieces  of  tim- 
ber together  in  the  centre,  by  means  of 
tabular  projections. 

COAL.  A  solid  inflammable  substance, 
of  a  bituminous  nature,  dug  out  of  the  earth 
and  used  as  fuel.  Coal  is  distinguished 
into  pit  coal,  in  respect  to  the  place  where 
it  was  dug  from,  and  seacoal,  in  respect  to 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  conveyed,  name- 
ly, by  sea  ;  in  regard  to  its  properties  it  is 
called  black  coal,  which  is  composed  of 
bitumen,  charcoal,  and  an  earthy  matter  ; 
bovey  coal,  having  likewise  a  resinous 
substance  ;  slate  coal,  which  contains  a 
quantity  of  argillaceous  earth  ;  glance  coal, 
which  contains  only  charcoal  and  earth. 

COALMETER.  An  officer  in  London, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  inspect  the  measuring 
of  coals  that  go  from  the  v/harf. 

COAL  MINE.  An  excavation  regularly 
formed  under  the  earth,  from  which  coals 
are  dug.  There  are  many  coal  mines  in  the 
north  of  England.  The  most  important 
coal  mines  in  the  United  States  are  those 
on  the  Lehigh  and  Schuylkill  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

COAST.  The  edge  of  the  land,  next  to 
the  sea. 

COASTER.  A  vessel  employed  in  going 
from  one  port  to  another  along  the  coast. 

COAT.  A  garment  worn  commonly 
uppermost ;  a  thin  covering  laid  or  done 
over  any  thing,  as  a  coat  of  paint,  &c. ;  in 


coc 


97 


Anatomy,  the  membraneous  cover  of  any 
part  of  the  body,  as  the  coats  of  the  eye, 
the  stomach,  &c. 

COAT  ARMOUR,  or  Coats  of  Arms. 
Armorial  ensigns  or  bearings,  which  were 
originally  painted  on  the  coats  of  arms. 

COATIMOUDI.  An  animal  shaped 
some\A'hal  like  a  race  on  with  a  long  snout, 
flexible  like  the  trunk  of  an  Elephant. 
When  asleep  it  rolls  itself  into  a  lump. 

COAT  OF  MAIL.  A  piece  of  armour 
made  in  the  form  of  a  shirty  and  wrought 
over  with  many  iron  rings. 

COBALT.  A  mineral  of  a  gray  colour, 
consisting  of  silver  and  arsenic,  which  lat- 
ter is  obtained  from  it  in  great  quantities. 
It  has  never  been  found  pure  in  nature,  bul 
mostly  in  the  state  of  an  oxide,  or  alloyed 
with  other  metals. 

COCAO.     See  Cocoa. 

COCCULUS  INDICUS.  An  Indian 
tree  producing  a  poisonous  berry,  which  la 
one  of  the  deleterious  ingredients  unlaw- 
fully used  in  the  making  of  beer. 

C0CHIP;EAL.  Au  insect  which  infests 
different  plants,  but  particularly  the  opun- 
tia.  This  insect,  when  dried,  is  used  in 
dyeing  a  rich  scarlet.  There  is  a  red  ber- 
ry which  grows  on  an  American  tree,  called 
the  Coccus  Americanus  or  Ficus  Indianus, 
which  also  yields  a  beautiful  scarlet  dje. 

COCHLEA  (in  Anatomy).  The  internal 
cavity  of  the  ear,  so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  spiral  shape  of  the  cochlea, 
or  snail's  shell. 

COCHLEA  (in  Mechanics).  One  of  the 
five  mechanical  powers,  otherwise  called  a 
screw^ 

COCK.  The  male  of  most  birds,  partic- 
ularly of  the  well  known  domestic  fowl  in 
a  farmyard. 

COCK.  The  name  of  a  part  of  several 
instruments,  as  that  part  of  the  lock  of  a 
musket  which  sustains  the  jaws,  or  piecesf 
of  iron  that  re<eive  the  flint;  also  the 
wrougiit  piece  that  covers  the  balance  in 
a  clock  or  watch  ;  and  the  spout  which  is 
put  into  beer  or  water  barrels,  &c. 

COCKCHAFFER,  or  Tree  Beetle,  A 
mischievous    insect,  which  devours    the 


leaves  of  trees,  &c.    The  grub,  which  13 
soft  and  gi'ay,  with  testaceous  head  and 


9S  COC 

legs,  remains  in  the  earth  three  or  more 
3'ears  before  it  is  transfoi-med  into  the  per- 
fect insect. 

COCKATOO.  A  species  of  parrot,  hav- 
ing a  short  tail  and  a  tuft  of  long  feathers 
on  the  head.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Moluc- 
cas. 

COCKBOAT.  A  small  boat  belonging 
to  a  ship,  that  is  used  in  rivers. 

COCKET  (in  England).  The  office  at 
the  Customhouse  where  the  goods  to  be 
exported  are  entered  ;  also  the  Custom- 
house seal,  or  the  parchment  sealed  and 
delivered  by  officers  of  the  customs  to  mer- 
chants, as  a  warrant  that  their  goods  are 
customed. 

COCK  FIGHTING.  A  cruel  sport 
common  in  England,  which  consists  in 
pitting  two  cocks  against  each  other,  of  the 
game  breed,  and  armed  with  spurs  that 
inflict  deadly  wounds. 

COCKING  (in  Carpentry).  A  method 
of  securing  beams  to  wallplates. 

COCKLE.     A  sort  of  shell  fish. 

COCKNEY.  A  nick  name  given  to  one 
who  is  born  and  bred  in  the  city  of  London, 
within  the  sound  of  Bow  bells. 

COCKPIT.  A  place  where  cocks  fight ; 
also  an  apartment  in  the  treasury  in  Lon- 
don, where  the  king's  speech  is  read  before 
the  meeting  of  parliament, 

COCKPIT.  The  place  in  a  ship  of  war 
where  the  wounded  are  dressed  by  the 
surgeon. 

COCK'S  COMB.  A  fine  plant  cultivated 
in  gardens  and  hot  houses.  Some  sorts  are 
annuals  and  some  perennials. 

COCOA  NUT  TREE.  A  tree  common 
In  Asia  and  South  America,  which  yields 
the  fruit  called  the  cocoa  nut.    The  shell 


COF 

called  by  the  natives,  toddy.  The  husk  of 
the  shell  is  used  for  making  chocolate,  and 
from  the  kernel  is  extracted  an  oil. 

COCKSWAIN,  vulgarly  called  Cock- 
SON.  An  officer  who  has  charge  of  the 
cockboat. 

COCTION.  The  reducing  the  alimente 
to  chyle  ;  in  Surgery,  the  reducing  morbific 
matter  to  a  healthy  state. 

COD.  A  large  fish  which  inhabits  the 
northern  seas,  and  is  much  esteemed  for 
its  flesh.  The  cod  fisheries  on  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland  employ  three  hundred 
vessels  and  several  thousand  men. 

COD  FISHER.  A  vessel  employed 
in  the  cod  fishery ;  also  the  person  em- 
ployed. 

CODEX.  A  name  particularly  applied 
to  the  volume,  containing  the  ancient  Ro- 
man or  Imperial  law. 

CODICIL.  A  supplement  to  a  will. 

CODLIN.  An  apple,  so  called,  because 
it  is  fittest  to  be  coddled  or  boiled  in 
milk. 

COFFEE.  The  fruit  of  the  coffee  tree, 
and  the  drink  which  is  made  from  it. 

COFFEE  ROASTER.  An  iron  utensil, 
in  which  the  coffee  is  roasted  gradually 
over  a  fire,  until  it  is  in  a  fit  state  for 
grinding. 

COFFEE  TREE.  A  tree  of  the  jasamine 
kind,  which  bears  a  berry  known  by  the 
same  name.  The  berries  grow  in  clusters 
like  cherries.  The  tree  which  is  a  native 
of  Arabia  bears  the  best  coffee,  and  passes 
under  the  name  of  Mocha.  Coffee  is  pro- 
duced in  the  West  Indies,  South  America, 
and  the  Asiatic  Islands. 


of  the  fruit  is  of  a  bony  substance,  contain 
ing  a  kernel  and  a  sweet  refreshing  liquor 


COFFER.  A  chest  or  trunk ;  in  Mine^ 
alogy,  a  trough  in  which  tin  ore  is  broken 
to  pieces  ;  in  Fortification,  a  trench  cut  in 
the  bottom  of  a  dry  ditch. 


COI 

COFFERDAM.  A  case  of  piling  fixed 
in  the  bed  of  a  river,  for  the  purpose  of 
building  a  pier  dry. 

COFFIN.  A  case  or  box  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a  dead  body,  that  is  to  be  buried  ; 
In  the  veterinary  art,  the  whole  hoof  of  a 
horse's  foot  above  the  coronet. 

COG.  The  tooth  of  a  wheel. 

COGNIZANCE  (in  Law).  The  hearing 
of  a  thing  judicially ;  also  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  a  fine. 

COGNIZANCE  OF  PLEAS.  InEngland 
a  privilege  granted  by  the  king  to  a  city 
or  town  to  hold  pleas  of  all  contracts,  &c. 
within  the  liberty  of  the  franchise  ;  in  Her- 
aldry, the  same  as  the  crest. 

COHESION,  or  Attraction  of  Cohe- 
sion. That  power  by  which  the  particles 
of  bodies  are  held  together:  the  absolute 
cohesion  of  bodies,  is  measured  by  the  force 
necessary  to  pull  them  asunder. 

COHORT.  A  military  body  among  the 
Romans,  consisting  of  the  tenth  of  a  legion, 
or  about  600  men. 

COIF.  A  sort  of  hood  or  cap  for  the 
head,  formerly  worn  in  England,  by  Ser- 
jeants at  law. 

COIL.  The  ring  or  circle  formed  by  a 
cable  in  coiling  or  winding  it. 

COIN.  A  piece  of  metal  stamped  with 
certain  marks,  and  made  current  at  a  cer- 
tain value. 

COINING.  The  process  of  stamping  or 
making  coins,  which  has  undergone  an  en- 
tire change  in  England,  within  the  last  few 
years,  in  consequence  of  the  invention  of 
machinery  first  made  by  Messrs.  Bolton 
and  Watt.  The  coining  press  is  now 
worked  by  means  of  complicated  machin- 
ery, placed  in  an  apartment  over  the  coin- 
ing room,  and  connected  with  the  steam 
engine.  To  this  is  attached  a  contrivance 
by  which  it  feeds  itself  with  the  blanks 


COL 


99 


There  are  eight  of  these  presses  fixed  in 
the  coining  room  in  the  Mint  at  London, 
which,  by  the  aid  of  the  machinery,  may 
be  worked  by  four  boys,  so  as  to  strike 
off  20,000  pieces  of  money  in  an  hour.  The 
method  of  coining  in  the  United  States 
Mint,  at  Philadelphia,  is  for  the  most  pai't 
peculiar  to  that  establishment. 

COINS  (in  Architecture).  The  angles 
formed  by  the  two  sides  of  any  building. 

COINS  (in  Gunnery).  Large  wedges  of 
wood  for  altering  the  position  of  a  gun. 

COKE,  or  COAK.  A  Iiard  cinereous  kind 
of  charcoal,  formed  by  the  burning  of  black 
pit  coal. 

COLD.  Not  only  the  sensation  of  cold, 
but  the  state  of  the  body  which  causes  the 
sensation.  By  some,  cold  is  supposed  to  be 
a  distinct  substance,  and  that  when  we 
call  a  body  cold,  we  may  be  understood  to 
signify,  that  it  absorbs  caloric  or  heat  from 
other  bodies. 

COLEOPTERA.  The  first  order  of  in- 
sects in  the  Linnsean  system,  comprehend- 
ing all  those  with  four  wings,  as  the  beetle, 
glowworm,  ladybird,  leather  eater,  &c. 

COLE  WORT,  or  Kale.  A  variety  of 
the  cabbage,  which  thrives  in  the  winter, 
and  improves  from  the  action  of  the  frost 
upon  it. 

COLIC.  A  violent  pain  in  the  abdomen, 
so  called  from  the  colon,  the  intestine  for- 
merly supposed  to  be  affected. 

COLLAR,  (in  Heraldry).  An  ornament 
for  the  neck,  worn  by  knights,  such  as  the 
collar  of  the  order  of  the  Garter  in  the  sub- 
joined figure. 


to  be  impressed,  and  removes  them  the  in- 
stant they  have  received  the  impression. 


COLLATERAL  (in  Law).  A  ferm  for 
what  is  sideways,  or  not  direct,  as  collateral 
kinsmen,  those  whoare  not  descended  from 
one  common  stock,  as  the  issue  of  two  sons, 
who  are  collateral  kinsmen  to  one  another. 

COLLATING,  (among  Book-binders), 
The  examining  the  whole  number  of  sheeta 
belonging  to  a  book,  in  order  to  see  if  they 
are  all  gathered  properly. 

COLLATIOJV  OF  A  BENEFICE.  In 
England,  the  bestowing  of  a  benefice  by 
the  bisliop,  when  he  has  the  right  of  pat- 


100 


COL 


ronage  ;  it  differs  from  institution  in  this, 
that  institution  into  a  benefice  is  perform- 
ed by  tlie  bishop  at  the  presentation  of 
another  who  is  patron. 

COLLATOR.  One  who  compares  copies 
or  manuscripts. 

COLLEAGUE.  An  associate  in  the  same 
office  or  magistrac}-. 

COLLECT.  A  short  prayer,  particularly 
such  prayers  as  are  appointed  with  the 
epistles  and  gospels,  in  the  public  service 
of  the  church  of  England. 

COLLECTION.  The  act  of  collecting 
or  bringing  things  together  from  different 
quarters,  as  a  collection  of  money  for  charit- 
able purposes,  either  at  the  church  door  or 
from  house  to  house ;  also  that  which  is 
collected  or  brought  together  into  an  assem- 
blage, as  a  collection  of  coins,  paintings,  &c. 
COLLEGE.  A  corporation  or  society  of 
persons,  having  certain  privileges,  and 
founded  in  England  by  the  king's  license, 
as  the  College  of  Physicians,  or  the  Colleges 
in  the  Universities.  In  this  country,  Col- 
leges are  incorporated  by  the  legislatures. 
The  term  is  here  only  applied  to  literary 
institutions. 

COLLEGIATE.  In  England,  an  epithet 
for  a  church  that  is  endowed,  for  a  soci- 
ety, &c. 

COLLIER.  A  vessel  employed  in  carry- 
ing coals  from  one  port  to  another:  also 
one  who  works  in  the  coal  mines. 

COLLUSION  (in  Law).  A  compact 
between  two  persons  to  bring  an  action  one 
against  tlie  other,  for  some  fraudulent  or 
unlawful  purpose. 

COLOGYNTHIS.  See  Coloquintida. 
COLOGNE  EARTH.  A  substance  used 
by  painters,  much  approaching  to  amber 
in  its  structure,  and  of  a  deep  brown. 

COLON  (in  Anatomy).  The  second  of 

the  three  large  intestines  ;  in  Grammar,  a 

point  marked  thus  (:)  to  divide  a  sentence. 

COLONEL.  The  first  in  command  of  a 

regiment. 

COLONNADE.  A  range  of  pillars  run- 
ning quite  round  a  building. 

COLONY.  A  company  of  people  re- 
moved from  one  country  to  another,  where 
they  form  a  settlement  under  the  sanction 
of  the  government ;  also  the  place  where 
such  a  settlement  is  formed,  as  the  colonies 
beixinging  to  Great  Britain  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies  and  in  North  America,  &c. 

COLOaUINTID  A.  The  fruit  of  the  wild 
gourd,  brought  from  the  Levant.  The  pulp, 
which  is  light,  spongy,  and  white,  is  re- 
markable for  its  intense  bitterness,  whence 
it  has  the  name  of  tlie  bitter. 

COLOSSUS.  A  statue  of  a  prodigious 
eize,  such  as  that  of  the  sun  anciently  in 


COM 

the  harbour  of  the  island  of  Rhodes.  J 
was  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbour, 
with  tlie  right  foot  standing  on  one  side 
tlie  land,  and  the  left  on  the  other. 

COLOURS.  Were  anciently  supposed 
to  be  an  inheient  properly  of  the  coloured 
substance,  but  tliey  are  now  considered  to 
be  the  jjroporty  of  light,  the  elementary 
rays  of  wliich,  being  propagated  to  the 
sensorium,  affect  the  mind  with  the  difler- 
ent  sensations  of  colour,  according  to  their 
degrees  cf  refrangibility. 

COLOURS  (in  Painting).  The  various 
tints  which  are  produced  by  the  diflerent 
mi^cture  and' application  of  certain  drugs. 

COLOURS  (in  Heraldry).  The  tinctures 
with  which  the  field  or  any  part  of  the 
escutcheon  is  distinguished,  namely,  cr, 
yellow  ;  argent,  white  ;  gules,  red  3  azure, 
blue  ;  sable,  black  ;  and  vert,  green. 

COLOURS.  A  military  term,  for  the 
banners,flags,and  ensigns  used  in  the  army. 

COLUMN.  A  cylindrical  pillar,  which 
serves  either  for  the  support  or  ornament 
of  a  building.  It  consists  of  a  capital, 
which  is  the  top  or  head  3  the  shaft,  wliich 
is  the  cylindrical  part  3  and  the  base,  or 
that  on  which  it  rests.  Columns  are  dis- 
tinguished as  to  their  form  into  the  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  Composite,  and  Tuscan. 

COLUMN  (in  the  Military  Art).  A 
long  deep  file  of  troops  or  baggage. 

COLUMNIFERiE' (in  Botany).  One  of 
Linna3us's  natural  orders,  including  the 
mallow-like  plants. 

COLURES  (in  Astronomy).  Two  great 
imaginary  circles,  which  intersect  one  ano- 
ther at  right  angles. 

COMB  (in  Commerce).  An  instrument 
to  clean,  untangtej  and  dress  flax,  \a'oo], 
hair,  &C.3  also  a  sea  term,  for  a  little  piece 
of  timber  set  under  the  lower  part  of  the 
beakhead. 

COMBINATION  (in  Chymistry).  The 
intimate  union  of  the  particles  of  dilierent 
substances,  so  as  to  form  a  new  compound; 
in  Mathematics,  the  alterations  or  varia- 
tions in  all  possible  ways  of  quantities, 
letters,  sounds,  and  the  like  3  thus,  two 
square  pieces,  each  divided  diagonally  into 
two  colours,  may  be.  arranged  and  com- 
bined sixty-four  ways. 

COMBUSTIBLES  (in  Chymistrj').  All 
substances  which  have  the  property  of 
uniting  with  the  supporters  of  combustion, 
such  as  sulpliur,  phosphorus,  carbon,  &:c. 

COMBUSTIBLES  (in  the  Military  Art). 
Combustible  materials  used  in  ofl'ensive  or 
defensive  operations. 

COMBUSTION.  The  decomposition  of 
bodies  accompanied  with  light  and  heat. 
COMEI>Y.    A  dramatic    representatioa 


COM 

of  the  ligbt,  Iiumor&us,  and  pleasant  kind, 
particularly  intended  to  ridicule  the  follies 
of  men. 

COMET.  An  opaque,  spherical,  and  solid 
body,  like  a  planet,  performing  revolutions 
about  the  sun  in  eiliptieal  orbits,  which 
have  the  sun  in  one  of  the  foci.  It  is 
divided  into  the  nucleus  or  dense  part ;  the 
head  ;  the  coma,  a  faint  light  surrounding 
the  head  ;  and  the  tail,  vi-hich  is  the  long 
train  of  light  by  vi'hich  these  bodies  are 
distinguished.  The  comet  is  sometimes 
borne  in  coats  of  arms,  when  it  is  said  to 
be  streaming. 

COMMA  (in  Grammar).  A  point  marked 
thus  (,)  and  put  between  ft'ords  and  sen- 
tences. 

C03IMANDER.  A  military  term,  for 
one  who  has  the  command  of  a  body  of 
men.  The  Commander  in  Chief  in  the 
British  army  is  he  who  has  the  supreme 
command  over  all  his  majesty's  land  forces 
in  Great  Britain.  In  the  naval  service 
the  Commander  in  Chief  is  the  chief  ad- 
miral in  any  port  or  station. 

COMMANDER  OF  A  SHIP,  other- 
wise called  the  Master  ;  he  is  an  officer 
in  the  British  navy  next  in  rank  to  a  post 
captain. 

COMMENTARY.  An  explanation  of 
the  obscure  passages  in  an  author. 

COMMERCE.  A  trafficking  or  dealing 
with  foreign  countries,  by  means  of  export- 
ing and  importing  different  commodities. 

COMMERCE,  History  of.  The  inter- 
course between  different  nations  for  pur- 
poses of  commerce,  doubtless  took  place 
soon  after  the  dispersion  of  mankind,  for 
we  find  it  recorded  in  holy  writ  that  the 
Ishmaelites,  who  were  settled  in  higher 
parts  of  Arabia,  carried  on  a  trade  with 
Egypt  in  spices,  balm,  and  myrrh,  and 
that  in  one  of  their  journeys  Joseph  was 
sold  to  them  by  his  brethren.  As  the 
commodities  in  vi'hicli  they  dealt,  as  gums 
and  sweet  scented  woods,  which  were  to 
be  procured  only  from  the  East  Indies, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  these  people  and  the 
Egyptians  were  among  the  first  who  made 
distant  voyages  and  travels  in  the  way  of 
trade.  They  were  succeeded  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, an  adventurous  people  who  were 
the  first  that  raised  any  naval  power  that 
makes  any  figure  in  history.  By  their 
enterprise  and  industry  they  became  a 
wealthy  and  luxurious  people,  and  their 
two  cities.  Tyre  and  Sidon,  became  the 
emporiums  of  the  universe.  In  the  time 
of  David  and  Solomon  we  find  the  Jewish 
nation  availed  themselves  of  the  assistance 
of  this  people  in  equipping  their  fleets. 
After  the  destruction  of  old  Tyre,  a  new 
9* 


COM 


101 


city  arose  out  of  the  ruins,  which  rivalled 
the  other  in  wealth,  industiy,  and  com- 
merce ;  and  while  in  her  glory  she  planted 
the  colony  of  Carthage,  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  which  from  the  convenience  of  her 
situation  and  the  industry  of  her  inhabit- 
ants, rose  to  an  extraordinary  pitch  of 
prosperity.  The  Carthaginians  made  them- 
selves masters  of  Spain,  and  of  the  islands 
of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  discovered  the 
greatest  part  of  the  coast  of  Africa  and  the 
Canary  Islands,  traded  with  Britain  by 
the  route  of  the  Scilly  Islands,  and  are 
supposed  to  have  made  their  way  even  to 
America.  In  the  mean  time  Egypt,  under 
the  Ptolemies,  also  attained  a  high  degree 
of  grandeur  and  affluence.  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus  in  particular,  by  encouraging  trade, 
made  his  people  rich  and  himself  power- 
ful. Such  was  the  greatness  of  Alexandria 
alone,  that  the  produce  of  the  customs  feU 
little  short  of  two  millions  annually.  Under 
the  Romans  commerce  was  encouraged  in 
every  part  of  the  world  where  they  had 
any  influence,  as  may  be  learned  not  only 
from  historians  but  also  from  various  medals 
and  inscriptions,  showing  that  every  con- 
siderable city  had  several  colleges  or  trading 
companies. 

On  the  decline  of  the  empire,  commerce 
was,  owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  all 
Europe,  and  the  constant  irruption  of  the 
barbarous  tribes,  almost  at  a  stand.  About 
this  period  it  happened  that  some  straggling 
people,  either  forced  by  necessity  or  led 
by  inclination,  took  their  abode  in  a  few 
scattered  islands  that  lay  near  the  coast  of 
Italy,  and  as  these  islands  were  separated 
from  each  other  by  narrow  channels,  full 
of  shallows,  that  prevented  strangers  from 
navigating,  the  inhabitants  found  them- 
selves protected  from  all  hostile  inroads, 
and  in  the  midst  of  this  security  they  fol- 
lowed their  pursuits  with  so  much  industry 
and  success,  that  these  once  insignificant 
islands  rose  in  the  space  of  two  centuries, 
that  is  from  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  century, 
into  a  great  city  and  a  powerful  republic. 
Such  was  the  humble  origin  of  the  once 
potent  state  of  Venice,  which  by  degrees 
acquired  an  extent  of  commerce  and  a  naval 
power  that  had  not  for  a  length  of  time  any 
rival.  She  drew  to  herself  the  profits  of 
the  Indian  trade,  and  by  availing  herself  of 
every  favourable  conjuncture,  she  not  only 
monopolized  the  trade  of  all  Italy,  but  of 
all  the  countries  in  subjection  to  the  Maho- 
metans ;  but  as  other  countries  in  Europe 
began  to  enlarge  their  commerce,  Venice 
lost  the  monopoly,  and  this  combining  with 
her  own  immoderate  ambition,  caused  the 
decay  of  her  trade  and  the  decline  of  her 


1^ 


COMMERCE. 


power.  From  the  leagueofCambray,  which 
was  formed  against  her  by  the  powers  of 
Europe,  Venice  may  be  said  to  have  ceased 
to  hold  the  first  rank  as  a  commercial  state. 

The  origin  of  the  proud  city  of  Genoa, 
as  it  was  called,  was  very  similar  to  tliat 
of  Venice.  Like  Venice,  she  rose  from  an 
assemblage  of  fugitives  and  adventurers  on 
the  rocky,  barren,  and  inhospitable  shores 
of  Liguria ;  and  like  her  she  gained,  by  the 
industry  and  perseverance  of  her  inhabit- 
ants, a  prodigious  extent  of  commerce. 
Her  merchants  traded  with  all  countries, 
and  throve  by  becoming  the  carriers  from 
one  country  to  another.  Her  fleets  were 
formidable  and  her  conciuests  numerous, 
but  after  perpetual  v/ars  with  her  rival, 
Venice,  she  was  at  length  compelled  to 
yield  the  dominion  of  the  sea,  and  finally 
lost  all  lier  consequence.. 

In  the  meantime,  the  trade  of  Germany 
was  rising  in  consequence.  Some  commer- 
cjal  cities,  confederating  together,  formed 
a  commercial  league,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  the  object  of 
whicli  was,  by  combining  their  resources, 
to  form  a  fleet  for  the  protection  of  their 
trade  with  other  countries.  These  cities 
not  only  associated  among  themselves,  but 
also  formed  alliances  with  other  states,  as 
England  and  France,  and  had  a  code  of 
laws  which  weie  respected  and  observed, 
under  the  name  of  the  Lex  Mercatorla, 
for  a  long  time  thoughout  all  Europe.  In„ 
this  manner  the  Hanse  Towns  acquired  a 
considerable  share  of  influence,  and  were 
respected  by  all  the  sovereigns  in  Europe. 
The  kings  of  France  and  England  granted 
them  considerable  privileges,  exempting 
their  vessels  in  case  of  shipwreck  from  all 
demands  whatsoever,  either  on  the  part  of 
the  admiralty  or  of  private  persons,  and 
respecting  their  flag  in  times  of  war.  Tlijs 
good  understanding  between  them,  and 
the  states  of  Europe  was  considerably  in- 
creased by  the  freedom  with  which  they 
lent  their  money  to  different  princes  in 
time  of  need,  particularly  during  the  cru- 
sades, when  they  gave  powerful  succours 
both  in  ships  as  well  as  in  money.  This 
confederacy  did  not,  however,  always  re- 
tain its  moderation  ;  for,  as  they  increased 
Jn  wealth  and  power,  so  they  grew  ambi- 
tious and  domineering,  and  more  than  once 
they  ventured  to  set  themselves  up  against 
the  states  of  Germany  ;  in  consequence  of 
this,  the  German  princes  gradually  with- 
drew the  cities  that  were  subject  to  them- 
eelves  from  the  confederacy,  and  thus 
.■sflfected  its  dissolution.  The  only  cities 
Which  now  retain  the  name  of  Hanse 
'■  'owns,  and  some  other  vestiges  of  the 


Hanseatic  league,  are  Hamburg,  Bremerr, 
and  Lubeck. 

The  next  important  change  in  the  state 
of  European  commerce  was  brought  about 
in  Portugal  and  Spain,  by  means  of  the 
discoveries  which  took  place  in  the  fifteenth 
and  subsequent  centuries.  To  the  spirit 
and  enterprise  of  Emanuel,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  was  effected 
by  Vasco  de  Gama,  in  14B8,  and  by  open- 
ing a  new  way  to  the  Indies  afforded  to 
the  Portuguese  an  opportunity  of  making 
conquests  and  settlements  which  secured 
to  them  the  commerce  of  India,  which  the 
Venetians  had  hitherto  enjoyed  through  the 
medium  of  the  Arabians.  The  discovery 
of  America  by  Columbus,  which  followed 
quickly  after,  paved  the  way  for  a  still 
greater  extension  of  mercantile  enterprise, 
wliich,  though  at  first  enjoyed  only  by  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  was  at  length 
shared  by  other  states.  The  Dutch,  an 
enterprising  people,  were  the  first  who 
wrested  from  the  Spaniards  a  portion  of 
thoir  conquered  possessions,  and  made  so 
good  a  use  of  the  advantages  they  gained 
as  to  become  one  of  the  greatest  trading 
people  in  Europe.  By  the  help  of  increas- 
ing wealth,  they  converted  their  little 
fishing  villages  into  large  and  populous 
cities  and  towns.  Although  their  country 
was  far  from  being  fertile,  and  tiieir  native 
commodities  few  or  none,  yet  by  commerce 
they  succeeded  in  filling  their  storehouses 
with  all  the  productions  and  manufactures 
of  the  world. 

Having  given  this  general  sketch  of  com- 
merce from  its  earliest  beginnings,  we  must 
not  close  this  account  without  making  men- 
tion of  the  commerce  of  England,  which, 
though  among  the  last  to  avail  itself  of  this 
source  of  wealth  and  aggrandizement,  has 
by  slow  and  gradual  steps  raised  its  com- 
merce to  a  pitch  which  has  never  been 
surjjassed  by  any  nation.  It  appears  that 
a  commercial  intercourse  with  Britain  was 
begun  at  a  very  early  period,  and  tliat  the 
Pliojnicians  and  Carthaginians  traded  with 
this  island  for  the  tin  of  Cornwall,  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  native  Britons  did  not  for 
many'  ages  take  any  active  part  in  this 
traffic,  or  make  any  attempt  to  share  in  the 
advantages  of  commerce  beyond  the  giving 
their  commodities  to  such  as  wished  to  trade 
with  them.  They  had  nothing  better  than 
leather  or  wicker  boats,  which  were  too 
slight  to  enable  them  to  leave  their  shores, 
even  so  as  to  cross  the  Channel. 

The  Saxons  made  considerable  endea- 
vours to  extend  their  intercourse  with 
foreign  nations,  particularly  in  the  time  of 


COM 

Alfred  the  Great,  who  sent  people  as  far 
as  the  East  for  commercial  purposes,  as 
also  for  the  sake  of  procuring  information. 
After  the  Conquest,  the  English  princes 
were  for  a  long  time  too  much  engaged  in 
political  and  military  concerns  to  turn  their 
attention  to  this  subject,  and  little  was  done 
beyond  that  of  giving  encouragement  to 
foreigners  to  settle  in  England,  or  to  have 
dealings  with  the  people.  One  provision 
of  Magna  Charta  held  forth  indemnity  and 
protection  to  foreign  merchants  in  the  pas- 
sage to  and  fro,  as  also  during  their  stay 
in  the  country. 

Safe  conducts  were  afterwards  given  to 
the  English  going  abroad,  which  afforded 
them  the  opportunity  of  carrying  on  a  traf- 
fic for  their  commodities  with  foreign  na- 
tions. In  consequence  we  find  that  staples 
or  markets  were  established  both  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  continent,  where  English 
wool,  lead,  and  other  productions  were 
bought  and  sold;  and  as  encouragement 
was  given  to  the  Hanseatic  League,  a  tra- 
ding company  was  in  consequence  formed 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  first  called  the 
Company  of  Merchants  trading  to  Calais, 
&c.,  afterwards  the  Merchant  Adventurers 
of  England,  or  the  Company  of  Merchant 
Adventurers  trading  to  Hamburg.  This 
company,  which  is  the  first  of  the  kind  in 
England,  was  incorporated  by  Edward  I. 
in  1296.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  com- 
merce and  manufactures  both  met  with 
considerable  encouragement,  but  the  inter- 
course of  foreigners  with  England  was  now 
more  encouraged  than  that  of  Englishmen 
with  foreign  nations.  In  consequence  the 
staple  or  mart  was  confined  to  certain 
towns,  where,  by  the  statute  of  the  staple 
as  it  was  called,  it  was  ordained  that  for- 
eigners miglit  resort  for  the  purchase  of 
English  commodities,  but  Englishmen  were 
prohibited  under  great  penalties  from  ex- 
porting any  themselves.  A  number  of 
other  laws  were  made  for  the  establishment 
and  governmentof  the  staple,  which  form- 
ed that  branch  of  the  English  law  since 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Law-PJerchant. 
For  the  encouragement  of  manufactures, 
protection  was  given  to  cloth  makers  to 
come  from  foreign  parts  and  reside  here. 
In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  the  principle 
of  confining  commerce  within  the  limit  of 
the  country  was,  in  consequence  of  the 
recent  discoveries,  somewhat  altered.  An 
intercourse  with  Russia  was  commenced 
by  means  of  some  English  adventurers, 
who,  going  on  a  voyage  of  discoveiy  in  or- 
der to  find  out  a  north-east  passage  to  Chi- 
na, came  to  the  port  of  Archangel,  where 
they  were  well  received  by  the  Muscovites, 


COM 


103 


whence  they  afterwards  formed  a  company 
and  received  a  charter  to  secure  to  them- 
selves the  trade  to  Russia.  This  company 
was  incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Philip  and 
Mary,  under  the  name  of  the  Russia  Com- 
pany. The  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  still 
more  favourable  to  commercial  adventures 
of  every  kind.  Drake,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
and  Henry  de  Clifford,  Earl  of  Cumberland, 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  voyages 
and  discoveries ;  besides  which  several 
fresh  companies  were  formed  under  the 
auspices  of  this  queen.  The  Eastland 
Compajiy  was  incorporated  under  the  title 
of  the  Company  of  Merchants  to  the  East  3 
the  Turkey  or  Levant  Company  was  also 
incorporated  in  1581 ;  but  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  the  companies  which  had  hith- 
erto been  formed  was  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, which  was  first  established  by  char- 
ter in  1600.  In  the  reign  of  William  III. 
a  new  East  India  Company  was  formed, 
which  was  for  a  time  a  rival  to  the  old  one, 
but  in  1708  the  two  companies  were  con- 
solidated into  one  ;  since  which  they  have 
experienced  considerable  vicissitudes,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  numerous  wars  in 
whicli  th-ey  have  been  engaged  their  affairs 
were  at  one  time  so  reduced  that  they  were 
obliged  to  apply  to  the  government  for  as- 
sistance, in  consequence  of  which  they 
have  lost  much  of  their  independence,  and 
are  necessarily  subject  to  more  control 
than  they  were  formerly.  English  com- 
merce continued  to  increase  from  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  until  the  last  war,  when  Eng- 
land had  at  one  time  almost  the  whole 
trade  of  the  universe  in  its  hands,  with  the 
exception  of  what  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
Americans.  The  imports  of  England  have 
sometimes  exceeded  thirty  millions,  and 
the  exports  fifty  millions. 

COxMMISSARY  (in  IMilitary  Affairs). 
An  officer  appointed  to  inspect  musters, 
&c. ;  in  Ecclesiastical  Aflairs,  a  deputy, 
or  one  who  supplies  the  place  of  the  bish- 
op. 

COMMISSION  (in  Law).  The  warrant, 
or  letters  patent  by  which  one  is  authorized 
to  exercise  jurisdiction  ;  in  Military  Affairs, 
the  warrant  or  authority  by  which  one 
holds  any  post  in  the  army  ;  in  Commerce, 
the  order  by  which  any  one  trafficks  or  ne- 
gotiates for  another  ;  also  the  per  centage 
given  to  factors  and  agents  for  transacting 
the  business  of  others. 

COMMITTEE  (in  a  Legislature).  A 
certain  number  of  members  appointed  by 
the  house,  for  the  examination  of  any  mat- 
ter ;  in  general,  he  or  they  to  whom  any 
matter  is  referred  by  some  body  for  farthejj 
examination. 


104 


COM 


COMMODITY^.  Any  merchandise  or 
ware  which  a  person  deals  or  trades  in. 

COMMODORE.  An  officer  in  the 
British  or  American  navy,  invested  with 
the  command  of  a  detachment  of  ships  of 
war  destined  for  a  particular  purpose. 
The  Commodore  of  a  convoy  is  the  lead- 
ing ship  in  a  fleet  of  merchantmen. 

COMMON  (in  Law).  A  right  or  privi- 
lege claimed  by  more  persons  in  another 
man's  lauds,  waters,  woods,  &:c. 

COMxMON  COUNCIL.  A  court  in  the 
!ity  of  London,  composed  of  the  Lord 
Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  a  certain  number 
of  citizens  called  common  councilman. 

COMMONER.  One  who  is  not  noble  ; 
also  a  member  of  the  English  house  of 
commons. 

COMMON  HALL.  A  court  in  the  city 
of  London,  at  which  all  the  citizens,  or 
such  as  are  free  of  the  city,  have  a  right  to 
attend. 

COMMON  LAW.  The  law  of  the  realm 
grounded  on  general  customs  or  immemo- 
rial usage.  In  general  the  common  law 
of  England  is  common  in  this  country. 

COMxMON  PLACE  BOOK.  A  sort  of 
register,  or  orderly  collection  of  things 
worthy  to  be  noted  in  a  book. 

COMMON  PLEAS.  One  of  the  king's 
courts  at  Westminster  Hall,  where  pleas 
or  causes  are  heard  between  subject  and 
subject.  Similar  courts  exist  in  most  of 
the  United  States. 

COMMON  PRAYER.  The  liturgy,  or 
public  form  of  prayer  prescribed  by  the 
church  of  England  to  be  used  in  all  church- 
es and  chapels  at  stated  periods.  The 
book  of  common  prayer  used  by  episcopa- 
lians in  the  United  States  is  so  altered 
from  the  English  copy  as  to  adapt  it  to  the 
local  circumstances  of  the  church. 

COMxMONS  (in  England).  In  a  gene- 
ral sense,  the  whole  people,  as  distinguish- 
ed from  the  nobility  ;  in  a  particular  sense, 
the  knights  and  burgesses  who  represent 
the  Commons  in  parliament,  whence  the 
house  in  which  they  sit  is  called  the  House 
of  Commons. 

COMMONS  (in  Law).  See  Doctoks 
Commons. 

COxAIMONWEALTH.  That  form  of 
government  in  which  the  administration 
of  public  affairs  is  common  or  open  to  all 
with  few  or  no  exceptions.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  monarchy  or  aristocracy. 

COMMUNION.  A  name  given  to  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper. 

COMxMUNION  SERVICE.  The  office 
for  the  administration  of  the  holy  sacra- 
ment in  the  church  of  England. 

COMMUNION    TABLE.      The    table 


COM 

erected  at  the  east  end  of  the  church,  round 
which  the  communicants  kneel  to  partake 
of  the  Lord's  supper. 

COxMMUTATION  (in  Law).  The  sub- 
stitution of  one  punishment  for  another. 

COxMPANY  (in  Law).  A  society  of 
persons  forming  a  corporate  bodyj  in  Com- 
merce, a  trading  association,  in  which 
several  merchants  form  a  joint  stock,  with 
which  they  trade  for  the  common  interest 
of  the  stockholders,  such  as  the  East  India 
and  other  companies.     CSee  Commerce.) 

COMPANY  (in  Sea  Affairs).  The  whole 
crew  of  a  ship,  including  the  officers. 

COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.  The 
science  which  teaches  the  structure  of  the 
body  in  animals. 

COMPARATIVE  DEGREE  (in  Gram- 
mar).    The  second  degree,  as,  better. 

COMPASS,  or  the  Mariner's  Compass. 
An  instrument  used  by  mariners  to  point 
out  the  course  at  sea.  It  consists  of  a  card 
or  fly,  on  which  are  drawn  the  several 
points  of  the  compass ;  the  needle,  or  mag- 
netic needle,  a  small  bar  of  steel,  which 
has  the  property  of  turning  one  of  its  ends 
to  the  north  pole ;  and  the  box,  which  con- 
tains the  card  and  needle. 


COMPASSES,  or  Pair  of  Compasses. 
A  mathematical  instrument,  consisting  of 
two  sharp  pointed  branches  or  legs  of  iron, 
brass,  or  steel. 


COMPLEMENT  (in  Astronomy).  The 
distance  of  a  star  from  the  zenith. 

COMPLEMENT  (in  Military  Affairs), 
The  full  establishment  of  a  regiment. 


COM 

COMPLEMENT  OF  AN  ARC  (in  Ge- 
ometry). What  an  arc  wants  of  90'^  or 
the  quadrant  of  a  circle  ;  thus  the  comple- 
ment of  50°  is  40°,  and  the  complement  of 
40°  is  50°. 

COMPOSING.  That  branch  of  the  art 
of  printing  which  consists  in  arranging  the 
tj'pes  or  letters  in  such  an  order,  as  to  fit 
them  for  the  press.  This  the  compositor 
performs,  by  gathering  a  letter  at  a  time 
into  his  composing  stick,  which  when  full 
he  empties  into  a  frame  called  a  galley. 
Of  the  several  lines  arranged  in  order  in 
the  galley  he  makes  a  page,  and  of  several 
pages  he  makes  a  form. 


COJN 


105 


COMPOSING-STICK.  A  compositor's 
tool  made  of  iron  plate,  and  consisting  of 
the  head,  the  bottom,  the  back,  the  two 
slides,  and  the  two  screws.  While  the 
compositor  is  in  the  act  of  composing  he 
holds  the  composing-stick  in  his  left  hand, 
placing  the  second  joint  of  his  thumb  over 
the  slides  of  the  stick,  so  as  to  keep  the 
letter  tight  and  square  together,  as  he  pla- 
ces them  in  the  stick.  When  the  compo- 
sing stick  is  full,  he  proceeds  to  empty  it 
into  the  galley. 


COMPOSIT^E.  One  of  Linnssus'  natu- 
ral orders,  comprehending  the  plants  with 
compound  flowers,  as  the  dandelion,  sun- 
flower, &c. 

COMPOSITION  (in  Music).  A  piece 
of  music  composed  according  to  the  rules 
of  art. 

COMPOSITION  (in  Painting).  The 
putting  together  the  several  parts  of  a 
picture,  so  as  to  set  off  the  whole  to  the 
best  advantage. 

COMPOSITION  (in  Commerce).  An 
©greement  entered  into  between  an  insol- 


vent debtor  and  his  creditor,  by  which  the 
latter  accepts  a  part  of  the  debt,  in  concb- 
pensation  for  the  whole. 

COMPOSITE  NUMBERS.  Such  nun>- 
bers  as  some  other  numbers  besides  units 
will  measure,  as  12,  which  is  measured  by 
2,  3,  4,  and  6. 

COMPOSITE  ORDER  (in  Architec- 
ture) One  of  the  five  orders  of  architec- 
ture, so  called  because  it  is  composed  of 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders. 


COMPOSITOR  (among  Printers).  He 
who  composes  the  matter  for  the  press. 

COMPOST,  pronounced  COMPO  (in 
Husbandry).  Several  sorts  of  soils  or 
earths  and  other  matters  mixed  together, 
in  order  to  make  a  particularly  fine  kind 
of  mould. 

COMPOUND.  A  term  in  botany  appli. 
ed  to  a  flower  consisting  of  several  distinct 
lesser  flowers. 

COJ^POUND  INTEREST.  Is  that  in- 
terest which  arises  from  principal  and  in- 
terest put  together. 

COMPOUNDING  FELONY,  or  Theft 
Bote  (in  Law).  Where  the  party  robbed 
takes  his  goods  again  of  the  thief,  upon  an 
agreement  not  to  prosecute. 

COMPOUNDING  WITH  ONE'S 
CREDITORS.  Where  the  debtor,  not  be- 
ing able  to  pay  all  his  debts,  agrees  with 
his  creditors  to  pay  a  part. 

CONCAVE  LENS.  An  epithet  for 
glasses  ground  hollow  on  the  inside,  so  as 
to  reflect  on  the  hollow  side. 


106 


CON 


CONCENTRATION  (in  Chymistry). 
The  act  of  increasing  the  strength  of  fluids 
by  volatilizing  part  of  their  water. 

CONCENTIIIC.  An  epithet  for  figures 
having  one  common  centre. 

CONCERT.  A  musical  performance  in 
which  any  number  of  practical  musicians 
unite  in  the  exercise  of  their  talent. 

CONCERTO.  A  piece  of  music  consist- 
ing of  several  parts  that  are  all  to  be  per- 
formed together. 

CONCHOLOGY.  That  branch  of  natu- 
ral history  which  treats  of  testaceous  ani- 
mals, or  such  animals  as  have  a  perma- 
nently testaceous  covering,  which  are  com- 
prehended under  the  testacea  in  the  Lin- 
nsan  system. 

CONCLAVE.  The  room  in  the  Vatican 
at  Rome  where  the  cardinals  assemble  to 
ehoose  a  pope  ;  also  the  assembly  itself. 

CONCORD  (in  Grammar).  That  part 
of  syntax  which  treats  of  the  agreement  of 
words  according  to  their  several  inflec- 
tions. 

CONCORD  (in  Law).    An  agreement 

between  parties  who  intend  to  levy  a  fine. 

CONCORD  (in  Music).     The  union  of 

two  or  more  sounds  in  such  manner  as  to 

render  them  agreeable. 

CONCORDANCE.  A  sort  of  dictionary 
of  the  Bible,  in  which  every  word  is  given 
with  references  to  the  book,  chapter,  and 
verse  in  which  it  is  to  be  found. 

CONCORDAT.  A  treaty  or  public  act 
of  agreement,  between  the  pope  and  any 
prince. 

CONCRETION.  The  growing  together 
of  several  substances  or  parts  of  substances 
into  one  body. 

CONCRETION  (in  Surgery).  Morbid 
concretions  are  substances  formed  in  the 
animal  body,  as  the  calculus  or  stone,  &c. 
CONDENSER.  A  pneumatic  engine  or 
syringe,  whereby  an  uncommon  quantity 
of  air  may  be  crowded  into  a  given  space. 
CONDITION  (in  Common  Law).  A 
restraint  annexed  to  a  thing,  so  that  by  the 
nonperformance,  the  party  to  it  shall  sus- 
tain loss,  and  by  the  performance  receive 
advantage. 

CONDITION  (in  Civil  Law).  A  clause 
of  obligation  stipulated,  as  an  article  of  a 
treaty  or  contract. 

CONDUCTOR.  A  name  given  to  those 
substances  which  are  capable  of  receiving 
and  transmitting  electricity. 

CONDUCTOR  OF  LIGHTNING.  A 
pointed  metallic  rod,  contrived  by  Dr. 
Franklin,  to  be  fixed  to  buildings,  to  secure 
them  from  the  effects  of  lightning. 

CONDUIT.  A  pipe  for  the  conveyance 
of  water  to  any  particular  part. 


CON 

CONDOR.  A  large  kind  of  South  Amer- 
ican vulture,  measuring  with  the  wings  ex- 
tended, from  tip  to  tip,  twelve  or  sixteen 
feet.  It  preys  on  birds,  lambs,  and  kids. 
It  is  the  largest  bird  of  flight. 


CONE  (in  Geometry).  A  solid  figure, 
having  a  circle  for  its  base,  and  its  top 
terminating  in  a  point  or  vertex.  It  is 
produced  by  the  revolution  of  a  right 
angled  triangle  about  its  perpendicular  leg, 
called  the  axis  of  the  cone. 


CONE  (in  Botany).  The  fruit  of  several 
evergreen  trees,  as  of  the  fir,  cedar,  cypress, 
so  called  from  its  conical  shape.  It  is  com- 
posed of  woody  scales,  that  are  usually 
open,  each  of  which  has  a  seed  at  the  end. 


CONE  (in  Conchology).  A  beautiful 
sort  of  shell,  inhabited  by  the  limax.  Shells 
of  this  sort  mostly  bear  the  highest  price  of 


CON 

any,  one  species  being  valued  as  high  as 
five  hundred  dollars. 


CON 


107 


CONFESSION  (in  Theology).  A  public 
declaration  of  one's  faith,  or  the  faith  of  a 
public  body;  also  a  part  of  the  Liturgy,  in 
which  an  acknowledgment  of  guilt  is  made 
by  the  whole  congregation.  Auricular 
confession,  a  private  confession  or  acknow- 
ledgment of  one's  sins,  made  by  each 
individual  in  the  Romish  church  to  his 
priest  or  father  confessor.  It  is  so  called 
because  it  is  made  by  whispering  in  his 
ear. 

CONFESSIONAL.  The  place  in  a  Ca- 
tholic church  or  chapel,  where  confession 
is  made  to  the  priest,  usually  through  a 
small  latticed  aperture. 

CONFIRMATION.  A  ceremony  in  the 
English  church,  by  which  baptized  per- 
sons are  confirmed  in  their  baptismal  vows 
by  the  laying  on  of  hands.  What  is  pre- 
pared for  in  catechising,  is  performed  by 
confirmation.  This  ceremony  is  performed 
by  the  bishop. 

CONFLUENCE.  The  meeting  of  two 
rivers,  or  the  place  where  they  meet. 

CONGELATION.  A  condensation  of 
any  fluid  by  means  of  cold. 

CONGER,  or  CONGER  EEL.  An  eel 
of  an  extraordinary  size,  and  extremely 
voracious,  which  preys  on  carcasses,  and 
other  fish. 

CONGREGATION  (in  Ecclesiastical 
AlFairs).  An  assembly  of  persons  who  meet 
together  for  purposes  of  divine  worship ; 
(in  Physics)  a  term  for  the  least  degree  of 
mixture,  in  which  the  parts  of  the  mixed 
body  do  not  touch  each  other  in  more 
than  one  point. 

CONGRESS.  An  assembly  of  envoys, 
commissioners, deputies,  &c.  from  different 
courts,  who  meet  to  agree  on  matters  of 
general  interest ;  also  an  assembly  of  the 
deputies  from  the  different  states  in  the 
republics  of  America.  The  Congress  of 
the  United  States  consists  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives.  Each  state 
sends  two  senators,  and  one  representative 
for  every  40,000  inhabitants.     In  the  slave 


states  five  slaves  are  reckoned  as  three 
freemen.  Senators  are  chosen  for  six 
years,  representatives  for  two. 

CONGREVE  ROCKET.  An  invention 
so  called  from  the  inventor.  Sir  William 
Congreve,  by  which  balls  and  other  com- 
bustibles are  discharged  to  an  immense 
distance. 


CONIC  SECTIONS.  Curve  lines  and 
plane  figures  produced  by  the  intersection 
of  a  plane  with  a  cone.  These  sections 
are  derived  from  the  different  directions 
in  which  the  solid  cone  is  cut  by  a  plane 
passing  through  it ;  they  are  the  triangle, 
circle,  ellipse,  parabola,  and  hyperbola. 

The  doctrine  of  Conic  Sections,  which 
is  one  of  the  abstrusest  branches  of  geome- 
try, was  particularly  cultivated  by  the  an- 
cients. Aristeus  is  said  to  have  composed 
five  books  relating  to  this  subject,  but  they 
have  not  been  handed  down  to  us.  The 
most  ancient  treatise  extant  is  that  of 
Apollonius,  in  eight  books,  the  first  four  of 
which  is  said  to  have  been  written  by 
Euclid,  and  afterwards  perfected  by  Apol- 
lonius, with  the  addition  of  four  other 
books.  Among  the  moderns  the  principal 
treatises  are  those  of  Mydorgius,  De  la 
Hire,  De  I'Hopital,  Emerson,  Hutton, 
Vince,  and  Robertson. 

CONIFERS.  One  of  Linna3us's  natural 
orders,  containing  the  cone  bearing  trees. 

CONJUGAL  RIGHTS,  RESTITU- 
TION OF.  In  England,  a  species  of  mat- 
rimonial suit,  which  may  be  brought  either 
by  the  husband  or  the  wife,  against  the 
party  who  is  guilty  of  the  injury  of  subtrac- 
tion or  living  in  a  state  of  separation. 

CONJUGATE.  An  epithet  to  denote  the 
junction  of  two  lines,  as  a  conjugate  axis, 
that  which  crosses  another  axis. 

CONJUGATING  (in  Grammar),  The 
act  of  going  through  the  inflections  of  a 


108 


CON 


verb  according  to  its  several  moods,  tenses, 
and  persons. 

CONJUGATION  (in  Grammar).  The 
moods,  tenses,  and  persons  of  a  verb 
coupled  together  in  regular  order. 

CONJUNCTION.  A  term  in  Astronomy 
for  the  meeting  of  two  planets  in  the  same 
degree  of  the  zodiac,  which  is  marked 
thus  (6), 

CONJUNCTION  (in  Grammar).  A 
part  of  speech  which  joins  words  and  sen- 
tences. 

CONNOISSEUR.  A  person  well  versed 
in  any  art  or  science. 

CONOID  (in  Geometry).  A  figure  re- 
Bembling  a  cone. 

CONQ,UEROR.  In  a  general  sense,  one 
who  has  gained  a  battle  or  any  thing  by 
means  of  fighting ;  particularly  applied  to 
William  I.  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
England  after  having  gained  the  battle  of 
Hastings. 

CONSANGUINITY.  Kindred  by  blood 
and  birth  between  persons  descended  from 
the  same  common  slock. 

CONSCRIPT  FATHERS.  An  appel- 
lation for  the  Roman  senators,  so  called 
because  they  were  enrolled  from  the  eques- 
trian order  into  the  list  of  senators. 

CONSCRIPTS.  Recruits  in  the  French 
army. 

CONSEaUENCE.  That  which  follows 
from  any  principle  by  way  of  inference ; 
among  logicians,  the  last  part  or  propo- 
sition of  an  argument,  in  distinction  from 
the  antecedents,  being  something  gathered 
from  a  preceding  argument. 

CONSEQUENT  (in  Geometry).  The 
latter  of  two  terms  of  proportion,  in  dis- 
tinction from  tiie  former,  or  antecedent. 

CONSIGNMExN^T.  The  sending  or  de- 
livering over  of  goods  to  another  person. 

CONSISTORY,  or  CONSISTORY 
COURT.  In  England,  the  session  or  as- 
sembly of  ecclesiastical  persons  held  by  the 
bishop  or  his  chancellor. 

CONSONANCE  (in  Music).  An  agree- 
ment of  two  sounds. 

CONSONANT  (in  Grammar).  A  letter 
which  cannot  be  sounded  by  itself  without 
the  help  of  a  vowel  ;  in  Music,  an  epithet 
for  that  interval  which  produces  consonant 
concords. 

CONSTABLE.  A  civil  officer,  anciently 
of  great  dignity,  as  the  lord  hi(rh  constable 
of  England,  and  also  the  constables  or  keep- 
ers of  castles,  &c.;  now  an  inferior  officer 
of  justice. 

CONSTELLATION.  An  assemblage  of 
fixed  stars,  imagined  to  represent  the  form 
of  some  creature  or  other  object,  as  a  bear. 


CON 

a  ship,  and  the  like ;  whence  they  have 
derived  those  appellations  which  are  con- 
venient in  describing  the  stars.  The  divi- 
sion of  tlie  heavens  into  constellations  is 
very  ancient,  probably  coeval  with  astro- 
nomy itself.  Frequent  mention  is  made 
of  them  by  name  in  the  sacred  writings, 
as  in  the  book  of  Job,  and  in  the  prophecy 
of  Amos.  Some  of  the  constellations  are 
also  mentioned  by  Homer  and  Hesiod, 
who  flourished  above  900  years  before 
Christ ;  and  Aratus,  who  lived  about  277 
years  before  Christ,  professedly  treats  of 
all  such  as  were  marked  out  by  the  ancients, 
and  were  afterwards  admitted  into  the 
Almagest  of  Ptolemy.  These  were  forty- 
eight  in  number,  called  the  Old  Constella- 
tions, to  which  have  since  been  added 
others,  called  New  Constellations. 

CONSTITUENT  (in  Law).  In  England, 
one  who  by  his  vote,  constitutes  or  elects 
a  member  of  parliament.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  voters  in  the  United  States. 

CONSTITUENTS  (in  Physics).  The 
elementary  parts  of  any  substance. 

CONSTITUTION  (in  Law).  Properly, 
any  form  of  government  regularly  consti- 
tutedj  in  a  particular  sense,  the  mixed  and 
popular  form  of  government  in  England, 
consisting  of  king,  lords,  and  commons,  or 
the  free  constitution  of  the  United  States. 
CONSTITUTION  (in  Civil  Law).  A 
law  made  by  some  king  or  emperor ;  and 
in  the  canon  law,  the  same  as  an  ecclesi- 
astical law  or  canon. 

CONSTITUTION  (in  Medicine).  The 
temperament  of  the  whole  body,  arising 
from  the  q\iality  and  proportion  of  the  parts. 
CONSUL.  A  chief  magistrate  among 
the  Romans,  of  which  there  were  two  that 
were  elected  every  year. 

CONSUL.  An  officer  commissioned  by 
government,  to  reside  in  foreign  coun- 
tries of  any  considerable  trade,  to  facilitate 
and  despatch  business  and  protect  the 
merchants  of  the  nation. 

CONSUMPTION.  The  wasting  and  de- 
cay of  the  body  by  disease. 

CONTEMPT  (in  Law).  A  disobedience 
to  the  rules,  orders,  or  process  of  a  court. 
CONTINENT.     The  main  land,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  sea. 

CONTORTiE.  One  of  Linnteus'  natural 
orders,    including    plants    with    a  single 
twisted  petal. 
CONTOUR.     The  outline  of  a  figure. 
CONTRABAND  GOODS.     Goods  pro- 
hibited by  law  t()  be  exported  or  imported. 
CONTRACT.  A  covenant  or  agreement 
between  two  or  more  persons,  with  a  law- 
ful consideration  or  cause. 


CON 

CONTRACTION.  In  general,  the  di- 
minishing the  extent  or  dimensions  of  a 
body, 

CONTRACTION  (in  Smgeiy).  The 
shrinking  up  of  the  muscles  or  arteries. 

CONTRx-lCTION  (in  Grammar).  The 
reducing  two  syllables  into  one. 

CONTRACTION  (in  Arithmetic).  The 
shortening  of  operations, 

CONTRAST  (iti  Painting).  The  due 
placing  the  different  parts  and  objects  of  a 
figure,  that  they  may  be  suitably  opposed 
to  each  other, 

CONTRA VALLATION,  Line  of.  A 
line  or  trench,  cut  round  a  place  by  the  be- 
siegers, to  defend  themselves  against  the 
sallies  of  the  garrison. 

CONTRAVENTION  (in  Law).  The  in- 
fringement of  a  contract. 

CONTROLLER  (in  Law).  An  overseer 
or  officer  appointed  to  control  or  oversee 
the  accounts  of  other  officers. 

CONTUMACY  (in  Law).  A  refusal  to 
appear  in  court  when  legally  summoned. 

CONVALESCENCE.  That  period  be- 
twixt the  departure  of  a  disease,  and  the 
recovery  of  one's  health. 

CONVENTICLE.  A  term  applied  first 
to  the  little  private  meetings  of  the  follow- 
ers of  John  Wickliflfe,  and  afterwards  to 
the  religious  meetings  of  the  Nonconform- 
ists, 

CONVENTION  (in  Law).  Any  assem- 
bly of  the  states  of  the  realm  or  their  depu- 
ties ;  in  military  affairs,  an  agreement 
entered  into  between  two  bodies  of  troops, 
opposed  to  each  other. 

CONVERGING  LINES.  Lines  which 
continually  approximate. 

CONVERGING  RAYS  (in  Optics). 
Those  rays  that  issue  from  divers  points  of 
an  object,  and  incline  towards  one  another 
until  they  meet. 

CONVEX,  Curved,  or  protuberant  out- 
wards ;  as  a  convex  lens,  mirror,  &c. 

CONVEYANCE  (in  Law).  A  deed  or 
instrument  by  which  lands,  &c,  are  con- 
veyed or  made  over  to  another, 

CONVEYANCER,  One  who  follows 
the  business  of  conveyancing,  or  drawing 
up  conveyances, 

CONVOCATION.  In  England,  an  as- 
eembly  of  the  clergy,  consisting  of  an  up- 
per and  lower  house,  which  meet  when  the 
parliament  meets,  to  consult  on  the  affairs 
of  the  church. 

CONVOLVULUS,  or  Bindweed.  A 
plant  so  called,  because  it  creeps  up  and 
twists  itself  round  whatever  is  near  it. 
Some  few  sorts  are  cultivated  in  gardens, 
and  bear  a  beautiful  blue  flower. 

CONVOY.  A  sea  term,  for  ships  of  war 
10 


COP 


109 


which  accompany  merchantmen  in  time 
of  war,  to  protect  them  from  the  attacks 
of  the  enemy  ;  in  military  affairs,  a  detach- 
ment of  troops  employed  to  guard  any  sup- 
ply of  money,  ammunition,  <Scc. 

COOK.  One  who  practises  the  art  of 
cookery.  The  company  of  cooks  in  Eng- 
land was  incorporated  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. 

COOLER.  A  vessel  used  by  brewers, 
for  cooling  the  beer  after  it  is  drawn  off. 

COOMB.  A  measure  of  corn,  containing 
four  bushels. 

COOP.  A  place  where  fowls  are  kept 
confined  ;  also  a  vessel  made  of  twigs,  in 
which  fish  are  caught,  and  a  barrel  or  ves- 
sel for  keeping  liquids. 

COOPER.  A  maker  of  tubs,  coops,  or 
barrels.  The  company  of  coopers  in  Eng- 
land was  incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry VII. 

COOPERY.  The  art  of  making  tubs  or 
barrels  with  boards  bound  by  hoops. 

COOT.  A  water  fowl,  mostly  of  a  black 
colour,called  also  aMooR  Hen.  These  birds 
frequent  lakes  and  still  rivers,  where  they 
make  their  nests  among  the  rushes,  &c. 
floating  on  the  water,  so  as  to  rise  and  fall 
with  it. 


COPAL.  An  American  name  for  all 
odoriferous  gums,  but  particularly  applied 
to  a  resinous  substance  imported  from 
Guinea.  It  is  hard,  shining,  transparent, 
and  citron  coloured. 

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM.  A  particu- 
lar system  of  the  sphere,  first  proposed  by 
Pythagoras,  and  afterwards  revived  by 
Copernicus,  a  Polish  astronomer.  Accord- 
ing to  this  system  the  sun  is  supposed  to 
be  placed  in  the  centre,  and  all  the  other 
bodies  to  revolve  round  it  in  a  particular 
order ;  which  notion  is  now  universally 
adopted,  under  the  name  of  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem, 

COPING.  The  stone  covering  on  the 
top  of  a  wall. 

COPPER.     A    metal    next  to  iron  m 


110 


COP 


specific  gravity,  but  lighter  than  gold, 
silver,  or  lead.  It  is  one  of  the  six  primi- 
tive metals. 

COPPERAS.  A  name  given  to  blue, 
green,  and  white  vitriol:  it  is  a  factitious 
sulpJiate  of  iron. 

COPPERPLATE.  A  plate  on  which 
figures  are  engraven  ;  also  the  impression 
which  is  taken  off  the  plate  on  paper,  by 
means  of  printing. 

COPPERPLATE  PRINTING.  The 
process  of  taking  engravings  from  copper- 
plates, by  means  of  a  rolling  press,  as  in 
the  subjoined  cut. 


COPPERSMITH.  An  artisan  who 
works  copper  into  different  utensils. 

COPPICE,  or  Copse.  A  small  wood, 
consisting  of  underwood. 

COPULA  (among  Logicians).  The 
verb  that  connects  any  two  terms  in  an 
affirmative  or  negative  proposition,  as,  God 
made  the  world  ;  made  is  the  copula, 

COPULATIVE  (in  Grammar).  An 
epithet  for  such  conjunctions  as  join  the 
sense  as  well  as  tne  words  3  as  and,  or, 
&c. 

COPY  (in  Law).  The  transcript  of  an 
original  writing. 

COPY  (among  Printers).  The  original 
MS.  or  the  book  from  which  the  composi- 
tor sets  his  page. 

COPYHOLD  (in  Law).  In  England,  a 
sort  of  tenure  by  which  the  tenant  holds 
his  land  by  copy  of  court  roll  of  the  manor 
at  the  will  of  the  Iprd. 

COPYRIGHT  (m  Law).  The  exclusive 
right  of  printing  and  publishing  copies  of 
any  literary  performance,  which  is  now 
confirmed  by  statute,  to  authors  or  their 
publishers,  for  a  certain  number  of  years, 
that  is  to  say,  in  England  for  twenty -eiglit 
3rears  in  all  cases,  whether  the  author  sur- 
vive that  period  or  not ;  and  to  the  end  of 
the  author's  life  if  he  live  beyond  that  pe- 
riod ;  besides,  as  an  action  lies  to  recover 
damages  for  pirating  tbe  new  corrections 
and  additions  to  an  old  work,  publishers 


COR 

may  acquire  almost  a  perpetual  interest  in 
a  work  by  republishing  it  with  additions 
and  annotations.  In  the  United  States, 
the  copyright  law  gives  to  the  author,  the 
exclusive  right  to  his  productions  for  four 
years,  with  the  privilege  of  renewing  it  for 
the  same  period,  if  he  is  living  within  the 
last  six  months  of  the  term. 

CORAL.  A  hard,  brittle,  calcareous 
substance,  which  was  formerly  supposed 
to  be  of  a  vegetable  nature,  but  is  now 
found  to  be  composed  of  a  congeries  of 
animals,  endued  with  the  faculty  of 
moving  spontaneously.  They  are  distin- 
guished by  the  form  of  their  branches, 
and  are  found  in  the  ocean,  adhering  to 
stones,  bones,  shells,  &c.  The  islands  in 
the  South  Sea  are  mostly  coral  rocks 
covered  with  earth.  The  coral  fishery  is 
particularly  followed  in  the  Mediterranean, 
on  the  coast  of  France  and  Algiers,  where 
the  red  coral  most  abounds. 

CORBEL.  A  shoulder  piece  jutting  out 
in  walls  to  bear  up  a  post. 

CORCLE,  or  CORCULUM  (in  Botany). 
The  essence  of  the  seed,  or  the  rudiment 
of  the  future  plant. 

CORD  OF  WOOD.  A  parcel  of  fire- 
wood, four  feet  broad,  four  feet  high,  and 
eight  feet  long. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER  (in  Architec- 
ture). The  noblest  and  richest  of  the  five 


orders,  so  called  because  columns  were 
first  made  of  that  proportion  at  Corinth. 
Its  capital  ia  adorned  with  two  rows  of 


COR 

leaves,  between  which  arise  little  stalks  or 
caulicoles,  forming  sixteen  volutes. 

CORDELIERS.  In  Catholic  countries, 
an  order  of  monks,  so  called  because  thej^ 
wear  a  cord  full  of  knots  about  their  mid- 
dle. 

CORDOVAN.  A  sort  of  leather  made 
of  goat  skin  at  Cordova  in  Spain. 

CORK  TREE.  A  glandiferous  tree  of 
the  oak  kind,  having  a  thick,  spongy,  and 
soft  bark,  known  by  the  name  of  cork.  It 
grows  abundantly  in  Italy,  Spain  and  other 
parts  in  the  South  of  Europe. 

CORMORANT,  or  CORVORANT.  An 
exceedingly  voracious  bird  of  the  pelican 
tribe.  It  builds  on  the  highest  cliffs  hang- 
ing over  the  sea. 


COR 


111 


CORN.  A  general  term  in  England  for 
wheat.  Sometimes,  for  all  grain  of  which 
bread  is  made.  In  the  United  States,  it 
is  a  common  term  for  Indian  corn.  See 
Maize. 

CORNEA.  One  of  the  coats  of  the  eye, 
which  is  transparent  in  the  fore  part,  to 
admit  the  rays  of  light. 

CORNELIAN.  A  precious  stone,  of  a 
flesh  colour,  of  which  rings  are  made. 

CORNET  (in  Military  Affairs).  An  in- 
strument very  similar  to  a  trumpet,  which 
is  used  in  the  array  ;  also  a  commissioned 
officer  in  a  troop  of  horse  or  dragoons. 

CORNFLAG.  A  plant  having  a  double 
tuberose  root,  with  leaves  like  the  fleur 
de  lis,  and  a  flower  consisting  of  one  petal, 
shaped  like  the  lily. 

CORNFLOWER.  A  plant  that  grows 
wild  among  the  corn. 

CORNICE.  Any  moulded  projection 
that  crowns  or  finishes  the  part  to  which 
it  is  affixed,  as  the  cornice  of  a  room,  a 
door,  &c. 

CORNISH  CHOUGH.  In  England,  a 
sort  of  crow,  of  a  fine  blue  or  purple  black 
colour,  with  red  beak  and  legs.    It  was 


reckoned  the  finest  bird  of  its  kind,  and 
therefore  borne  in  coats  of  arms. 

CORNUCOPIA,  or  The  Horn  op 
Plenty.  Fabled  to  be  the  horn  which 
Hercules  broke  off  from  Achelous'  head. 
It  was  filled  by  the  nymphs  with  all  manner 
of  flowers  and  fruits,  and  made  the  emblem 
of  abundance. 

COROLLA.  The  leafy  parts  of  a  flower 
which  is  marked  with  divers  colours.  Each 
leaf  or  division  of  the  corolla  is  called  a 
petal. 

COROLLARY.  A  consequence  drawn 
from  some  proposition  already  proved  or 
demonstrated. 

CORONARI^.  One  of  Linnffius' natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  containing  those  of  the 
libaceous  tribe,  which  are  most  fitted  for 
making  garlands. 

CORONATION.  The  act  or  solemnity 
of  crowning  a  king;  also  the  ceremony  of 
investing  the  pope  with  his  sacerdotal  en- 
signs and  dignity. 

CORONER.  An  officer  whose  particular 
duty  it  is  to  make  inquisition  into  the  un- 
timely death  of  any  person. 

CORONET  (in  Heraldry).  A  small 
crown  worn  by  the  nobility, 

CORONET,  or  CORNET  (in  Farriery). 
The  upper  part  of  a  horse's  hoof. 

CORPORAL  (in  Law).  An  epithet  for 
any  thing  that  belongs  to  the  body,  as  cor- 
poral punishment,  in  distinction  from  a 
fine;  a  corporal  oath,  so  called  because 
the  party  taking  it,  is  obliged  to  lay  his 
hand  on  the  Bible. 

CORPORAL  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
rank  and  file  man,  v»'ith  superior  pay  to  a 
common  soldier,  and  with  nominal  rank 
under  a  serjeant. 

CORPORATION.  A  body  politic  or 
incorporate,  so  called  because  the  persons 
composing  it,  are  made  into  one  body. 

CORPOSANTO,  or  CORPOSANT. 
Small  luminous  balls  supposed  to  be  elec- 
trical which  play  about  the  rigging  of 
ships  in  stormy  weather  and  are  regarded 
with  superstitious  awe,  by  sailors. 

CORPS.  A  French  term  for  any  body 
offerees  foi-ming  the  division  of  a  grand 
army. 

CORRECTION  (in  Printing).  The  cor- 
recting of  proof  sheets  as  they  come  from 
the  compositor's  hands,  in  order  to  free 
them  from  all  faults. 

CORRECTIVES.  Medicines  which 
serve  to  correct  the  qualities  of  other  medi- 
cines. 

CORRECTOR.  The  person  appointed 
in  a  printing  office  to  correct  the  proofs  as 
they  come  rough  from  the  compositor's 
hands. 


112 


COS 


CORRIDOR  (in  Fortification).  A  covert 
way  round  a  fortress ;  in  Architecture,  a 
long  galler}^  leading  to  several  chambers. 

CORROSIVES.  Saline  menstruums, 
which  have  the  propertj'  of  dissolving  bo- 
dies, as  burnt  alum,  white  vitriol. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE  OF 
MERCURY.  An  oxymuriate  of  mercury, 
and  an  extremely  acrid  and  poisonous 
preparation. 

CORRUPTION  OF  BLOOD.  An  in- 
fection growing  to  the  blood,  estate,  and 
issue  of  a  man  attainted  of  treason. 

CORSAIR.  A  pirate  or  sea  robber,  par- 
ticularly on  the  coast  of  Barbary. 

CORSLET.  An  ancient  piece  of  armour 
with  which  the  body  was  protected. 

CORTES.  The  states  or  the  assembly  of 
the  states  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

CORTEX.  The  outer  bark  of  a  plant, 

CORUNDUM.  A  mineral  of  the  sap- 
phire kind,  which  is  found  in  the  East 
Indies,  especially  in  Pegu  and  the  island 
of  Ceylon. 

CORUSCATION.  A  gleam  of  light  issu- 
ing from  anything,  particularly  that  which 
is  produced  by  the  electrical  fluid. 

CORVUS  (in  Astronomy).  A  constella- 
tion in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

CORYDALES.  One  of  Linnajus'  natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  containing  those  which 
have  helmet-shaped  flowers. 

CORYMB  (in  Botany).  A  mode  of 
flowering,  in  which  the  lesser  flower  stalks 
are  produced  along  the  common  stalk  on 
both  sides,  rising  to  the  same  height. 


CO-SECANT  (in  Geometry).  The  secant 
of  an  arc,  which  is  the  complement  of 
another  arc  to  ninety  degrees. 

COSMETICS.  Preparations  which 
whiten  and  soften  the  skin. 

COSMOGRAPHY.  The  science  of  de- 
scribing the  several  parts  of  the  visible 
world. 

COSMOPOLITE.  A  citizen  of  the 
world. 

COSSACKS.  Irregular  troops  attached 
to  the  Russian  army ;  a  predatory  tribe 
which  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Nieper  and 
Don. 

COSTS  OF  SUIT.  The  expenses  attend- 
ing a  law  suit,  which  are  in  part  recover- 
able from  the  party  who  loses  the  cause. 


GOV 

COTTON.  A  sort  of  wool  or  flax,  which 
encompasses  the  seed  of  atree  that  is  much 
cultivated  in  Central  Africa,  in  the  Indies 
and  particularly  in  America.  It  only  flour- 
ishes in  warm  climates.  The  cloth 
which  is  manufactured  from  this  wool, 
when  spun,  is  also  called  cotton. 


COTTONGRASS.  A  perennial  of  the 
grass  tribe,  so  called,  because  its  seeds  have 
a  downy  substance  attached  to  them  which 
resembles  cotton,  and  has  been  used  in  Us 
stead. 

COTTONTHISTLE.  An  herbaceous 
plant,  with  a  biennial  root,  which  is  so 
called  because  it  has  downy  leaves. 

COTYLEDONS  (in  Botany).  The  lobes 
of  the  seed,  of  which  there  are  mostly  two. 
They  are  destined  to  nourish  the  heart  of 
the  seed. 

COUANDO.  A  species  of  small  South 
American  porcupine. 

COUCH.  A  seat,  or  small  moveable  bed 
to  lie  on. 

COUCH  (in  Husbandry).  A  layer  or 
heap  of  malt  or  barley. 

COUCH  (in  Painting).  The  ground  or 
basis  on  which  the  colour  lies. 

COUCHGRASS.  A  noxious  weed, 
which  spreads  very  fast  in  arable  land,  and 
chokes  every  thing  else  that  is  sown. 

COUCHING  (in  Surgery).  The  remov- 
ing the  opaque  lens  out  of  the  axis  of  vis- 
ion, so  as  to  restore  the  sight. 

COVENANT  (in  La\y).  An  agreement 
or  consent  of  two  or  more,  by  deed  or 
writing. 

COVERT.  A  thicket  or  shady  place  for 
deer  or  other  animals. 

COVERT-WAY  (in  Fortification).  A 
space  of  ground  level  with  the  field  on  the 
edge  of  the  ditch,  ranging  quite  round  the 
works. 

COVERTURE  (in  Law).  The  state  of 
a  married  woman  who  is  under  the  power 
and  protection  of  her  husband,  whence 
she  is  called  a  feme  coverte. 


cou 

COUGAR.  The  largest  animal  of  Amer- 
ica of  the  cat  kind,  and  sometimes  called 
the  American  Lion.  In  South  America  it 
is  called  Puma,  in  North  America,  Pan- 
ther. It  is  of  an  ash  colour,  and  so  power- 
ful, that  it  will  bear  the  body  of  a  man  up 
a  tree. 

COVING  (in  Architecture).  The  pro- 
jection in  houses  beyond  the  ground  plot. 
COUNCIL  (in  Law).  An  assembly  of 
the  different  members  of  any  government 
who  meet  to  consult  about  affairs.  In 
England  that  is  called  the  Privy  Council 
wherein  the  king  himself  and  his  privy 
counsellors  meet,  in  the  king's  court  or 
palace,  to  deliberate  on  affairs  of  state. 
When  the  council  is  composed  only  of 
cabinet  ministers,  or  the  king's  most  con- 
fidential servants,  it  is  called  a  Cabinet 
Council. 

COUNCIL  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs). 
The  same  as  the  synod. 

COUNCIL  OF  WAR  (in  Military 
Affairs).  An  assembly  ofthex;hief ofiicers 
in  the  army  or  navy,  called  by  the  general 
or  admiral  in  particular  emergencies,  to 
concert  measures  for  their  conduct. 

COUNTERFEIT.  A  fraudulent  imita- 
tion of  any  thing,  made  so  as  to  pass  for 
genuine,  as  counterfeit  coin. 

COUNTERMINE.  A  mine  made  by 
the  besieged,  in  order  to  blow  up  the  mine 
of  the  besiegers. 

COUNTERSCARP  (in  Fortification). 
That  side  of  the  ditch  which  is  next  the 
camp,  and  faces  the  body  of  the  place. 

COUNTER-TENOR  (in  Music).  One 
of  the  middle  parts,  so  called  because  it  is, 
as  it  were  opposed  to  the  tenor. 

COUNTINGHOUSE.      An    office     in 
which  a  merchant  transacts  his  business. 
COUNTRY    DANCE    (in    JIusic).     A 
lively  pointed  air  calculated  for  dancing. 

COUNTY".  One  of  the  ancient  divi- 
sions of  England,  which  by  the  Saxons 
were  called  shires  ;  England  is  divided  in- 
to forty  counties  or  shires,  Wales  into 
twelve,  Scotland  into  thirty.  Eacli  of  the 
United  States  is  also  divided  into  coun- 
ties. 

COUP  DE  MAIN.  A  sudden  unpre- 
meditated attack. 

COUP  D'CEIL.  The  first  glance  of  the 
eye,  with  which  it  surveys  any  object  at 
large. 

COUP  DE  SOLEIL.  Any  disorder 
suddenly  produced  by  the  violent  scorch- 
ing of  the  sun. 

COUPLE.  A  band  with  which  dogs  are 
tied  together. 

COUPLE-CLOSE    (in   Heraldry).    An 
ordinary,  so  termed  from  its  enclosing  the 
10  * 


CRA 


113 


chevron  by  couples,  being  always  borne  in 
pairs,  one  on  each  side  a  chevron. 

COUPLES  (in  Building).  Rafters  fra- 
med together  in  pairs  with  a  tie. 

COUPLET.  The  division  of  a  hymn, 
ode,  or  song,  wherein  an  equal  number,  or 
an  equal  measure  of  verses  is  found  in  each 
part. 

COURANT.  An  epithet  for  any  beast, 
represented  in  an  escutcheon  in  a  running 
attitude. 

COURSE.  A  sea  term,  for  that  point  of 
the  horizon  or  compass  for  wliich  a  ship 
steers. 

COURSE  (in  Masonry).  A  continued 
range  of  bricks  or  stones  of  the  same 
height. 

COURSE   OF  EXCHANGE   (in  Com- 
merce) .     The  current  price  or  rate  at  Which 
the  coin,  of  one  country  is  exchanged  for 
that  of  another  ;  which,  as  it  depends  upon 
the  balance  of  trade  and  the  political  rela- 
tions which  subsist  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, is  always  fluctuating. 
COURSER.     A  race  horse, 
COURSING.    The  pursuing  of  any  beast 
of  chase,  as  the  hare,  &c.  with  greyhounds. 
COURT   (in     Law).      In   monarchical 
countries,  the  king's  palace  or  mansion  ; 
in  common  use,  the  place  where  justice  is 
judicially  administered. 

COURTS  OF  CONSCIENCE.  Courts 
for  the  recovery  of  small  debts. 

COVY.  An  assemblage  of  wild  fowl, 
particularly  partridges. 

COW.     The  female    of  the    ox  kind, 
which  is  kept  for  her  milk  and  her  calves. 
COWKEEPER.     One  who  keeps  cows 
for  the  purpose  of  selling  the  milk. 

COWPOX.  A  substitute  for  the  small- 
pox. It  is  taken  from  the  udder  of  the 
cow,  and  used  in  that  sort  of  inoculation 
now  known  by  the  name  of  vaccination. 
COWRY.  A  testaceous  animal,  which 
is  said  to  have  the  power  of  leaving  its 
shell  and  forming  a  new  one.  These  ani- 
mals live  in  sand  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 
The  shell  is  used  as  a  coin  in  India. 

COWSLIP.  A  plant  which  grows  wild 
in  the  meadows,  and  bears  a  pretty  yellow 
flower. 

C.  P.  S.     (in  England).    Custos  privati 
sigilli ;  i.  e.  keeper  of  the  privy  seal. 
CR.     An  abbreviation  for  creditor. 
CRAB  (in  Astronomy).    Cancer,  one  of 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

CRAB  (in  Botany).  A  wild  apple  tree, 
and  also  the  fruit  of  that  tree. 

CRAB  (among  Shipwrights).  An  engine 
with  three  claws  for  launching  of  ships. 

CRAB'S  EYE.  A  stone  found  in  the 
craw  fish,  resembling  an  eye. 


114 


CRA 


CRAB.  A  sort  of  shell  fish,  which  every 
j^ear  cast  off  their  old  shells,  with  much 
pain  and  ditficulty. 


CRADLE.    A  moveable  bed  for  a  child. 

CRADLE  (with  Surgeons).  A  wooden 
machine  to  lay  a  broken  leg  in  after  it  has 
been  set. 

CRADLE  (with  Shipwrights).  A  frame 
of  timber  raised  on  each  side  of  a  ship,  for 
the  more  convenient  launching  of  her. 

CRAMP.  A  spasmodic  affection,  which 
causes  a  violent  distortion  of  the  muscles, 
nerves,  &c. ;  also  a  disease  to  which  hawks 
are  subject  in  their  wings. 

CRAMP  IRONS.  Irons  which  fasten 
atones  in  buildings. 

CRANBERRY.  In  England,  a  pale  red 
berry  of  a  tart  taste,  the  fruit  of  the  cran- 
berry tree.  The  cranberry  of  the  United 
States  grows  on  low  bushes,  in  marshy 
places.  It  is  of  a  bright  red  colour,  and 
makes  excellent  tarts. 

CRANE.  A  sort  of  heron,  with  a  long 
neck,  bill,  and  legs. 


CRANESBILL.  The  English  name  for 
the  geranium. 

CRANIOLOGY.  The  science  which 
professes  to  discover  men's  faculties  and 
characters,  from  the  external  appearances 
of  the  skull. 


CRE 

CRANE.    A  machine,  witli  ropes,  pul- 
leys, and  hoops,  for  drawing  up  heavy 

weights. 


CRANIUM,  The  skull,  or  superior  part 
of  the  head.. 

CRANK.  A  machine  resembling  an  el- 
bow, projecting  from  an  axis  or  spindle  j 
also  a  piece  of  brass  work  of  a  similar 
shape,  on  which  the  bell  wire  is  fixed,  so 
as  to  move  the  bell. 

CRAPE.  A  light  transparent  stuff,  re- 
sembling gauze. 

CRATE.  A  large  case  made  of  open 
bars,  in  which  earthen  ware  is  packed. 

CRATER.  The  mouth  of  a  volcano, 
from  which  the  fire  issues. 

CRAY  FISH,  or  CRAW  FISH.  A 
small  sort  of  lobster. 

CRAYON.  A  small  pencil  of  any  sort 
of  colouring  stuff,  made  into  a  paste  and 
dried. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR.  The  common 
white  tartar  freed  from  its  impurities;  a 
salt  prepared  from  the  lees  of  wine. 

CREDIT  (in  Commerce).  A  mutual  loan 
of  merchandises,  &c.  Letters  of  Credit, 
letters  given  by  merchants  to  persons 
whom  they  can  trust  to  draw  money  from 
their  correspondents. 

CREED.  A  summary  of  the  principal 
articles  of  the  Christian  faith-,  as  the  Apos- 
tles Creed,  the  Athanasian  Creed,  &c. 

CREEK.  That  part  of  a  haven  where 
any  thing  is  landed  from  the  sea. 

CRESCENT.  The  state  of  the  moon 
when  in  her  increase;  in  Heraldry,  an 


honourable  ordinary,  or  a  mark  of  dis- 
tinction for  the  second  sons  of  families,  or 
'those  descended  from  him. 


CRO 

CREPITATION.  The  crackling  noise 
made  by  some  salts  during  the  process  of 
calcination. 

CRESS.  A  garden  salad. 

CREW.  The  company  of  sailors  be- 
longing to  a  vessel. 

CRICKET.  A  little  insect  that  haunts 
fireplaces  and  ovens. 

CRIER.  An  officer  who  cries  or  makes 
proclamation. 

CRIMES.  Offences  against  morals,  as 
far  as  they  are  prohibited  by  law. 

CRIMPS.  Persons  who  used  formerly 
to  decoy  others  into  the  land  or  sea  ser- 
vice. 

CRISIS.  That  stage  of  a  disorder  from 
which  some  judgment  may  be  formed  of 
its  termination, 

CROCODILE.  An  amphibious  animal, 
and  the  largest  of  the  lizard  tribe,  which 
inhabits  the  rivers  of  Africa  and  Asia.  It 
is  covered  with  hard  scales,  that  cannot 
easily  be  pierced,  except  under  its  belly. 

CROCUS.  A  bulbous  plant,  that  flowers 
very  early  in  spring. 

CROP.  The  craw  of  a  bird;  also  the 
produce  of  what  is  sown  in  a  field. 

CROSS.  A  gibbet,  on  which  the  Romans 
used  to  nail  malefactors  by  the  hands  and 
feet. 

CROSS  (in  Heraldry).  The  most  ancie^nt 
and  the  noblest  of  all  the  honourable  ordi- 
naries, formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  per- 
pendicular with  two  horizontal  lines,  so 
as  to  make  four  right  angles  in  the  figure 
of  a  cross,  such  as  the  cross  batonne  in 
the  subjoined  figure. 


CRO 


115 


CROSS.  The  name  given  to  the  right 
side  of  a  coin,  in  distinction  from  the  pile 
or  reverse. 

CROSS  (in  Architecture).  Any  building 
which  is  in  the  figure  of  a  cross. 

CROSS  BOW.  A  kind  of  bow  formerly 


much  used,  which  was  strung  and  set  in 
a  shaft  of  wood,  with  a  trigger,  &;c. 


CROSSBILL.  A  sort  of  Grosbeak,  a 
bird  so  called  because  the  mandibles  of 
its  beak  cross  each  other. 


CROSS-EXAMINATION  (in  Law).  A 
close  and  rigid  examination  on  the  part  of 
the  adversary,consisting  of  cross  questions, 
in  order  to  elicit  the  truth. 

CROTCHET  (in  Music).  Half  aminim, 
marked  thus. 


CROTCHET  (in  Printing).  Marked  thus 
[  ],  to  separate  what  is  not  the  necessary 
part  of  a  sentence. 

CROUP.    The  hindmost  part  of  a  horse. 

CROUPER.  A  leathern  strap  fitted  to  go 
undfer  the  tail  of  a  horse,  to  keep  the  sad- 
dle in  its  place. 

CROW.  A  sociable  noisy  bird,  that  feeds 
partly  on  carrion. 


CROW  (among  Mechanics).  An  iron 
instrument  that  is  used  as  a  le  ver  for  raising 
weights. 

CROWN.  In  England,  a  coin,  in  val- 
ue five  shillings,  so  called  from  the  figure 
of  the  crown  which  was  originally  given 
upon  it. 

CROWN  (in  Anatomy).  The  vertex  or 
highest  part  of  the  head. 

CROWN  (in  Architecture).  The  upper- 
most member  of  a  cornice. 


116 


CRU 


CROWN.  A  cap  of  state  worn  by  sove- 
reign princes.  The  crown  of  England  is 
called  St.  Edward's  crown,  because  it  is 
made  in  imitation  of  the  ancient  crown 
supposed  to  have. been  worn  by  that  mo- 
narch. That,  now  in  use,  was  made  at 
the  Restoration,  for  the  coronation  of 
Charles  the  Second. 


CROWN  (among  Jewellers).  The  upper 
work  of  the  rose  diamond. 

CROWN-GLASS.  The  finest  sort  of 
window  glass. 

CROWN-IMPERIAL.  A  well  known 
beautiful  flower,  the  root  of  which  is 
perennial. 

CROWN-OFFICE.  In  England,  an  of- 
fice belonging  to  the  Court  of  King's  Bench, 
of  which  the  king's  coroner  or  attorney 
there  is  commonly  master. 

CROZIER.  A  shepherd's  crook;  also  a 
bishop's  staff,  which  is  of  a  similar  form, 
and  an  emblem  of  his  pastoral  office. 

CRUCIFIX.  A  figure  either  in  statuary 
or  painting,  representing  our  Saviour  on 
the  cross. 


CRUCIFIXION.  The  act  of  nailing  or 
fixing  to  a  cross;  the  suffering  of  being 
crucified. 

CRUCIBLE.    A  melting  pot  used  by 


CUB 

chymists  for  the  melting  of  metals  and 
minerals. 


CRUISE.  A  voyage  or  expedition  in 
quest  of  an  enemy's  vessels. 

CRUISER.  A  vessel  appointed  for 
cruising. 

CRUOR.  Coagulated  blood. 

CRUSADES.  The  expeditions  under- 
taken by  the  princes  of  Christendom  for 
the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land,  in  the 
twelfth  and  three  following  centuries.  On 
these  occasions,  every  soldier  bore  a  cruci- 
fix on  his  breast,  as  an  emblem  of  spiritual 
warfare. 

CRUSTACEOUS  SHELL  FISHES. 
Fishes  covered  with  shells  which  are  made 
up  of  several  pieces  and  joints  ;  such  as 
crabs,  lobsters,  crayfish,  &c.  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  testaceous  fish,  as  oysters. 

CRYPTOGAMIA.  One  of  the  classes  of 
plants  in  the  Linnsean  system,  comprehen- 
ding those  whose  fructification  or  flower  is 
too  concealed  or  minute  to  be  observed 
by  the  naked  eye,  as  the  mosses,  the  alga 
or  seaweeds,  the  ferns,  and  the  fungi  or 
funguses. 

CRYPTS.  Subterraneous  places  where 
the  martyrs  were  buried,  and  the  primitive 
Christians  performed  their  devotions;  also 
underground  chapels,  such  as  the  crypt 
under  St.  Paul's  and  other  churches  which 
took  their  rise  from  this  practice. 

CRYSTAL,  or  Rock  Crystal  (in  Mine- 
ralogy). A  transparent  stone  as  clear  aa 
glass.  It  is  found  in  Iceland,  Germany, 
and  France,  and  belongs  to  the  quartz  or 
siliceous  genus;  also  a  factitious  body  cast 
in  the  glass-houses,  called  crystal  glass, 
which  is  very  brittle,  and  burns  with  little 
or  no  flame. 

CRYSTAL  (in  Chymjstry).  That  part 
of  a  salt  which  assumes  a  regular  and  solid 
form,,. on  the  gradual  cooling  of  its  solution. 

CRYSTALLINE  HUMOUR.  A  pel- 
lucid humour  of  the  eye,  so  called  from 
its  transparency  like  crystal. 

CRYSTALLIZATION.  The  reducing 
of  any  salt  into  a  regular  form,  by  dissolv- 
ing it  in  a  menstruum,  and  allowing  it  to 
cool  until  it  shoots  into  the  bodies  called 
crystals. 

CUB.  The  young  of  some  particular 
beasts,  as  of  a  fox  and  a  bear. 


CUL 

CUBE  (in  GeometrjO-  A  regular  solid 
body,  supposed  to  be  generated  by  the 
motion  of  a  square  plane  along  a  line  equal 
and  perpendicular  to  one  of  its  sides.  It 
is  enclosed  by  six  equal  sides  or  faces, 
which  are  square,  as  in  the  annexed  figure, 
A  die  is  a  small  cube 


CUR 


117 


CUBE  (in  Arithmetic) .  The  third  power 
of  any  number,  produced  by  multiplying 
the  number  into  itself,  and  then  again  into 
the  product,  as  3X3=9X3=27,  the  cube. 

CUBE  ROOT.  The  side  of  a  cube  num- 
ber; thus  3  is  the  cube  root  of  27. 

CUBIT.  A  measure  equal  to  about 
1  foot  9  inches. 

CUCKOO.  A  bird  which  is  heard  about 
the  middle  of  April,  and  ceases  to  sing  at 
the  end  of  July.  It  deposits  its  eggs  in 
the  nests  of  other  birds,  generally  in  that 
of  the  hedgesparrow.  The  x^merican  Cuc- 
koo differs  in  its  note  from  the  European 
bird  of  that  name.  It  is  also  smaller  in 
size. 


CUCKOO-SPITTLE.  A  white  froth  or 
spume,  very  common  on  the  lavender  and 
other  plants  in  the  spring,  which  forms  the 
nidus  of  a  sort  of  cicada. 

CUCURBITACEiE.  One  of  Linnseus's 
natural  orders  of  plants,  comprehending 
those  which  resemble  the  gourd,  as  the 
cucumber,  the  melon,  &c. 

CULM  (in  Botany).  The  stalk  or  stem 
of  corn  or  grasses. 

CULM  (among  Miners).  A  sort  of  coal 
in  Wales. 

CULMINE^.  One  of  the  Linneean  na- 
tural orders  of  plants,  consisting  of  the 
grasses. 

CULPRIT  (in  Law).  A  word  of  form, 
applied  in  court  to  one  who  is  indicted 


for  a  criminal  offence.  It  is  as  much  as 
to  say,  in  French,  'culpable  prit,  found  or 
considered  guilty.' 

CUMMIN  SEED.  A  long,  slender  seed 
of  arough  texture,  unctuous  when  bruised, 
of  a  strong  smell  and  an  acrid  taste. 

CUPBEARER  (in  England).  An  officer 
of  the  king's  household,  who  was  for- 
merly an  attendant  at  a  feast. 

CUPEL.  A  chymical  vessel  made  of 
earth,  ashes,  or  burnt  bone,  in  which  assay- 
masters  try  metals. 

CUPOLA.  A  roof  or  vault  rising  in  a 
circular  form,  otherwise  called  the  Tholua 
or  Dome,  as  the  cupola  of  St.  Paul's  Ca- 
thedral, here  represented. 


CUPPING  (in  Surgery).  The  operation 
of  applying  the  cupping-glass  to  the  fleshy 
parts  of  the  body,  for  the  purpose  of  draw- 
ing away  blood,  or  humours. 

CURASSOW.  A  species  of  bird  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties  in  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  West  Indies,  of  which  the 
Cashew  CurEissow  is  the  largest.  This 
bird  was  formerly  domesticated  in  some 
parts  of  Europe. 

CURATE.  Properly,  one  who  has  the 
cure  of  souls  •,  now  applied  in  England 
to  one  who  officiates  for  hire  in  the  place 
of  the  incumbent. 

CURB  OF  A  BRIDLE,  A  chain  of 
iron  that  runs  over  the  horse's  beard. 

CURFEW.  Literally,  cover  feu  or  fire  ; 
a  law  introduced  from  Normandy  into 
England  by  William  the  Conqueror,  that 
all  people  should  put  out  their  fire  and 
lights,  at  the  ringing  of  the  eight  o'clock 
bell. 

CURLEW.  An  European  water  fowl 
of  a  gray  colour,  with  a  large  beak. 

CURRANT.  The  fruit  of  a  shrub  having 
no  pricklesj  the  leaves  of  this  plant  are 
large,  and  the  fruit,  which  is  either  black, 
red,  or  white,  is  highly  esteemed;  also  a 
dried  fruit  that  comes  from  the  Levant. 


118 


CUT 


CURRENCY  (in  Law).  Paper  money 
issued  by  authority,  and  passing  current 
instead  of  coin;  also,  in  general,  any  sort 
of  money  that  passes  current  by  authority, 
as  the  metallic  currency,  signifying  the 
coin  of  the  realm. 

CURRENTS,  Impetuous  streams. 

CURRIER.  A  dresser  of  tanned  leather 
to  make  it  pliable  and  fit  for  use.  The 
Company  of  Curriers  in  England  was  in- 
corporated in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

CURRY-COMB.  7\n  iron  sort  of  comb 
for  the  dressing  of  horses. 

CURSITOR.  In  England,  an  officer  in 
chancery,  who  makes  out  original  writs 
for  any  particular  county. 

CURTAIN  (in  Fortification).  The  front 
of  a  wall  or  fortified  place,  lying  between 
two  bastions. 

CURVE.  A  line  whose  parts  incline 
different  ways. 

CUSP.  Properly,  the  point  of  a  spear. 

CUSP  (in  Astronomy).  A  term  for  the 
horns  of  the  moon. 

CUSTOM  (in  Law).  A  duty  on  the 
importation  or  exportation  of  goods. 

CUSTOS  ROTULORUM,  or  Keeper 
OF  THE  Rolls.  In  England,  he  that  has 
the  keeping  of  the  records  of  the  sessions 
of  the  peace. 

CUT.  An  engraving  on  wood. 

CUTLER.  A  maker  and  seller  of  knives, 
and  all  cutting  instruments. 

CUTPURSE.  A  sort  of  tJiieves  who 
rob  by  cutting  purses. 

CUTTER.  A  kind  of  boat  attached  to  a 
vessel  of  war,  which  is  rowed  witli  six 
oars,  and  is  employed  in  carrying  light 
stores,  passengers,  &c.  In  tlie  United 
States,  the  term  revenue  cutter,  is  applied 
to  small  fast  sailing  vessels,  used  to  watch 
harbours  for  the  pre-vention  of  smuggling. 


CYANOGEN  (in  Chymistry).  Carbon 
combined  with  azote. 

CUTTLE-FISH.  A  sea  fish  furnished 
with  many  suckers  and  holders  for  se- 


CYM 

curing  its  prey.    It  emits  a  black  fluid 
used  in  making  Indian  ink. 


CYBELE  (in  Heathen  Mythology).  The 
daughter  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  wife  of 
Saturn,  and  mother  of  the  gods;  she  is 
always  represented  with  a  turreted  head, 
and  accompanied  with  a  lion. 


CYCLE.  A  continual  revolution  of  num- 
bers, as  applied  to  a  series  of  years  which 
go  on  from  first  to  last,  and  then  return 
to  the  same  order  again. 

CYCLOID,  A  curve  generated  by  the 
rotation  of  a  circle  along  a  line. 

CYCLOPAEDIA.   See   Encyclopedia. 

CYLINDER.  A  figure  conceived  to  be 
generated,  by  the  rotation  of  a  rectangle 
about  the  side. 


CYLINDER  (in  Gunnery).  The  whole 
hollow  length  of  a  great  gun;  the  bore. 

CYME.  Properly,  a  sprout  or  shoot; 
also  a  sort  of  flowering,  where  the  floreta 
do  not  all  rise  from  the  same  point. 

CYMOS/E.  One  of  Linnceus's  natural 


DAT 

orders,  comprehending  such  plants  as  are 
disposed  in  the  form  of  a  cyme. 

CYPRESS,  A  tree  very  celebrated 
among  the  ancients,  by  whom  it  was  ac- 
counted the  emblem  of  death,  and  used  in 
adorning  their  sepulchres.    The  leaves  of 


DEA 


119 


the  cypress  are  squamose  and  flat;  the 
fruit  is  composed  of  woody  tubercles,  and 
the  wood  of  the  tree  is  always  green. 

CZAR.   The  title  assumed  by  the  em- 
perors of  Russia. 


D,  as  a  numeral,  denotes  500;  as  an  ab- 
breviation, stands  for  Doctor,  Domini,  &c.; 
as  a  sign,  is  one  of  the  Dominical  or  Sun- 
day letters;  and  in  Music,  the  nominal  of 
the  second  note  in  the  natural  diatonic 
Bcale. 

DAB.  A  flat  fish,  thinner  and  less  than 
the  flounder. 

DACE.   A  river  fish  of  the  carp  kind. 

DACTYL.  A  foot  or  division  in  a  poe- 
tical line,  consisting  of  one  long  and  two 
short  syllables. 

DADO.  The  die,  or  that  part  in  the 
middle  of  the  pedestal  of  a  column  between 
its  base  and  cornice. 

D/EMON.  A  spirit  either  good  or  bad, 
among  the  heathens;  the  devil,  or  an  evil 
spirit,  among  Christians. 

DEMONIAC.  One  possessed  with  a 
devil. 

DAGON.  Aft  idol  of  the  Philistines,  of 
the  human  shape  upwards,  and  resembling 
a  fish  downwards,  with  a  finny  tail. 

DAMAGES  (in  Common  Law).  The 
hurt  or  hinderance  which  a  man  receives 
in  his  estate,  particularly  those  which  are 
to  be  inquired  of  by  the  jurors,  when  an 
action  passes  for  the  plaintiff". 

DAMASCENE,  pronounced  Damsin. 
A  fruit  tree,  yielding  a  small  black  plum, 
of  an  oval  shape,  so  called  from  Damascus, 
of  which  it  is  a  native. 

DAMASK.  A  silk  stuff"  with  a  raised 
pattern,  consisting  of  figures  and  flowers. 

DAMASK-ROSE.  A  fine  sort  of  rose, 
of  a  red  colour. 

DAMPS.  Noxious  exhalations  in  mines 
which  sometimes  suff"ocate  those  that  work 
in  them. 

DAMSIN.   See  Damascene. 

DAPPLE.  Light  gray  with  spots;  the 
colour  of  a  horse. 

DATA  (in  Geometry).  Things  given  or 
taken  for  granted,  as  known  or  true. 

DATE.  That  part  of  a  writing  or  letter, 
which  expresses  the  day  of  the  month  and 
year. 

DATE-TREE.  A  speciesof  palm,  native 
of  Barbary  and  other  parts  of  Africa  and 
in  Arabia,  which  grows  to  a  great  height, 
and  yields  a  fruit  formerly  much  used  in 


medicine.  The  fruit  is  frequently  impor- 
ted into  this  country. 

DATIVE  (in  Grammar).  The  third  case 
of  Greek  and  Latin  nouns. 

DAUPHIN.  The  title  of  the  next  heir 
to  the  crown  of  France. 

DAWN.  The  commencement  of  the  day, 
when  the  twilight  appears. 

DAY.  A  space  of  time  reckoned  from 
the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun.  The  day 
is  distinguished  into  civil  and  astrono- 
mical. The  civil  day  is  a  space  of  twenty- 
four  hours,  reckoned  from  sunset  to  sunset, 
or  from  sunrise  to  sunrise,  which  is  dift'erent 
in  different  parts  of  the  globe.  The  astro- 
nomical day  is  the  space  of  twenty-four 
hours,  reckoned  from  twelve  o'clock  at 
noon  to  the  noon  of  the  next  day. 

DAY  (in  Law).  Is  the  civil  day,  in- 
cluding day  and  night;  also  the  day  of 
appearance  of  the  parties  in  court. 

DAY-FLY.  A  kind  of  insect,  so  called 
because  it  lives  only  a  day. 


DAY-RULE  (in  Law).  An  order  of 
court.  In  England,  permitting  a  prisoner 
in  custody  in  the  King's  Bench  prison, 
&c.  to  go  for  one  day  without  the  bounds  of 
the  prison. 

DAYS  OF  GRACE  (in  Commerce).  A 
customary  number  of  days  allowed  for  the 
payment  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  &c.  after 
the  same  becomes  due. 

D.  D.  Doctor  of  Divinity. 

DEACON.  A  minister  or  servant  in  the 
church,  whose  office  it  is  to  assist  the  priest 


120 


DEC 


DEAD-EYE.  A  sea  term  for  a  sort  of 
flat  block. 

DEAD  LANGUAGES.  Those  languages 
which  have  ceased  to  be  spoken  by  any 
nation,  as  the  Greek  and  Latin. 

DEAD  NETTLE.  A  sort  of  nettle 
without  stings. 

DEAD  BECKONING.  The  account 
kept  of  a  ship's  course  by  the  log,  without 
any  observation  of  the  sun,  inoon,  or 
stars. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.  Those  who  have 
the  misfortune  to  be  born,  without  the  fa- 
culties of  hearing  or  speaking.  Means 
have  been  successfully  employed  to  supply 
these  defects  in  charitable  institutions,  for 
the  benefit  of  these  unhappy  objects,  where 
the  young  are  taught  to  communicate  their 
thoughts  by  the  help  of  signs,  particularly 
by  the  language  of  the  fingers,  which, 
tliough  before  but  a  childish  amusement, 
is  now  turned  to  a  useful  purpose.  The 
first  establishment  of  this  kind  in  America 
was  that  at  Hartford,  which  was  founded 
chiefly  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Mr.  Gallaudet. 

DEAL.  The  wood  of  the  fir  tree  cut  up 
for  building. 

DEAN.  In  England,  a  dignified  clergy- 
man who  is  at  the  head  of  a  chapter. 

DEATHWATCH.  A  little  insect  inha- 
biting old  wooden  furniture,  which  makes 
a  ticking  noise  in  such  a  manner,  by  a 
certain  number  of  distinct  strokes,  as  for- 
merly to  be  considered  ominous  to  the 
family  where  it  was  heard.  This  circum- 
stance gave  rise  to  its  vulgar  name. 


DEBENTURE  (in  Law).  A  sort  of  bill 
drawn  upon  the  Government.  Custom 
House  debentures  entitle  the  bearer  to  re- 
ceive a  drawback  on  the  exportation  of 
goods,  which  were  before  imported. 

DEBIT.  A  term  used  in  book-keeping 
to  express  the  left  hand  page  of  the  ledger, 
to  which  all  articles  are  carried  that  are 
charged  to  an  account. 

DEBT  (in  Commerce).  A  sum  of  money 
due  from  one  person  to  another. 

DEBT  (in  Law).  An  action  which  lleth 
where  a  man  oweth  another  a  certain  sum 
of  money. 

DEC.  An  abbreviation  for  December. 

DECADE.  'J  he  number  or  space  often 


DEC 

days,  which  formed  the  third  part  of  the 
Attic  month;  also  the  number  of  ten  books, 
which  was  formerly  the  division  of  some 
volumes,  as  the  Decades  of  Livy. 

DECAGON.  A  plane  geometrical  figure 
consisting  often  sides  and  ten  angles. 

DECALOGUE.  The  Ten  Command- 
ments delivered  by  God  from  Mount  Sinai 
to  Moses. 

DECAMERON.  A  volume  often  books, 
such  as  the  Decameron  or  novels  of  Boc- 
cacio. 

DECANDRIA.  One  of  the  artificial 
classes  of  Linnaeus,  comprehending  those 
plants  which  have  ten  stamens  in  the 
flower. 


DECANTER.  A  glass  bottle  made  so 
as  to  hold  the  wine  for  immediate  use. 

DECEMBER.  The  last  month  in  the 
year,  when  the  sun  enters  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn,  making  the  winter  solstice. 

DECEMVIRS.  Extraordinary  magis- 
trates among  the  Romans,  chosen  for  the 
particular  purpose  of  collecting  the  laws 
of  the  twelve  tables,  which  they  gathered 
from  the  writings  of  Solon. 

DECIDUOUS  PLANTS.  Plants  which 
cast  their  leaves  in  winter. 

DECIMAL.  An  epithet  for  what  con- 
sists of  the  number  of  ten;  as.  Decimal 
Arithmetic,  a  mode  of  computation  that 
proceeds  on  the  scale  of  ten  figures;  De- 
cimal Fractions,  such  as  have  iO,  100, 1000, 
&c.  for  their  denominator,  and  marked 
with  a  point  thus  .5  for  five-tenths. 

DECIMATION.  A  military  punishment 
among  the  Romans,  inflicted  on  every 
tenth  man  of  the  company  who  had  be- 
haved themselves  ill. 

DECK.  The  floor  of  a  ship.  The  decks 
may.  be  either  first,  second,  or  third; 
where  there  are  more  than  one,  beginning 
from  the  lowest  upwards. 

DECLARATION  (in  Law).  A  state- 
ment of  the  cause  of  action  by  a  plaintiff 
against  a  defendant. 

DEi  'LENfSION.  The  difl^erent  inflexions 
of  nouns  throughout  their  cases. 

DEOLf  N  ATI'  )N.  The  distance  of  any 
star  or  point  of  the  heavens  from  the 
equator,  either  north  or  south.    The  great- 


DEF 

est  declination  is^  23  degrees  and  a  half. 

DEOOiJTION.  "a  medicinal  liquor. 

DECOMPOSITION  (in  Chymistry"). 
The  reduction  of  a  body  to  the  parts  of 
which  it  is  composed. 

DECORATIONS.  Any  ornaments  or 
embellishments,  such  as  prints  to  a  book, 
or  the  mouldings,  and  other  carved  works 
in  buildings. 

DECOY.  A  sea  term  for  a  stratagem 
employed  by  ships  of  war,  to  draw  any 
vessel  of  inferior  force  into  an  incautious 
pursuit,  until  she  comes  within  gun-shot. 

DECOY  (among  Sportsmen).  A  place 
for  catching  wild  fowl. 

DECOY-DUCK.  A  wild  duck  trained 
to  decoy  others  into  the  decoy,  or  place 
where  they  may  be  caught. 

DEED  (in  Law).  A  written  contract, 
signed,  sealed,  and  delivered.  It  is  par- 
ticularly applied  to  instruments  for  con- 
veying land. 

DEEP-SEA-LTNE.  A  sea  term  for  a 
small  line  to  sound  with. 

DEER.  An  animal  which  in  England  is 
kept  in  parks,  either  for  ornament  or  for 
the  chase;  the  flesh  of  which  is  called  ven- 
ison. In  North  America,  we  have  five 
animals  of  the  deer  kind,  the  Moose  or 
Elk  of  Europe;  the  American  Elk,  astately 
animal,  whose  branching  horns  are  some- 
times five  feet  in  length;  the  common  fal- 
low, or  Virginia  deer;  the  mule,  or  black 
tailed  deer  of  the  Rocky  mountains  ;  and 
the  Rein-deer.  The  male  of  the  fallow 
deer,  is  called  Buck,  the  female,  Hind. 
The  stag,  Hart,  or  lied  Deer  of  Europe,  the 
female  of  which  is  called  Hind,  is  not 
found  in  this  country.  It  is  a  characteris- 
tic of  all  these  animals, that  they  shed  their 
horns  once  a  year. 

D.  F.  Defensor  Fidei,  Defender  of  the 
Faith. 

DE  FACTO,  In  deed  or  fact. 

DEFALCATION.  A  falling  otf  or  a 
failure  in  any  public  accounts. 

DEFAMATiON  (in  Law).  Slanderous 
words  spoken  or  written  against  any  one. 

DEFAULT  (in  Law).  A  nonappearance 
in  court  without  sufficient  cause. 

DEFAULTER,  One  who  is  deficient  in 
his  accounts. 

DEFECTION.  The  falling  off  from  a 
government  or  state. 

DEFENCE  (in  Law).  The  reply  which 
the  defendant  makes  after  the  declaration 
is  produced;  in  r\Iilitary  Affairs,  any  work 
that  covers  or  defends  the  opposite  posts, 
as  iianks,  parapets, 

DEFENDANT  (in  Law).  Orje  who  is 
sued  in  an  action. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH.  A  title 
11 


DEL 


121 


given  by  Pope  Leo  X.  to  Henry  VIII.  for 
writing  against  Luther. 

DEFILE.  A  narrow  lane  or  passage, 
through  which  a  company  of  soldiers  can 
pass  only  in  file. 

DEFINITION.  The  determining  the 
nature  of  things  by  words,  or  explaining 
the  signification  of  a  word. 

DEFLAGRATION.  The  burning  in  a 
crucible  of  any  mineral  body. 

DEFLEXION.  The  turning  of  any  thing 
out  of  its  true  course. 

DEFLUXION  (in  Surgery).  The  falling 
of  a  humour  in  the  body,  from  a  superior 
upon  an  inferior  part. 

DEGRADATION  (in  Ecclesiastical  Af- 
fairs in  England).  The  depriving  a  person 
of  his  dignity  and  degree,  as  the  degrada- 
tion of  a  clergyman,  by  depriving  him  of 
holy  orders. 

DEGRADATION  (in  Military  Affairs). 
The  depriving  an  olficer  of  his  commission. 

DEGREE  (in  Mathematics).  The  360th 
part  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
marked  thus(  =  ). 

DEGREE  (in  Law).  An  interval  of 
relationship  between  persons,  more  or  less 
nearly  allied. 

DEGREES  (in  a  University).  Titles  of 
honour,  conferred  on  persons  for  their 
merit  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 

DEGREES  OF  COMPARISON  Hn 
Grammar).  The  inflexions  of  adjectives,  to 
express  different  degrees  of  the  same  qua- 
lity. 

D.  G.  An  abbreviation  for  Dei  Gratia, 
By  the  Grace  of  God. 

DEIST.  One  who  believes  in  a  God, 
but  rejects  revelation. 

DE  JURE.  By  right. 

DELEGATES.  In  England,  commis- 
sioners of  appeal,  appointed  by  the  king 
to  hear  appeal  causes,  from  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal court. 

DELETERIOUS.  An  epithet  for  drugs, 
or  any  substances,  of  a  destructive  and 
poisonous  quality. 

DELFT  WARE.  A  kind  of  potter'a 
ware,  originally  made  at  Delft  in  Holland; 
it  is  covered  with  an  enamel,  or  white 
glazin-T:,  in  imitation  of  porcelain. 

DELiaUIUM,  or  DELiaUESCENCE. 
A  spontaneous  solution  of  some  salts  by 
exposure  to  the  air. 

DELIVERY,  or  GAOL  DELIVERY 
(in  Law).  A  term  applied  to  the  sessions 
at  the  Old  Baily,  &c.  in  London,  by  which 
the  gaol  is  delivered  or  cleared  of  prisoners. 

DELIVERY  (in  the  Mint\  The  quan- 
tity of  moneys  coined  within  a  given 
period. 

DELIVERY  (in  Oratory).   The  manner 


122 


DEP 


of  pronouncing  an  address,  as  regards  the 
voice  and  utterance  of  the  speaker. 

DExMESNE  LANDS.  In  England,  lands, 
which  the  lord  of  a  manor  has  in  his  own 
hands. 

DEMI.  A  half-fellow  at  Magdalen  Col- 
lege at  Oxford  England;  also  a  term  in 
composition  signifying  half,  as,  demigod, 
a  hero  who  was  enrolled  among  the  gods. 

DEMOCRACY.  A  form  of  government 
where  the  supreme  power  is  lodged  in  the 
people  at  large,  or  in  persons  chosen  by 
tliem. 

DEMONSTRATION.  A  proof  or  chain 
of  arguments,  serving  to  prove  the  truth. 

DEMURRER  (in  Law).  A  pause  or 
stop  in  a  suit  upon  some  difficulty. 

DEMY.  A  sort  of  paper  much  used  in 
printing. 

DENIER.  One  of  the  earliest  French 
coins,  answering  nearly  to  the  English 
penny. 

DENIZEN.  An  alien  who  is  naturalized. 

DENOMINATOR.  That  part  of  a  frac- 
tion which  stands  below  the  line,  as  10  in 
the  fraction  t| 

DENOUEMENT.  The  developement  of 
the  plot  in  a  play. 

DE  NOVO.  Afresh,  or  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

DENSITY.  The  property  of  bodies,  of 
containing  a  certain  quantity  of  matter 
under  a  certain  bulk. 

DENTIST.  One  who  draws  teeth,  and 
prescribes  for  their  diseases. 

DEODAND.  A  thing  as  it  were  forfeited 
to  God,  to  atone  for  the  violent  death  of  a 
man  by  misadventure. 

DEPARTURE.  The  easting  or  westing 
of  a  ship,  in  respect  to  the  meridian  it  de- 
parted from. 

DEPHLEGMATION.  The  depriving 
any  liquid  of  its  superfluous  water. 

DEPONENT.  One  who  gives  informa- 
tion on  oath  before  a  magistrate, 

DEPORTATION.  The  banishment  of  a 
person,  among  the  Romans,  to  some  dis- 
tant island. 

DEPOSITION.  The  testimony  of  a 
witness  taken  upon  oath. 

DEPOT.  A  place  where  military  stores 
are  deposited. 

DEPRESSION.  The  distance  of  a  star 
from  the  horizon  below. 

DEPRESSION  OF  THE  POLE.  Is 
said  of  a  person  sailing  from  the  pole  to 
the  equator. 

t  DEPRESSION  OF  THE  VISIBLE 
HORIZON,  or.  Dip  of  the  Horizon. 
Its  dipping  or  sinking  below  the  true  ho- 
rizontal plane,  by  the  observer's  eye  being 
above  the  surface  of  the  sea. 


DET 

DEPRIVATION.  In  England,  a  taking 
away,  as  when  a  parson  or  vicar  is  de- 
prived of  his  preferment. 

DEPUTY.  A  person  appointed  by  com- 
mission to  act  for  another. 

DERELICT.  Forsaken,  left;  as  derelict 
lands,  lands  which  the  sea  has  left;  dere- 
lict ships,  vessels  left  at  sea,  &c. 

DERIVATIVE  (in  Grammar).  Any 
word  which  is  derived  from  another. 

DERMESTES.  An  insect,  called  in 
vulgar  language  the  Leather-eater. 

DERNIER.  Last,  as  a  tribunal  of  der- 
nier resort,  the  last  or  highest  court  of 
appeal. 

DERVISE.  An  order  of  religious  per- 
sons in  Mahometan  countries,  who  prac- 
tise great  austerities  on  themselves. 

DESCENSION.  An  arc  of  the  equator 
which  descends  or  sets  with  any  sign  or 
point  in  the  zodiac.  Descension  is  either 
right  or  oblique,  according  as  it  takes 
place  in  a  right  or  oblique  sphere. 

DESCENSIONAL  DIFFERENCE.  The 
difference  between  the  right  and  oblique 
descension  of  a  star,  &c. 

DESCENT.  In  general,  the  tendency 
of  heavy  bodies  towards  the  earth. 

DESCENT  (in  Law).  Hereditary  suc- 
cession to  an  estate. 

DESCENT  (in  Military  Affairs).  Land- 
ing in  a  country  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
vasion. 

DESCRIPTION.  An  imperfect  kind 
of  definition,  4;hat  includes  many  accidents 
and  circumstances  peculiar  to  an  object, 
without  defining  its  nature  precisely. 

DESERTER.  A  soldier  who  runs  away 
from  his  colours,  or  goes  over  to  the 
enemy. 

DESIDERATUM  (in  Literature).  What 
is  wanted  or  inquired  after.  A  work  is  a 
desideratum,  which,  though  wanted,  is  not 
executed. 

DESIGN.  The  first  draught,  or  sketch 
of  any  picture. 

DESPOTISM.  A  form  of  government 
where  the  monarch  rules  by  his  sole  and 
sovereign  authority. 

DESUNT  CETERA.  The  rest  wanting; 
words  put  at  the  end  of  any  chasm  or 
deficiency,  in  an  imperfect  or  mutilated 
work. 

DETACHMENT  (in  Military  Affairs). 
A  certain  number  of  men  selected  for  a 
particular  expedition  or  service. 

DETAINER.  A  writ  for  holding  any 
one  in  custody. 

DETr^NTS.  The  stops  in  clock-work, 
which,  by  being  lifted  up  or  let  down, 
lock  or  unlock  tlie  clock  in  striking. 


DETERGENTS.  Medicines  which  re- 
move viscid  humours. 

DETERMINATE  PROBLEM.  That 
which  has  one,  or  a  limited  number  of 
answers. 

DETONATION.  The  noise  and  explo- 
eion,  which  some  substances  make  upon 
the  application  of  fire  to  them,  as  gun- 
powder, (fee. 

DETONATING  POWDER,  or  Ful- 
minating Powder.  A  preparation  of 
nitre,  sulphur,  &c. 

DETRITUS.  That  which  is  washed 
down  from  the  mountains,  and  forms  a 
new  soil. 

DEUCALION.  The  son  of  Prometheus, 
who,  with  his  wife  Pj'rrha,  were  saved 
during  a  deluge,  in  a  ship  on  Mount  Par- 
nassus. 

DEVISE.  A  gift  of  lands  by  last  will 
and  testament. 

DEUTERONOMY.  The  fourth  book  of 
Moses. 

DEW.  The  moisture,  which  is  first  ex- 
haled from  the  earth  by  the  sun,  and  then 
falls  again  upon  the  earth  in  gentle  drops 
during  the  night. 

DEWLAP.  The  loose  skin  that  hangs 
down  under  the  throat  of  an  ox,  cow, 
&:c. 

DEXTER.  The  right,  or  on  the  right 
hand  or  side,  as  the  dexter  point;  in  He- 
raldry, the  right-hand  side  of  the  es- 
cutcheon. 

DEY.  The  supreme  governor  of  Algiers. 

DIABETES  (in  Medicine).  An  exces- 
sive discharge  of  crude  urine. 

DIACOUSTICS.  The  science  of  re- 
fracted sounds. 

DIADELPHIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
the  Linnsean  classes,  comprehending  such 
plants  as  bear  hermaphrodite  flowers  with 
two  sets  of  united  stamens. 


DIA 


123 


DIADEM.  A  headband  or  fillet,  an- 
ciently worn  by  kings  as  an  emblem  of 
dignity. 

DIURESIS  (in  Grammar).  The  divi- 
sion of  one  syllable  into  two,  marked 
thus(..). 


DIAGNOSTIC  SIGNS.  Signs  by  which 
diseases  are  distinguished  from  each  other. 

DIAGONAL.  A  straight  line  drawn  from 
one  angle  of  a  figure  to  another. 

DIAGRAM.  A  scheme  drawn  by  way 
of  illustrating  any  thing. 

DIAL.  A  plate  marked  with  lines,  for 
showing  the  hour  of  the  day  by  the  shadow 
of  a  gnomon,  style,  or  pin  when  the  sun 
shines.  The  diversity  of  sun-dials  arises 
from  the  difierent  situation  of  the  plane, 
and  from  the  different  figure  of  the  sur- 
faces upon  which  they  are  described.  The 
subjoined -figure  represents  an  horizontal 
dial. 


DIALECT.  A  manner  of  speech  pecu- 
liar to  any  parts  of  a  country.  The  dialects 
of  Greece  were  admitted  to  form  a  part  of 
their  language,  as  the  Attic  dialect,  spoken 
by  the  Athenians;  so  the  Ionic,  Poetic, 
^olic,  and  Doric  dialects. 

DIALECTICS.  The  art  of  logic. 

DIALLING.  The  art  of  drawing  dials 
on  any  surface. 

DIALLIST.  One  who  constructs  sun- 
dials. 

DIALOGUE.  A  written  discourse  be- 
tween two  or  more  persons. 

DIALYSIS.  A  mark  or  character,  con- 
sisting of  two  points  placed  over  two  vow- 
els, as  po'emata,  to  show  that  they  must 
be  sounded  distinctly. 

DIAMETER.  A  right  line  passing 
through  the  centre  of  a  circle,  or  any 
curved  figure. 

DIAMOND.  The  hardest  and  most  pre- 
cious of  all  stones.  The  goodness  of  a 
diamond  consists  in  three  things:  its  lustre 
or  water,  its  weight  or  bigness,  and  its 
hardness.  Its  weight  is  estimated  by  carats 
of  four  grains  each.  Some  diamonds  are 
of  an  extraordinary  size,  and  are  valued 
at  immense  prices;  the  largest  ever  known 


124 


DIA 


belonging  to  the  king  of  Portugal  weighs 
1680  carats,  and  is  valued,  although  uncut, 
at  2-24,O0J,O0JZ.  sterling ;  that,  in  the 
sceptre  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  weighs 
779  carats,  and  is  valued  at  upwards  of 
4,000,000/.,  but  was  bought  by  the  em- 
press Catharine  for  about  135,000Z.  The 
Pitt  Diamond,  which  at  that  time  was  one 
of  the  largest,  weighed  13o  carats,  and  cost 
Louis  XlV.  130,OOOZ.  Diamonds  are 
found  in  the  East  Indies  and  in  Bra- 
zil, where  they  are  gathered  out  of  the 
sand. 

DIAMOND  (among  Glaziers).  An  in- 
strument for  cutting  glass;  in  Printing,  the 
smallest  types  or  letters. 

DIAMOND  BEETLE.  An  exceedingly 
beautiful  insect,  so  called  from  the  marks 
on  its  wing-sheaths,  that  resemble  gems 
in  brilliancy. 

DIANA.  The  goddess  of  hunting,  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  twin 
sister  of  Apollo;  she  is  commonly  repre- 
sented with  a  bow  and  arrow. 


DIANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
classes  in  the  Linnasan  system,  consisting 
of  such  plants  as  have  hermaphrodite  flow- 
ers with  two  stamens,  as  the  olive,  the 
privet,  the  nightshade,  &;c. 


DIAPASON  (in  Ancient  Music).  The 
interval  of  an  octave;  among  Musical  In- 
Btrument  Makers,  the  diapason  is  a  scale 
or  measure. 

DIAPER.  A  kind  of  linen  for  the  table, 
wrought  with  flowers. 


DIF 

DIAPHANOUS.  Transparent  like  glass. 

DiAPHOxNIA.  The  precepts  formerly 
taught  for  the  use  of  the  organ. 

DiAPHORETiCS.  Medicines  which 
promote  perspiration. 

DlilPHRAGM.  A  muscular  membrane 
which  divides  the  thorax  from  the  abdo- 
men. 

DIARRIICEA.  A  disorder  which  con- 
sists in  the  frequent  discharge,  by  stool,  of 
a  bilious  humour  from  the  intestines. 

DiARY.  An  account  of  what  passes  in 
the  course  of  a  day. 

DIATESSERON  (in  Music).  An  inter- 
val composed  of  a  greater  and  less  tone. 

DIATESSERON  (in  Theology).  The 
four  Gospels. 

DIATRIBE.  A.  disputation  or  contro- 
versial discourse. 

DIBBLE.  A  pointed  tool  for  making 
holes  to  plant  in. 

DICE.  Pieces  of  bone  or  ivory,  of  a 
cubical  form,  and  marked  with  dots  on 
each  of  their  faces  from  one  to  six. 

DICTATOR.  An  extraordinary  magis- 
trate among  the  Romans,  chosen  upon  par- 
ticular occasions;  and  invested  with  abso- 
lute power.  He  laid  down  his  office,  as 
soon  as  the  occasion  ceased,  for  which  he 
had  been  appointed. 

DICTIONARY.  A  collection  of  the 
words  of  a  language,  explained  in  alpha- 
betical order. 

DICTUM.  The  positive  opinion  pro- 
nounced by  an  individual. 

DIDACTIVE.  An  epithet  for  what 
serves  to  teach  or  explain  the  nature  of 
things,  as  didactic  pieces. 

DIDYNAMIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linnasan  classes,  including  such  plants  as 
have  flowers  with  four  stamens  in  two 
pairs  of  different  lengths. 

DiE.  The  stamp  used  in  coining. 

DIE  (in  Architecture).  The  middle  of 
the  pedestal. 

DIER.  One  who  follows  the  trade  of 
dyeing. 

DIER'S  BROOM.  A  shrub  so  called 
from  its  flowers,  which  yield  a  colour  used 
by  diers  in  dyeing  wool  green. 

DIES  NON;  that  is,'  Dies  non  juridici. 
Days  on  which  no  pleas  are  held,  in  any 
court  of  justice. 

DIET.  Food  regulated  by  the  rules  of 
medicine. 

DIETETICS.  That  branch  of  the  medi- 
cal science,  which  treats  of  the  diet  or 
food  suited  to  particular  cases. 

DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT;  that  is,  God 
and  my  right.  Tlie  motto  on  the  arms  of 
the  King  of  England. 

DIFFERENCE   (in   Arithmetic).     The 


DIM 

remainder,  when  one  number  has  been 
subtracted  from  another. 

DIFFERENCE  (in  Heraldry).  What 
is  added  in  coats  of  arms,  as  a  mark  to  dis- 
tinguish younger  families  from  the  elder. 

DIFFERENCE  OF  LONGITUDE  (in 
Astronomy).  An  arc  of  the  equator,  com- 
prehended between  the  meridians  of  two 
places  on  the  earth. 

DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS.  A 
method  of  finding  a  diflerential,  or  that 
infinitely  small  quantity,  which  taken  an 
infinite  number  of  times,  is  equal  to  a  given 
quantity. 

DIGESTER.  An  apparatus  for  reducing 
substances  to  a  pulp  or  jelly. 

DIGESTION.  The  dissolving  or  con- 
cocting food  in  the  stomach,  so  that  its 
various  parts  may  be  applied  to  their 
proper  uses. 

DIGESTION  (in  Chymistry).  The  con- 
tinual soaking  of  a  solid  substance  in  a 
liquid,  so  that  by  the  application  of  heat, 
it  may  be  reduced  to  a  soft  substance. 

DIGESTION  (in  Surgery).  The  dis- 
posing a  wound  to  suppurate  or  discharge 
good  pus. 

DIGESTIVES.  Medicines  which  help 
digestion. 

DIGESTS.  The  first  volume  of  the  civil 
law. 

DIGIT.  A  measure  equal  to  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch-,  also  a  character  denoting 
a  figure,  as  1,  for  one;  2,  for  two,  &c. 

DIGIT  (in  Astronomy).  The  twelfth 
part  of  a  diameter  of  the  sun  or  moon. 

DIGITALIS,  or  Foxglove.  A  kind  of 
plant  which  is  for  the  most  part  herba- 
ceous, with  a  root  that  is  either  biennial 
or  perennial.  The  stalk  of  this  plant  rises 
two  or  three  feet  high,  and  bears  spikes  of 
iron  coloured,  or  purple  flowers.  The  pur- 
ple foxglove  is  a  native  of  England,  and 
is  much  used  in  medicine. 

DIGNITY  (in  Law).  Honour  and  au- 
thority. 

DIGYNIA  (in  Botany).  An  order  in  the 
Linnaean  system,  consisting  of  plants  that 
have  two  pistils. 

DILAPIDATION  (in  Law).  The  ruin 
or  damage  which  accrues  to  a  house,  in 
consequence  of  neglect. 

DILEMMA,  An  argument  which  cannot 
be  denied  in  any  way,  without  involving 
the  party  denying  in  contradictions. 

DILETTANTE.  A  lover  of  the  fine  arts. 

DIMENSION.  The  measure  or  compass 
of  a  thing;  a  line  has  one  dimension, 
namely,  length;  a  surface  two,  namely, 
length  and  breadth;  a  solid  three,  namely, 
length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 

DIMINUTIVE  (in  Grammar),  A  word 
11* 


DIP 


125 


or  ending,  wliich  lessens  the  meaning  of 
the  original  word;  as,  rivulet,  a  small 
river. 

DIOCESAN.  A  bishop  who  has  charge 
of  a  particular  diocese. 

DIOCESE.  The  district  or  circuit  of  a 
bishop's  jurisdiction. 

DIOECIA  (in  Botany).  A  class  in  the 
Linnaean  system,  comprehending  such 
plants  as  have  no  hermaphrodite  flowers, 
but  the  males  and  females  on  distinct  in- 
dividuals, as  the  poplar,  aspen,  amber  tree, 
willow,  ozier,  &;c. 


DIOPTRICS.  That  branch  of  optics, 
which  considers  the  different  refractions 
of  light  in  its  passing  through  different 
mediums,  as  air,  water,  glass,  &:c. 

DIP  OF  THE  MAGNETIC  NEEDLE. 
The  property  of  the  needle,  when  rubbed 
with  the  loadstone,  of  inclining  the  north 
end  below  the  level  of  the  horizon. 

DIP  OF  THE  HORIZON.  See  De- 
pression. 

DIPHTHONG.  Two  vowels  sounded  as 
one;  as,  as. 

DIPLOMA.  A  license  or  certificate 
given  by  colleges,  &c.  to  a  clergyman,  to 
exercise  the  ministerial  functions,  or  to  a 
physician,  to  practice  physic. 

DIPLOMACY.  The  functions  of  an 
ambassador  residing  at  a  foreign  court. 

DIPPING  NEEDLE.  The  magnetical 
needle  so  duly  poised  about  an  horizontal 
axis,  that,  besides  its  direction  towards  the 
pole,  it  will  always  point  to  a  determined 
degree  below  the  horizon.  The  dipping 
needle  was  invented  by  Robert  Norman, 
a  compass  maker  at  Ratcliffe,  about  the 
year  1580,  and  arose,  according  to  his  own 
account  of  the  matter,  from  the  following 
circumstance.  It  was  his  custom  to  finish 
and  hang  the  needles  of  his  compasses 
before  he  touched  them,  and  he  alv/ays 
found,  after  the  touch,  the  north  point 
would  dip  or  decline  downward,  pointing 
in  a  direction  under  the  horizon;  so  that 
to  balance  the  needle  again, he  was  always 
forced  to  put  a  piece  of  wax  on  the  south 
end,  as  a  counterpoise.  After  having  ob- 
served this  effect  frequently,  he  was  at 
length  led  to  mark  the  quantity  of  the 
dip,  or  to  measure  the  greatest  angle  which 
the  dip  would  make  with  the  horizon;  he 
found  at  London  it  was  71°  50',  but  by 


126 


DIS 


subsequent  expcrimenta  the  dip  is  found 
to  decrease  about  1'  4'  every  yeai-> 

DiPTERA  (in  Entomology).  An  order 
in  the  LinnEcan  system,  conipiehending  in- 
sects that  have  two  vvin<;3,  \V:tJi  a  poiser, 
as  the  fly,  the  gnat,  &c. 

DIRECTION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
motion  and  other  phenomena  of  a  planet 
when  it  is  direct,  or  going  forward  in  the 
zodiac  according  to  the  natural  order  of 
the  signs. 

DIRECTION,  LINE  OF  (in  Gunnery). 
The  direct  line  in  which  a  piece  is  pointed. 

DIRECTION  OF  A  LETTER.  The 
superscription  or  address. 

DfRECTlON  POST.  A  post  set  up  in 
roads,  to  direct  the  traveller  to  particular 
places. 

DIRECTION  WORD  (in  Printing). 
The  word  which  begins  the  next  page, 
which  used  to  be  set  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  preceding. 

rJlRECTORi^  (in  England).  A  form  of 
prayer  set  forth  by  the  assembly  of  divines, 
and  used  by  order  of  the  Long  Parliament, 
instead  of  the  Common  Prayer.  I'he 
word  is  applied  in  the  United  States  to 
books  in  the  large  cities  which  point  out 
tlie  names  and  residences  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

DIRGE.  A  song  of  lamentation  at  fune- 
rals. 

DIRK.  A  kind  of  dagger. 

DISBANDED.  An  epithet  used  for  a 
-;giment  discharged  from  service. 

DISC.  The  body  or  face  of  the  sun  or 
moon  as  it  appears  to  us. 

DISC  (in  Optics).  The  magnitude  of  a 
telescope  glass,  or  the  width  of  its  aper- 
ture. 

DISCHARGE  (in  Law).  A  release  from 
confinement. 

DISCHARGE  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
remission  of  service  for  the  time  that  a 
soldier  has  been  engaged. 

DISCHARGER,  or  DISCHARGING 
ROD.  An  instrument  made  of  glass  or 
baked  wool,  by  the  help  of  which  an 
electric  jar  is  discharged. 


DISCLAIMER  (in  Law).  A  plea  con- 
taining an  express  denial. 

DISCIPLINE.  In  general,  a  rule  or 
method  of  eovernment. 

DISCIPLINE  (in  Military  Affairs).  The 
training  up  soldiers  for  service. 

DISCORD.  An  inharmonious  combina- 
tioD  of  PoundjJ. 


DIS 

DISCOVERY  (in  Law).  The  disclosing 
or  revealing  any  thing  by  a  defendant,  in 
his  answer  to  a  bill,  riled  against  him  in  a 
court  of  equity. 

Discount  (in  Commerce}.  An  allow- 
ance made  on  a  bill,  or  any  other  debt  not 
yet  become  due,  in  consideration  of  imme- 
diate payment. 

DISEASE.  That  state  of  a  living  body 
which  interrupts  any  of  its  functions. 

DISEMBOGUING.  A  term  applied  to 
rivers,  which  discharge  themselves  into 
the  sea. 

DISJUNCTIVE.  An  epithet  for  con- 
junctions, which  separate  the  sense,  as 
but,  nor,  &c. 

DISLOCATION.  The  putting  a  bone 
out  of  its  place. 

DlSPAl'CHES.  Letters  sent  to,  or  from 
government,  on  public  business. 

DISPENSARY.  A  charitable  institu- 
tion, where  medicine  and  advice  are  given 
gratis  to  the  poor. 

DISPENSATION  (in  Law).  In  Eng- 
land, an  exclusive  privilege,  to  do  any 
thing  that  is  otherwise  prohibited  by 
law,  granted  by  the  King  in  council. 

DISPENSATION  (in  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs).  An  indulgence  granted  by  the 
Pope,  to  do  what  is  otherwise  forbidden 
by  the  church,  as  the  marriage  of  first 
cousins,  <Slc. 

DISPENSATORY,  or  Pharmacopceia. 
A  book  which  directs  apothecaries,  in  the 
compounding  or  making  up  medicines. 

DISPERSION  (in  Optics).  Ihe  diverg- 
ency of  the  rays  of  light. 

DISPOSITION  (in  Military  Affairs). 
The  placing  an  army  ready  for  attack  or 
defence.  .    ' 

DISPOSITION  (in  Architecture).  The 
just  placing  all  the  several  parts  of  a 
building. 

DISSECTION.  The  cutting  asunder 
animal  bodies,  in  order  to  come  at  the 
knowledge  of  their  parts. 

DISSEISIN  (in  Law).  The  wrongful 
putting  out  of  one,  that  is  seised  of  his 
freehold. 

DISSENTER.  One  who  dissents  or 
departs  from  the  forms  of  the  Church,  as 
established  in  England. 

DISSIPATION  (in  Medicine).  An  in- 
sensible loss  or  consumption  of  the  minuto 
parts  of  a  body. 

DISSIPATION  (in  Optics).  The  Circla 
of  Dissipation  is  that  circular  space  upon 
the  retina,  which  is  taken  up  by  the  laya 
of  each  pencil  in  indistinct  vision. 

DISSOLVENT.  A  liquor  proper  for 
reducing  a  solid  body  to  the  atate  of  a 
fluid. 


DIV 

DISSOLUTION.  The  reducing  of  a 
solid  body  into  a  fluid  state,  by  the  action 
of  some  menstruum  or  dissolvent. 

DISSONANCE  (in  Music).   A  disagree- 
able interval  between  two  sounds,  which 
being  continued  together,  offends  the  ear. 
DISTAFF.     An  instrument    anciently 
used  in  spinning. 

DISTEMPER  (in  Painting).  Colours 
not  mixed  with  oil  or  water,  but  with  size, 
whites  of  eggs,  &,c. 

DISTEMPER  (in  Farriery).  A  disease 
incident  to  dogs,  horses,  and  other  domes- 
tic animals. 

DISTICH.  A  coup-let  or  couple  of 
verses  in  poetry,  making  complete  sense. 

DISTILLATION.  A  chynrical  process 
of  drawing  out  the  humid,  spirituous, 
oleaginous,  or  saline  parts  of  mixed  bodies, 
by  means  of  heat,  these  parts  being  first 
resolved  into  a  gas  or  vapour,  and  then 
recondensed  into  a  fluid,  by  means  of 
cold. 

DISTILLER.  One  who  follows  the  trade 
of  distilling.  The  distillers  arti  one  of  the 
city  companies  in  London,  incorporated  in 
the  reign  of  Clueen  Elizabeth. 

DISTRESS  (in  Law).  The  distraining 
or  seizing  upon  a  person's  goods,  for  the 
payment  of  rent  or  taxes,  fcc. 

DISTRIBUTION  (in  Printing;).  The 
taking  a  form  asunder,  so  as  to  separate 
the  letters. 

DISTRIBUTION  (in  Medicine).  The 
circulation  of  the  chyle  with  the  blood. 

DISTRIBUTION  (in  Logic).  The  dis- 
tinguishing a  whole,  into  its  several  con- 
stituent parts. 

D[STRIBUTIVE  JUSTICE.  Justice 
administered  by  a  judge,  so  as  to  give 
every  man  his  due. 

DISTR[BUTiVE  NOUNS.  Words 
which  serve  to  distribute  things  into  their 
several  orders,  as  each,  either,  every,  <Stc. 

DISTRICT  (in  Law).  That  circuit  or 
territory,  within  which  a  man  may  be 
forced  to  make  his  appearance. 

DITCH.  A  trench  cut  in  the  ground 
about  a  field. 

DITCHER.  A  labourer  who  makes 
ditches. 

DITHYRAMBIC.  A  sort  of  hymn  an- 
ciently sung  in  honour  of  Bacchus;  any 
poem  written  with  wildness. 

DITTO,  abbreviated  Do.  The  same  as 
the  aforesaid;  a  term  used  in  accounts. 

DIVAN.  A  council  of  state  among  the 
Turks;  also  a  court  of  justice. 

DIVER.  A  waterfowl  that  frequents 
lakes,  and  goes  with  difficulty  on  laud. 

DIVERGENT,  or    DIVERGING.    An 


DIV 


127 


epithet  for  several  things  which  have  the 
property  of  divergency. 

Diverging  rays  (in  Optics),  Those 
which,  issuing  from  a  radiant  point,  con- 
tinually recede  from  each  other. 

DIVERGING  SERIES  (in  Mathema- 
tics). A  series,  the  terms  of  which  always 
become  larger,  the  farther  they  are  con- 
tinued. 

DIVIDEND  (in  Arithmetic).  The  num- 
ber to  be  divided. 

DIVIDEND  (in  Commerce).  The  share 
of  profit  in  a  joint  stock,  which  is  to  be 
divided  among  the  shareholders;  also  that 
part  of  a  debtor's  eftects,  which  is  to  be 
divided  among  the  creditors. 

DIVINATION.  A  practice  among  the 
heathens  of  foretelling  future  events,  by 
the  flight  of  birds  or  other  signs. 

DIVINE.  A  minister  of  the  gospel;  a 
clergyman. 

DIVINER.  One  wlio  professes  the  art 
of  divination;  a  conjuror. 

DIVING.  The  art  of  descending  under 
water  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  remain- 
ing there  for  a  length  of  time,  as  occasion 
may  require.  The  practice  of  diving  is 
resorted  to,  for  the  recovery  of  things  that 
are  sunk,  &c. 

DIVING-BELL.  A  contrivance,  by 
which  persons  may  descend  below  the 
water,  and  remain  for  some  time  without 
inconvenience.  It  is  used  for  the  recovery 
of  property,  that  is  sunk  in  wrecks. 


DIVISION.  One  of  the  four  first  rules 
or  operations  in  arithmetic,  by  which  we 
find  how  often  one  quantity  is  contained 
in  another.  There  are  three  numbers  con- 
tained in  this  operation,  namely,  the  divi- 
dend, or  numberto  be  divided;  the  divisor, 
or  that  by  which  one  divides;  and  the 
quotient,  or  that  number  which  shows,  how 
often  the  second  is  contained  in  the  first. 


128 


DOG 


DIVISION  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
body  of  men  commanded  by  a  particular 
officer. 

DIVISION  (in  Music).  That  part  into 
which  an  octave  is  divided,  as  quavers,  &c. 

DIVISION  (in  Printing),  A  mark  to 
divide  compound  words,  as  (-)  in  May-pole, 

DIVORCE  (in  Law),  A  lawful  separa- 
tion of  man  and  wife,  pronounced  by  a 
competent  judge,  on  cognizance  had  of  the 
cause, 

DIURETICS,  Medicines  which  promote 
the  urinary  discharge. 

D,  M,  Doctor  Medicine,  Doctor  of  Me- 
dicine. 

DOCK  (in  Shipbuilding).  A  trench  near 
a  harbour,  fitted  for  the  building  and  re- 
pairing of  ships. 

DOCK  (in  Botany).  A  plant  which  grows' 
wild,  and  infects  corn  fields;  some  species 
of  it  have  medicinal  virtues. 

DOCK  (in  Farriery).  The  stump  of  a 
horse's  tail. 

DOCKET  (in  Commerce).  A  bill  with 
a  direction  tied  to  goods. 

DOCKET  (in  Law).  A  small  piece  of 
paper  or  parchment,  containing  the  heads 
of  a  large  writing;  also  a  subscription  at 
the  foot  of  letters  patent.  '  To  strike  a 
docket,'  is  the  same,  as  to  make  a  man  a 
bankrupt  by  process  of  law. 

DOCKING.  Cutting  off  a  horse's  tail  to 
the  stump. 

DOCTOR.  Literally,  a  teacher;  the 
highest  degree  in  any  fiiculty  in  a  univer- 
sity, as  D.  D.  Doctor  of  Divinity,  M,  D. 
Doctor  of  Medicine,  D.  Mus.  Doctor  of 
Music,  LL.  D.  Doctor  of  Laws. 

DOCTOR'S  COMMONS,  In  England,  a 
college  of  civilians, 

DODECAHEDRON  (in  Geometry).  A 
solid  bounded  by  twelve  equal  and  equi- 
lateral pentagons. 

DODECANDRIA.  One  of  the  Linna;an 
classes,  comprehending  those  plants  which 
have  flowers  with  twelve  stamens  and  up- 
wards, as  far  as  nineteen  inclusive,  as 
dyer's  weed,  purslane,  houseleek,  &c. 


DODO.  A  Einpld,  voracious  bird,  found 
In  the  Isle  of  France. 

DOE.  The  female  of  the  common  or  fal- 
low deer. 


DOM 

animal,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  va- 
rieties are  the  mastiff,  bulldog,  hound, 
greyhound,  spaniel,  terrier,  pointer,  &c. 
The  Monks  of  St.  Bernard  on  the  Alps,' 
have  a  peculiarly  sagacious  breed  of  the 
spaniel,  one  of  which  saved  the  life  of  a 
boy,  whose  mother  was  frozen  to  death  in 
the  snow. 


DOG-DAYS.  Certain  days  in  the  month 
of  July  and  August,  which  are  usually  very 
hot,  owing,  as  is  supposed,  to  the  influence 
of  the  Dogstar,  which  then  rises  and  sets 
with  the  sun. 

DOGE.  The  chief  magistrate  in  the  re- 
publics of  Venice  and  Genoa. 

DOGFISH.  A  fish  of  the  shark  kind. 

DOGGREL.  An  irregular  kind  of  versi- 
fication. 

DOGMATIC  SECT.  An  ancient  sect  of 
physicians,ofwhich  Hippocrates  and  Galen 
were  at  the  head.  They  supposed  princi- 
ples, and  from  them  drew  inferences  appli- 
cable to  particular  cases;  they  were  opposed 
to  the  empirici,  or  theorists,  answering  to 
the  quacks  of  modern  days. 

DOGSTAR,  or  Sinius.  A  star  of  the 
greatest  magnitude  in  the  constellation 
can  is. 

DOG'S  TOOTH.  A  plant,  the  root  of 
Avhich  resembles  the  tooth  of  a  dog. 

DOLLAR,  A  foreign  coin,  equal  to  about 
four  shillings  English, 

DOLPHIN,  An  animal  which,  though 
commonly  reckoned  among  the  fishes,  is 
classed  by  Linnffius  under  the  mammalia. 
It  has  an  oblong  body,  and  swims  with 
great  rapidity. 


DOME.  A  vaulted  roof  or  tower  of  a 
church. 


DOG.  A  domestic,  faithful,  and  valuable  '      DOMESDAY  BOOK.     An  ancient  re- 


DOR 

cord,  made  in  the  reign  of  William  the  Con- 
queror; or  a  book  of  the  survey  of  England, 
containing  an  account  of  all  the  demesnes 
of  the  crown. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER.  One  of  the 
first  seven  letters  in  the  alphabet,  with 
which  the  Sundays  throughout  the  whole 
year  are  marked  in  the  Almanac.  After 
the  term  of  tvt^enty-eight  years,  the  same 
letters  return  in  the  same  order  again. 

DOMINO.  A  game  played  by  two  or 
four  persons,  with  twenty-eight  pieces  of 
ivory,  called  cards. 

DOMINO  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs).  A 
sort  of  hood  worn  by  canons  of  a  cathedral. 

DON.  A  titleof  honour  in  Spain,  answer- 
ing to  Dom,  or  Dominus,  Lord. 

DONATIVE  (in  Law).  A  benefice  given 
to  a  clerk  by  the  patron,  without  presenta- 
tion to  the  bishop. 

DONJON  (in  Fortification).  A  tower  or 
redoubt,  where  the  fortress  may  retreat  in 
case  of  necessity. 

DORIC  ORDER  (in  Architecture).  The 
most  ancient  of  the  Grecian  orders,  made, 
as  is  said,  in  imitation  of  the  hovels  erected 
by  the  original  inhabitants  of  Greece. 


DOW 


129 


DORMER,  or  DORMENT  (in  Archi- 
tecture). A  window  made  in  the  roof  of  a 
building. 

DORSAL.  An  epithet  for  what  belongs 
or  relates  to  the  back,  as  the  dorsal  fins  of 
the  fishes. 


DORMOUSE.     An  animal  of  the  mouse 
kind,  which  remains  torpid  during  winter. 


DOSE.  The  quantity  of  any  medicins 
prescribed  by  the  physician  to  be  taken  by 
the  patient  at  one  time. 

DOSE  (in  Chymistry).  The  quantity  of 
any  substance  which  is  added  to  any  solu- 
tion, in  order  to  produce  any  chymical 
eftect. 

DOTTEREL.  A  foolish  bird,  which  is 
found  in  many  parts  of  England. 

DOUBLE  ENTENDRE.  An  ambigu- 
ous expression,  mostly  intended  to  convey 
some  improper  insinuation. 

DOUBLING  A  CAPE.  A  sea  term,  for 
sailing  round  or  passing  beyond  it. 

DOUBLINGS.  The  turnings  of  a  hare 
when  she  is  pursued. 

DOUBLOON.  A  Spanish  coin,  equal  to 
31.  6s.  sterling. 

DOUCEUR.  A  gift  made  to  gain  the 
favour  or  interest  of  a  person. 

DOVE.  A  wild  pigeon,  of  which  tliere 
are  three  sorts,  namely,  tbe  ring  dove,  the 
largest  of  the  pigeon  tribe,  so  wild  that  it 
cannot  be  domesticated  ;  the  stock  dove, 
that  is  migratory  ;  and  the  turtle  dove,  a 
shy  and  retired  bird  living  in  the  woods. 
These  descriptions  apply  to  the  European 
varieties.  In  America  we  have  several 
kinds  of  pigeon,  of  which  the  passenger 
pigeon  is  the  most  remarkable.  In  the 
western  states  these  birds  assemble  in  such 
countless  numbers,  as  to  darken  the  air  by 
their  flocks,  and  desolate  the  whole  coun- 
tiy  for  miles  around  their  breeding  places. 
The  turtle  dove  of  America  differs  in  some 
measure,  from  the  turtle  dove  of  Europe. 

DOVE-TAILING.  A  method  ofjoining 
one  board  into  another,  by  pins  in  the  one 
fitted  to  holes  in  the  other. 

DOWAGER  (in  Law).  Properly,  a 
widow  who  enjoys  a  dower,  commonly 
applied  as  a  title  to  the  widows  of  princes 
and  nobility. 

DOWER  (in  Law).  The  portion  which 
a  widow  has  of  her  husband's  lands  at  his 
decease. 

DOWLAS.      A  sort  of  linen  cloth. 

DOWN.  The  finest  and  softest  part  of 
the  feathers  of  a  goose  or  other  water  fowl. 

DOWNS.  A  bank  of  sand  formed  by 
the  sea  along  itis  shores  ;  also  a  large  open 
plain. 


130 


DRA 


DR.  An  abbreviation  for  debtor  and 
doctor. 

DRACHM,  The  eiglith  part  of  an 
ounce. 

DRACO.  A  constellation  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere. 

DRACO  VOLANS.  A  meteor  in  tbe 
form  of  a  flying  dragon,  sometimes  visible 
in  marshy  countries. 

DRAFT  (in  Commerce).  A  bill  drawn 
by  one  person  upon  another  for  a  sum  of 
money. 

DRAG.  A  sort  of  hook  to  catch  hold  of 
things  under  water. 

DRAGOMAN.  An  interpreter  in  the 
Eastern  countries,  whose  office  it  is  to  in- 
terpret for  the  European  ambassadors  at 
the  Ottoman  court. 

DRAGON.     See  Flying  Dragon. 

DRAGON  FLY.  A  particularly  raven- 
ous insect,  which  hovers  over  stagnant 
waters. 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD.  A  gum  or  resin 
of  a  tree  in  the  Canaries  and  New  Spain, 
formerly  called  Draco  Arbor,  now  Astra- 
galus ;  it  is  hard,  compact,  moderately 
heavy,  and  of  a  dusky  red  colour,  but  of  a 
bright  scarlet  when  powdered. 

DRAGON'S  HEAD.  One  of  the  nodes 
of  the  planets,  particularly  the  moon,  as 
distinguished  from  the  dragon's  tail.  The 
former,  marked  thus  ( ^ ),  is  tlie  northward 
point,  as  she  ascends  from  the  south  to  the 
north  ;  the  latter  is  the  southward  point, 
marked  (^). 

DRAGOON.  A  soldier  who  fights  some- 
times on  foot  and  sometimes  on  horseback. 

DRAGS.  Floating  pieces  of  timber, 
joined  so  that  they  may  carry  a  load  down 
a  river. 

DRAIN.  A  watercourse  sunk  in  the 
ground  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the 
water. 

DRAINING,  or  LAND  DRAINING. 
The  process  of  carrying  water  ofl"from  the 
land,  sometimes  by  means  of  open  drains, 
but  more  commonly  by  drains  made  to  a 
certain  depth  under  the  ground,  which  are 
filled  with  busliessoas  to  admit  the  water. 

DRAM.     See  Drachm. 

DRAMA.  A  play,  or  any  piece  fitted 
for  theatrical  representation.  Dramas  are 
either  tragedies,  comedies,  operas,  or  farces. 

DRAMATIS  PERSONS.  The  per- 
formers and  characters  in  any  particular 
piece. 

DRAPER.  A  seller  of  cloth  ;  as  a  Avoollen 
draper  and  a  linen  draper.  The  Drapers 
in  London,  are  one  of  the  city  companies, 
incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

DRAUGHT,  or  DRAFT  (in  Architec- 


DRE 

ture).  The  figure  of  an  intended  building, 
described  on  paper. 

DRAUGHT  (in  Navigation).  The  quan- 
tity of  water  which  a  ship  draws  when  she 
is  afloat, 

DRAUGHT  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
detachment  of  soldiers  drawn  off  from  the 
main  army. 

DRAUGHT  (in  Husbandry).  What  per- 
tains to  drawing,  as  draught  horses, 

DRAUGHTS.  A  game  played  with 
pieces  on  a  checkered  board,  like  a  chess 
board,  where  by  particular  movements 
they  are  enabled  to  take  each  other,  accord- 
ing to  certain  rules. 

DRAUGHTSMAN.  One  who  follows 
the  profession  of  taking  plans  and  sketch- 
es, of  buildings  and  places, 

DRAWBACK  (in  Commerce),  An  al 
lowance  made  to  merchants  on  the  expor- 
tation of  goods  which  paid  duty  inwards. 

DRAWBRIDGE.  A  bridge  made  so  aa 
to  let  up  and  down  at  pleasure. 


DRAWER.  Abox  in  a  case,  from  which 
it  may  be  drawn. 

DRAWER  OF  A  BILL.  One  who 
writes  and  signs  a  bill  for  a  sum  of  money 
to  be  paid  to  another. 

DRAWING.  The  art  of  representing 
objects  on  paper,  canvass,  &c.  by  means 
of  a  pencil  or  a  pen;  also  the  representa- 
tions so  jnade,  as  drawings  in  India  ink, 
pencil  drawings,  &;c. 

DRAWINGROOM.  The  room  in  which 
company  assemble  at  court ;  or  to  which, 
in  common  cases,  parties  withdraw  after 
dinner;  also  the  company  assembled  at 
court,  in  Europe,  to  pay  their  respects  to  the 
sovereign. 

DRAW-WELL.  A  deep  well,  in  which 
water  is  drawn  up  by  means  of  a  wheel,  a 
rope,  and  a  bucket. 

DRAY.     A  brewer's  cart. 

DRAYMAN.     The  driver  of  a  dray. 

DREAM.  The  acting  of  the  imagination 
in  sleep,  which  represents  objects  without 
the  help  of  the  senses, 

DREDGE.  A  kind  of  net  for  catching 
oysters, 

DREDGING.    The  process  of  catching 


DRO 

oysters,  by  the  removing  or  dragging  the 
mud  with  dredges,  &c. 

DRESS.     Clotliing  for  the  body. 

DRESS  (in  Husbandry).  Any  stuff,  such' 
as  loam,  sand,  &c.  whicli  is  put  on  land  to 
improve  the  soil. 

DRESSER.  One  employed  in  putting 
on  the  clothes  of  another,  particularly  for 
the  purposes  of  ornament. 

DRESSER  (in  Military  AflFairs).  One 
who  dresses  a  line  of  soldiers,  or  makes 
them  stand  with  an  even  front. 

DRESSER  (in  Housewifery).  A  bench 
on  which  meat  is  dressed  or  prepared  for 
the  cook. 

DRESSING  (in  Husbandry).  The  clean- 
ing of  hemp,  flax,  &c.  so  as  to  prepare  it 
for  spinning. 

DRESSING  (among  Letterfounders). 
The  scraping,  bearding,  &c.  of  letters,  be- 
fore they  are  used  by  the  printer. 

DRESSING  (in  the  Manege).  The  clean- 
ing and  trimming  a  horse. 

DRIFT.  A  sea  term  for  any  thing  that 
floats  upon  the  water;  also  the  course 
which  a  ship  makes  when  she  is  driven  by 
a  storm. 

DRILLING  (in  Military  Affjiirs).  The 
teaching  young  recruits  the  first  principles 
of  military  movements. 

DRILLING  (in  Husbandry).  A  modern 
mode  of  putting  seed  into  the  ground  by  a 
machine  called  a  drilling  machine,  which 
makes  channels  in  the  ground,  and  lets  the 
seed  into  them,  so  that  it  comes  up  in  rows 
at  regular  distances  from  each  other. 

DRINK.  A  liquid  medicine  given  to  a 
horse. 

DRIP.    The  projecting  part  of  a  cornice. 

DROMEDARY.  The  Arabian  camel 
having  one  bunch,  which  is  said  to  be  very 
swift,  and  able  to  travel  more  than  one 
hundred  miles  in  a  day,  though  its  com- 
mon rate  does  not  exceed  40  miles.  See 
Camel. 


DUG 


131 


DROP.  An  ornament  in  pillars  of  the 
Doric  order. 

DROPSY.  A  collection  of  watery  hu- 
mour, either  throughout  the  whole  body,  or 


in  some  part  of  it,  as  the  cavity  of  the 
abdomen. 

DRONE.  A  large  kind  of  bee  or  w^asp, 
which  is  without  a  sting.  It  is  the  male 
of  this  tribe  of  insects. 


DROVERS.  Men  employed  to  drive 
cattle  to,  or  from  market. 

DRUGGET.  A  kind  of  woollen  stuff". 

DRUGGIST.  A  dealer  in  drugs. 

DRUGS.  All  kinds  of  simples,  which  are 
for  the  most  part  dry,  and  fit  for  medicinal 
uses. 

DRUIDS.  A  sort  of  priests  among  the 
ancient  Gauls  and  Britons. 

DRUM.  A  musical  instrument  much 
used  in  the  army,  consisting  of  vellum, 
strained  over  a  wooden  cylinder  on  each 
end,  and  beaten  with  sticks. 


DRUM  (in  Anatomy).  A  membrane  of 
the  cavity  of  the  ear. 

DRUMMER  (in  Military  Aff'airs).  A 
soldier  who  beats  the  drum. 

DRUM  MAJOR.  He  who  has  the  com- 
mand over  the  other  drummers. 

DRUPE  (in  Botany).  A  pulpy  fruit, 
containing  a  nut  or  stone,  with  a  kernel 
like  the  plum. 

DRYADS.  Nymphs  inhabiting  woods. 

DRY  ROT.  A  disease  incident  to  timber 
in  floorings,  &c. 

DUCAT.  A  foreign  coin  of  different 
values.  Dutch  ducats  are  equal  to  9s.  6d. 
sterling. 


132 


DUM 


DUCAL  CORONET.  A  circle  of  gold 
with  eight  strawberry  or  parsley  leaves  of 
equal  height,  about  the  rim. 


DUCATOON.  A  silver  coin  in  Holland, 
worth  about  55.  6d. 

DUCK.  A  water  fowl,  both  wild  and 
tame. 


DUCK,  or  RUSSIA  DUCK  (in  Com- 
merce). The  best  sort  of  canvass. 

DUCKWEED.  A  plant  growing  in 
ditches  and  stagnant  waters ;  it  is  an  an- 
nual much  liked  by  ducks. 

DUCT.  A  channel  or  passage  for  any 
fluid  in  the  body. 

DUCTILITY.  A  property  possessed 
by  certain  bodies,  particularly  metals,  of 
yielding  to  any  pressure,  by  which  their 
parts  may  be  expanded  by  hammering. 

DUEL  (in  Law).  Originally  a  combat 
between  two  persons  for  tlie  trial  of  the 
truth  J  but  now  an  unlawful  battle  between 
two  persons  on  some  private  quarrel,  in 
the  which,  in  England,  if  death  ensue,  both 
the  principal,  and  the  seconds  are  guilty 
of  murder.  In  most  of  the  United  States, 
the  laws  are  similar. 

DUES  (in  Law).  Moneys  due  to  the 
clergy,  as  Easter  offerings,  &c. 

DUET.  A  little  song  in  two  parts. 

DUKE.  A  sovereign  prince  in  Germany; 
the  highest  title  of  honour  in  England 
next  to  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

DUMOS^.  One  of  Linnajus's  natural 
orders  of  plants,  consisting  of  shrubs  and 
bushes,  as  laurels,  firs,  &c. 


DYS 

DUNGEON.  The  darkest,  and  closest 
part  of  a  prison. 

DUODECIMALS,  or  Cross  Multipli- 
cation. A  rule  used  by  workmen  and 
artificers,  in  computing  the  contents  of  their 
work.  Dimensions  are  usually  taken  in 
feet,  inches,  and  parts. 

DUODENARY  ARITHMETIC.  That 
in  which  the  local  value  of  the  figures  in- 
creases in  a  twelvefold  proportion. 

DUPLICATE.  Any  manuscript  copied 
after  another. 

DUPLICATE  RATIO  (in  Geometry). 
The  product  of  a  ratio  multiplied  into 
itself. 

DURA  MATER.  One  of  the  membranes 
which  encloses  the  brain. 

DURANTE  (in  Law).  During,  as  Du- 
rante bene  placito,  during  pleasure  ;  Du- 
rante minore  jetate,  during  minority. 

DURESS.  An  unlawful  imprisonment. 

DUTCIIY.  In  England,  a  seignory  or 
lordship,  formerly  established  by  the  king, 
with  several  privileges,  honours,  &c. 

DUTY.  What  is  paid  or  due,  by  way  of 
custom  on  merchandise  in  general. 

DWARF.  A  man  much  below  the  ordi- 
nary size. 

DWARF  (in  Botany).  A  term  for  plants 
that  grow  low,  as  distinguished  from  those 
of  the  same  kind  which  rise  to  a  consider- 
able height. 

DYKE.  A  bank,  mole,  or  causeway 
raised  to  stop  the  floods. 

DYNAMICS.  The  science  of  moving 
powers,  particularly  of  the  motion  of  bodies 
mutually  acting  on  one  another.  It  is  a 
branch  of  the  science  of  mechanics,  and  is 
distinguished  from  statics  in  this,  that  the 
former  considers  bodies  only  as  regards 
their  motion,  but  the  latter  considers  those 
bodies  when  in  a  state  of  rest,  as  to  their 
equilibrium.  When  fluids,  instead  of 
solids,  are  the  subjects  of  investigation, 
that  which  treats  of  their  equilibrium, 
weight,  pressure,  &c.  is  called  hydrostatics, 
and  that  which  treats  of  their  motion, 
hydrodynamics. 

DYNASTY  A  series  of  princes  who 
have  reigned  successively  in  any  king- 
dom, particularly  applied  to  the  Egyptian 
kings. 

DYSENTERY.  A  difficulty,  or  disturb- 
ance in  the  intestines,  which  impedes  their 
functions. 


EAR 


EAS 


133 


E,  the  fifth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  stood  as 
a  numeral  for  250 ;  stands  as  an  abbrevi- 
ation for  est,  as  i.  e.  id  est ;  also  for  east ; 
as  a  sign  of  particular  notes  in  music. 

EAGLE.  A  bird  of  prey,  said  to  be  the 
swiftest,  strongest,  and  boldest  of  all  birds. 
It  has  a  long  booked  beak,  yellow  scaly 
legs,  thick  crooked  talons,  a  short  tailj^and 
a  very  keen  sight.  The  common  eagle  is 
here  represented. 


The  eagle,  as  a  bearing  in  coat  armour, 
is  reckoned  as  honorable  among  the  birds, 
as  the  lion  is  among  the  beasts.  The  bald 
eagle  is  the  national  emblem  of  the  United 
States. 

EAR.  The  organ  of  hearing  in  an  animal 
body,  which  consists  of  the  external  ear, 
or  all  that  lies  without  the  external  orilice 
of  the  meatus  auditorius,  and  the  internal 
ear,  or  that  which  lies  within  the  cavity  of 
the  OS  temporis. 

EARL.  In  England,  a  title  of  nobility, 
between  a  marquis  and  a  viscount,  now 
the  third  degree  of  rank. 

EARL'S  CORONET.  Has  no  flowers 
raised  above  the  circle,  like  that  of  a  duke 


and  a  marquis,  but  only  points  rising,  and 
a  pearl  on  each  of  them. 

L2 


EARL  MARSHALL  (in  Eng.).  Who 
has  the  care  and  direction  of  funeral  sol- 
emnities. This  office  belongs  by  hereditary 
right  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

EARNEST  (in  Commerce).  Money  ad- 
vanced to  bind  the  parties  to  the  perform- 
ance of  a  verbal  bargain. 

EAR-RING.  An  ornament  hung  on  the 
ears,  particularly  of  women. 

EARTH  (in  Mineralogy).  A  substance 
formerly  considered  as  one  vf  the  four 
elements  of  which  tlie  material  world  is 
composed.  The  term  is  now  applied  to 
such  substances  as  have  neither  taste  nor 
smell,  that  ai^e  incombustible,  and  nearly 
insoluble  in  water,  the  specific  gravity  be- 
ing under  five,  as  lime,  barytes,  silica, 
clay,  &c. 

EARTH  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
primary  planets,  marked  by  the  character 
©.  According  to  the  Ptolemaic  system 
it  was  supposed  to  be  immoveable  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  but  according  to  that 
of  Copernicus,  it  moves  from  west  to  east, 
so  as  to  occasion  the  succession  of  day  and 
night,  and  also  annually  round  the  sun,  so 
as  to  cause  the  different  seasons. 

EARTH  NUTS.  A  kind  of  pin  tit,  tlio 
poda  or  nuts  of  which  ripen  underground. 
The  nuts  yield  a  quantity  of  oil. 

EARTHQUAKE.  A  violent  shock  or 
concussion  of  the  earth,  or  some  parts  of 
it,  caused  by  an  accumulation  of  electrical 
matter  within  the  bowels  of  the  earth, 
which  force  a  passage,  and  cause  much 
destruction  of  houses,  cities,  trees,  and 
whole  tracts  of  country.  In  hot  countries, 
earthquakes  are  most  frequent. 

EARTHWORM.  A  worm  bred  under 
ground,  being  the  common  species  of  the 
worm. 

EARWIG.  An  insect  with  sheath  wings, 
which  was  formerly  imagined  to  creep  into 
the  ear,  but  this  idea  does  not  appear  to 
be  borne  out  by  the  fact,  no  case  of  the 
kind  having  yet  been  witnessed  or  re- 
corded. 

EASEL.  A  frame  on  which  a  painter 
sets  the  cloth,  &c.  to  be  painted. 

EAST.  One  of  the  four  cardinal  poinfs, 
where  the  sun  rises. 

EASTER.  A  solemn  festival  observed 
among  Christians,  in  commemoration  of 
the  resun-ection  of  our  blessed  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  This  feast  was  fixed 
by  the  council  of  Nice,  in  the  year  325,  t<f 


134 


ECH 


be  held  on  the  Sunday  which  falls  upon, 
or  immediately  after  the  full  moon,  which 
happens  next  after  the  twenty-first  of 
March, 

EASTER  OFFERINGS.  In  England, 
money  paid  at  Easter  to  the  parson  of  the 
parish. 

EASTERLING.  A  money  coined  by 
Richard  II.,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
given  rise  to  the  name  of  sterling,  as  applied 
to  English  money. 

EAU  DE  LUCE.  A  fragrant  liquor, 
made  chiefly  of  mastic  dissolved  in  alcohol. 

EAVES,  The  edges  of  the  roof  of  a  house, 
which  overhang  the  wall,  for  the  purpose 
of  throwing  otFthe  water. 

EAVESDROPPER.  One  who  stands 
under  the  eaves  of  houses,  for  the  purpose  of 
listening  to  what  passes  within.  Any  one 
who  listens  slily  to  what  is  said  by  others. 

EBB.  The  retirement  or  going  away  of 
Ihe  tide. 

EBONY.  A  sort  of  black  wood,  which 
admits  of  a  fine  polish.  It  is  the  wood  of 
the  eben  tree,  which  grows  in  India,  Ethi- 
opia, and  the  Levant. 

EBULLITION.  The  effervescence 
which  arises  from  the  mixture  of  an  acid 
and  alkaline  liquor. 

ECCE  HOMO.  A  painting  which  repre- 
sents our  Saviour  in  a  purple  robe,  and 
with  a  crown  of  thorns  on  his  head. 

ECCENTRIC  CIRCLES.  Circles  not 
having  the  same  centre. 

ECCENTRIC  CIRCLE,  or  ECCEN- 
TRIC (in  Modern  Astronomy).  The  circle 
tiiat  circumscribes  the  elliptical  orbit  of 
the  planet. 

ECCENTRICITY  (in  Modern  Astrono- 
my). Is  the  distance  between  the  sun  and 
the  centre  of  the  eccentric. 

ECCLESIASTIC.  A  clergyman;  one 
dedicated  to  the  ministerial  office. 

ECHO.  A  sound  reflected,  or  reverbe- 
rated from  some  body,  and  thence  returned, 
or  repeated  to  the  ear.  Echoing  bodies 
may  be  so  contrived,  as  to  repeat  the  echo 
several  times.  At  Milan  there  is  said  to 
be  an  echo,  which  reiterates  the  report  of 
a  pistol  fifty-six  times,  and  if  the  report  be 
exceedingly  loud,  the  reiteration  will  ex- 
ceed that  number.  The  celebrated  echo 
at  Woodstock,  in  Oxfordshire,  England, 
repeats  the  same  sound  fifty  times.  But 
the  most  singular  echo  hitherto  spoken  of, 
is  that  near  Rosneath,  a  few  miles  from 
Glasgow, Scotland.  If  a  person  placed  at 
a  proper  distance  from  this  echo,  plays 
eight  or  ten  notes  of  a  tune  with  a  trumpet, 
they  are  correctly  repeated  by  the  echo, 
but  a  third  lower;  after  a  short  pause, 
another  repetition  is  heard,  in  a  lower 


EDI 

tone;  and  then,  after  another  interval,  a 
third  repetition  follows  in  a  still  lower  tone. 

ECHO  (in  Architecture).  Any  vault  or 
arch,  constructed  so  as  to  produce  an  arti- 
ficial echo.  These  are  generally  of  a  para- 
bolic or  elliptic  form  :  of  this  kind  is  the 
whispering  gallery  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
London,  and  some  other  large  buildings. 
The  vault  of  the  Pantheon,  Paris,  is  con- 
structed on  similar  principles. 

ECHO  (in  Poetry).  A  sort  of  verse  which 
returns  the  sound  of  the  last  syllable. 

ECHOMETER.  A  kind  of  scale  or  rule 
to  measure  the  duration  of  sounds. 

ECLECTICS.  Ancient  philosophers,who 
adhered  to  no  sect,  but  selected  what  waa 
best  and  most  rational. 

ECLIPSE.  An  obscuration  of  the  sun, 
moon,  or  any  heavenly  body.  An  eclipse 
may  be  either  partial,  when  only  part  of 
the  body  is  darkened,  or  it  may  be  a  total 
eclipse,  when  the  whole  is  darkened.  A 
lunar  eclipse  is  the  depriving  the  moon  of 
the  sun's  light,  by  the  interposition  of  the 
earth  between  the  sun  and  the  moon.  A 
solar  eclipse  is  the  privation  of  light  which 
the  sun  suffers  in  regard  to  us,  by  the  in- 
terposition of  the  moon  between  the  sun 
and  the  earth. 

ECLIPTIC.  A  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 
in  which  the  sun  performs  his  apparent 
annual  motion.  It  is  supposed  to  be  drawn 
through  the  middle  of  the  zodiac,and  makes 
an  angle  with  the  equinoctial  of  nearly 
23°  30',  which  is  called  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic. 

ECLOGUE.  A  pastoral  poem,  wherein 
shepherds  are  introduced  discoursing  toge- 
ther. It  is  so  called  after  the  Eclogues 
of  Virgil. 

ECONOMY.  In  the  general  sense,  the 
regulation  of  things,  or  the  due  distribution 
of  means  to  an  end.  Political  economy 
is  a  science  which  treats  of  the  wealth  and 
resources  of  a  nation,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  may  be  best  employed  to  in- 
crease the  prosperity  of  the  people.  Adam 
Smith  has  treated  at  large  on  this  subject 
in  his  Wealth  of  Nations. 

E  CONTRA.   On  the  contrary. 

ECTHLIPSIS.  Tlie  cutting  off  a  vowel 
or  consonant. 

EDGE.  The  sharp  cutting  part  of  an 
instrument. 

EDGE  TOOL.  A  tool  made  sharp  for 
cutting. 

EDIBLE  ROOTS.  Roots  that  are  fit 
for  food,  as  the  potatoe,  carrot,  &c. 

EDICT.  A  public  ordinance  or  decree 
issued  by  a  prince. 

EDITION.  The  whole  number  of  booka 
of  a  kind  struck  off  at  one  time. 


EGG 

EDULCORATION  (in  Chymistry).Tlie 
washing  of  things  that  have  been  calcined, 
in  order  to  purify  them  from  their  salts. 

EDULCORATION  (in  Pharmacy).  The 
sweetening  any  medicinal  preparation. 

EEL.  A  voracious  slimy  fish,  very  similar 
to  a  lizard,  that  lurks  and  feeds  in  mud. 

EEL  POUT.  A  young  eel. 

EEL  SPEAR.  A  forked  instrument  with 
which  eels  are  caught. 


ELE 


135 


EFFECTIVE  (in  Militarj'  Affairs).  A 
term  for  any  body  of  men  that  are  fit  for 
service. 

EFFECTS.  The  moveables  or  goods  of 
any  merchant,  tradesman,  &c. 

EFFERVESCENCE  (in  Chymistry). 
A  violent  commotion  in  the  parts  of  any 
liquor,  accompanied  with  some  degree  of 
heat. 

EFFICIENT  CAUSE.  Any  cause  that 
actually  produces  an  effect. 

EFFIGY.  Any  representation  whatever 
which  gives,  or  is  intended  to  give,  the 
figure  of  a  person  ;  thus,  the  figure  of  a  man 
dressed  up  and  carried  about  in  derision 
of  any  one,  is  called  his  effigj' ;  when  this 
is  burnt,  the  person  is  said  to  be  burnt  in 
effigy. 

EFFLORESCENCE  (in  Botany).  The 
flowering  of  plants. 

EFFLORESCENCE  (in  Chymistry). 
The  conversion  of  any  body  into  a  dry 
powder. 

EFFLUVIA.  Small  particles,  perpetu- 
ally flowing  out  of  mixed  bodies  in  the 
form  of  vapours,  which  are  sometimes 
visible,  as  in  the  case  of  smoke  or  steam  ; 
and  sometimes  not  perceptible,  as  insensi- 
ble perspiration. 

EFFUSION.  The  pouring  out  a  liquor, 
so  that  the  sediment  may  remain. 

EFFUSION  (in  Surgery).  The  natural 
secretion  of  fluids  from  the  vessels. 

EFT.  A  sort  of  lizard,  which  has  a  body 
covered  with  scales. 

E.  G.  An  abbreviation  for  Exempli 
gratia,  that  is,  for  example,  or  by  way  of 
example. 

EGG .  The  foetus  or  production  of  feather- 
ed fowls ;  that  which  they  lay,  and  from 
which  they  hatch  their  young;  also  the 
spawn  or  sperm  of  other  creatures.  The 
eggs  of  birds  are  composed  of  the  shell,  or 
externa]  coating,  a  thin,  white,  and  strong 


membrane,  the  albumen  or  white,  and  the 
yolk. 

EGLANTINE.  The  wild  rose. 

EGRET.  A  bird  of  the  heron  tribe. 

EIDER-DUCK.  A  kind  of  duck  remark- 
able for  the  softness  of  its  down. 

EiDOURANION.  An  exhibition  of  the 
heavens  and  the  heavenly  bodies. 

EJECTMENT.  A  writ  or  action  which 
lies  for  the  lessee  for  a  term  of  years,  who 
is  cast  out  before  his  term  is  expired  ;  also 
the  putting  any  one  out  of  an  estate  by  a 
legal  process. 

ELASTICITY.  That  property  of  bodies, 
of  restoring  themselves  to  their  former  figure 
after  any  externa!  pressure.  Elasticity  is 
increased  by  augmenting  the  density  of 
bodies;  thus  metals  are  rendered  more 
elastic  by  being  beaten  by  a  hammer:  it 
is  also  sometimes  increased  by  cold  ;  thus 
the  strings  of  a  violin  recover  their  situa- 
tion with  less  force  in  hot,  than  in  cold 
weather. 

ELECTION  (in  Law).  The  choice  of 
two  remedies,  either  of  which,  when  clio- 
sen,  the  party  is  compelled  to  abide. 

ELECTION.  The  choosing  of  persons 
to  a  particular  office  or  situation  by  a  ma- 
jority of  voices,  as  in  England  the  election 
of  parish  officers,  or  the  election  of  mem- 
bers of  parliament,  which  takes  place  eve- 
ry seven  years.  The  state  elections  here, 
are  generally  annual.  The  President, 
and  Vice  President  are  elected  once  in  four 
years. 

ELECTIVE  ATTRACTION.  Another 
name  for  chymical  affinities. 

ELECTOR  (in  Political  Affairs).  The 
title  of  such  German  princes  as  formerly 
had  a  voice  in  tlie  election  of  the  emperor 
of  Germany. 

ELECTOR  (in  English  Law).  Any  one 
who  has  the  right  of  giving  his  voice  at  an 
election,  particularly  at  an  election  of  a 
member  of  parliament.  The  term  is  appli- 
ed in  America  to  voters  generally.  In 
most  of  the  states,  those  citizens  who  pay 
taxes  are  electors. 

ELECTRIC.  A  term  for  any  substance 
capable  of  being  excited  either  by  friction 
or  otherwise  so  as  to  exhibit  the  phenome- 
na of  electricity.  Bodies  thus  capable  of 
accumulating  and  retaining  the  electric 
fluid  are  impervious  to  its  power,  and  it 
should  seem  that  in  proportion  as  they  are 
capable  of  being  excited,  so  are  they  less 
pervious;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  those 
wliich  are  more  pervious  are  less  capable 
of  excitation.  They  are  called  electrics,  or 
nonconductors,  in  distinction  from  those 
which  are  capable  of  receiving  and  trans- 
mitting electricity,  and  on  that  account 


136 


ELE 


called  conductors.  To  the  class  of  electrics 
belong  resins,  bitumens,  glass,  dry  animal 
substances,  feathers,  paper,  white  sugar, 
oils,  chocolate,  &c.  Substances  of  this  de- 
scription may  be  excited,  so  as  to  exhibit 
the  electric  appearances  of  attracting  and 
repelling  light  bodies,  emitting  a  spark  of 
light,  attended  with  a  snapping  noise,  and 
yielding  a  current  of  air,  the  sensation  of 
which  resembles  that  of  a  spider's  web 
drawn  over  the  face,  and  a  smell  like  that 
of  phosphorus.  This  excitation  may  be 
effected  either  by  friction,  or  by  heating 
and  cooling,  or  by  melting  and  pouring  one 
melted  substance  into  another. 

ELECTRIC  FLUID.  A  fine  rare  fluid, 
supposed  to  issue  from  and  surround  elec- 
trical bodies. 

ELECTRICAL  APPARATUS.  The 
various  instruments  and  machines  neces- 
sary for  the  most  usual  experiments  in 
electricity  are  two  or  three  glass  tubes, 
from  three  to  five  feet  in  length,  and  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  one  of  which 
should  be  closed  at  one  end,  and  furnished 
at  the  other  end  with  a  brass  cap  and 
stopcock,  to  rarefy  or  condense  the  en- 
closed air  ;  insulated  stools  or  supports  of 
various  forms,  wires,  fine  brass  chains, 
sticks  of  sealing  wax,  or  cylinders  of  baked 
wood,  for  producing  the  negative  elec- 
tricity ;  proper  rubbers,  as  black  oiled  silk, 
with  amalgam  upon  it,  and  soft  new  flan- 
nel or  hare  or  cat  skins  tanned  vi'ith  the 
iiair  on  ;  coated  jars,  or  plates  of  glass, 
either  single  or  combined  in  a  battery  for 
accumulating  electricity  j  metal  rods,  or 
dischargers;  an  electrical  machine,  elec- 
trometers, &c. 

ELECTRICAL  BATTERY.  A  number 
of  coated  jars  connected  with  each  other, 
which  being  charged  or  electrified  are  then 
exploded  or  discharged  with  prodigious 
effect. 


ELECTRICAL  EEL.     A  particular  sort 
of  fish,  so  called  from  its  power  of  pro- 


ELE 

ducing  an  electrical  shock  whenever  it  is 
touched. 

ELECTRICAL  JAR.  See  Letden 
Phial. 

ELECTRICAL  KITE.  A  contrivance 
devised  by  Dr.  Franklin,  for  verifying  his 
hypothesis  respecting  the  identity  of  elec- 
tricity and  lightning.  It  consists  of  a  large 
thin  silk  handkerchief,  extended  and  fast- 
ened at  the  four  corners  to  two  slight  strips 
of  cedar,  and  accommodated  with  a  tail, 
loop,  and  string,  so  as  to  rise  in  the  air 
like  a  paper  kite.  To  the  top  of  the  upright 
stick  of  the  cross  was  fixed  a  sharp  pointed 
wire,  rising  a  foot  or  more  above  the  wood, 
and  to  the  end  of  the  twine,  next  the  hand, 
was  attached  a  silk  riband.  From  a  key 
suspended  at  the  union  of  the  twine  and 
silk,  when  the  kite  is  raised  during  a 
thunder  storm,  a  phial  may  be  charged, 
and  electric  fire  collected,  as  is  usually 
done  by  means  of  a  rubbed  glass  tube  or 
globe  :  kites  made  of  paper,  covered  with 
varnish,  or  with  well  boiled  linseed  oil,  in 
order  to  preserve  them  from  the  rain,  with 
a  stick  and  cane  bow,  like  those  of  school- 
boys, will  answer  the  purpose  extremely 
well,  particularly  in  determining  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  atmosphere. 

ELECTRICAL  MACHINE,  The  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  electrical  apparatus  so 
constructed  as  to  be  capable  of  exciting  a 
great  quantity  of  the  electric  fluid,  and 
exhibiting  its  efiects  in  a  very  sensible 
manner.  It  is  constructed  in  various  forms, 
but  the  cylindrical  machine  is  in  most 
common  use.  This  consists  of  a  glass  cyl- 
inder, fixed  in  such  manner  that  it  maybe 
turned  with  a  winch ;  a  cushion,  supported 


by  a  glass  pillar,  and  having  a  piece  of  silk 
which  comes  between  it  and  the  cylinder  ; 


ELE 

and  a  tube,  supported  by  a  glass  pillar, 
which  is  called  the  prime  conductor,  or 
simply  the  conductor.  A  more  modern 
invention,  called  the  Plate  IMachine,  is 
here  represented. 

ELECTRICAL  RUBBER.  A  part  of 
the  electrical  apparatus,  consisting  of  black 
oiled  silk,  which  serves  to  aid  the  friction 
in  the  electrical  machine. 

ELECTRICAL  SHOCK.  The  sudden 
explosion  between  the  opposite  sides  of  a 
charged  electric  ;  also  the  elfect  produced 
on  the  frame  in  the  act  of  being  electrifi- 
ed. 

ELECTRICITY,  or  Electric  Power. 
That  property  first  discovered  in  amber  of 
attracting  light  bodies  when  excited  by 
heat  or  friction.  This  property,  which 
derives  its  name  from  the  Greek  Electron, 
amber,  in  which  it  was  first  observed,  has 
since  been  found  in  other  bodies,  as  seal- 
ing wax,  agate,  and  most  kinds  of  precious 
stones,  and  has  also,  by  subsequent  dis- 
coveries, been  found  capable  <jf  being 
communicated  under  diiierent  circum- 
stances. 

ELECTRICITY.  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  electric  power,  and  its  vari- 
ous laws,  operations,  effects,  experiments, 

&.C. 

ELECTRICITY,  History  of.  It  does 
not  appear  that  the  ancients  had  anything 
more  than  an  imperfect  and  partial  know- 
ledge of  the  electric  fluid.  Thales,  the 
Milesian,  who  lived  about  six  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  was  aware  of  the 
electrical  property  of  amber,  that  when 
rubbed  it  would  attract  light  bodies  to 
itself;  and  Theophrastus  observed  that 
lyncurium  or  tourmalin  possessed  the  same 
property,  but  beyond  this  there  is  no  men- 
tion of  the  subject,  either  by  this  or  any 
other  writer,  until  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  Dr.  William  Gilbert,  a  native  of 
Colchester,  published  his  treatise  '  De 
Magnete,'  in  which  we  find  many  impor- 
tant and  interesting  particulars.  These  re- 
ceived farther  illustration  from  the  experi- 
ments of  Boyle,  Otto  Guericke,  Dr.  Wall, 
and  some  others,  but  more  especially  from 
Mr.  Hawksbee,  who,  in  his  work  on  elec- 
tricity, first  noticed  the  electrical  power  in 
glass,  and  the  light  proceeding  from  it. 
He  also  first  heard  the  snapping  noise  that 
accompanies  excitation,  and  noticed  the 
different  phenomena  relating  to  electrical 
attraction  and  repulsion  :  besides,  by  intro- 
ducing the  glass  globe  into  the  electrical 
apparatus,  he  much  facilitated  his  own 
experiments  and  those  of  others.  After 
an  interval  of  about  twenty  years,  Mr. 
Stephen  Grey  added  very  materially  to  the 
1-2* 


ELE 


187 


science  of  electricity  by  numerous  impor- 
tant experiments.  He  first  showed  how 
the  power  of  native  electrics  might  be 
communicated  to  other  bodies  in  which  it 
cannot  be  excited,  by  supporting  them  on 
silken  lines,  hair  lines,  cakes  of  resin  or 
glass.  He  also  more  accurately  distinguish- 
ed between  electrics  and  nonelectrics,  and 
displayed  t;  effect  of  electricity  on  water 
more  clearly  than  Gilbert  had  done. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Grey  were 
elucidated  and  enlarged  by  M.  du  Fay, 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris.  He  observed  that  electrical  opera- 
tions were  obstructed  by  great  lieat,  as 
well  as  by  a  moist  air  ;  that  all  bodies,  both 
solid  and  fluid,  would  receive  electricity, 
when  placed  on  warm  or  dry  glass  or  seal- 
ing wax  :  that  those  bodies  which  are  nat- 
urally the  least  electric  have  the  gieatest 
degree  of  electricity  communicated  to  them 
by  the  approach  of  the  excited  tube.  He 
first  observed  the  electric  spark  from  a 
living  body  suspended  on  silken  lines, 
and  established  a  principle  first  suggested 
by  Otto  Guericke,  that  all  electric  bodies 
attract  others  that  are  not  so,  and  repel 
them  as  soon  as  they  are  become  electric 
by  the  vicinity  or  contact  of  the  electric 
body.  He  likewise  distinguished  elec- 
tricity into  two  kinds,  wliich  he  called  vit- 
reous, as  belonging  to  glass,  rock,  crystal, 
&c.,  and  resinous,  as  applied  to  that  of  am- 
ber, gum,  lac,  &c. ;  the  former  of  these 
has  since  been  called  positive  electricity, 
and  the  latter  negative. 

Mr.  Grey  resumed  his  experiments  in 
1734,  the  result  of  which  was  the  discovery 
of  conductors.  He  also  concluded  from 
several  experiments  that  the  electrical 
power  was  of  the  same  nature  as  that  of 
thunder  and  lightning.  Desaguliers  and 
other  experimentalists  in  France,  England, 
and  Germany,  followed  up  the  experiments 
of  Mr.  Grey  with  further  researches,  which 
displayed  the  power  of  electricity  in  new 
forms,  particularly  by  the  discovery  that 
if  electricity  be  accumulated  in  a  phial,  it. 
may  be  discharged  again  so  as  to  occasion 
the  electric  shock.  Mr.  Van  Kleist,  of 
Leyden,  first  observed  the  property  of  the 
phial,  and  Cunajus  followed  it  by  exhibit- 
ing the  experiment.  Mr.  Sluschenbrock, 
who  also  tried  the  experiment  with  a  very 
thin  bowl,  assured  M.  Reaumur,  in  a  letter, 
that  he  felt  himself  struck  in  his  arms, 
shoulder,  and  breast,  so  that  he  lost  his 
breath,  and  was  two  days  before  he  reco- 
vered from  the  effects  of  the  blow,  and 
the  terror  which  this  unexpected  result 
produced.  He  added  that  he  would  not 
receive  a  second  shock  for  the  whole  king- 


138 


ELE 


dom  of  France.  M.  AUemand  made  the 
experiment  with  a  common  beer  glass, 
from  which  he  found  himself  powerfully 
affected  in  his  breath,  and  felt  so  severe  a 
pain  all  along  his  right  arm,  that  he  appre- 
hended serious  consequences  from  it.  These 
inconveniences,  however,  passed  off  after 
a  few  days,  and  others  being  induced  to 
repeat  the  experiment,  tlie  practice  of 
electricity  became  soon  after  common,  and 
was,  after  a  time,  also  applied  to  medical 
purposes.  iVlachines  of  different  forms  were 
now  invented,  and  the  electrical  apparatus 
was  continually  enlarged,  by  some  new 
device,  to  increase  the  force  or  direct  the 
operations  of  the  electricity  ;  among  other 
things,  when  it  was  ascertained  that  liglit- 
ning  was  no  other  than  electrical  matter, 
conducting  rods  began  to  be  employed  on 
the  tops  of  buildings  and  on  the  masts  of 
vessels,  for  the  purpose  of  saving  them 
from  the  effects  of  storms.  Many  important 
treatises  on  tlie  science  of  electricity  have 
been  written  within  the  last  century,  by 
Adams,  Cavallo,  Cavendish,  Ferguson, 
Jilorgan,  Van  Marum,  Van  Swinden,  &c. 

ELECTRIFYING.  The  communication 
of  electric  matter  to  any  body  3  when  this 
is  effected  by  means  of  a  charged  phial,  it 
is  called  an  electric  shock. 

ELECTROMETER.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  quantity  and  determining 
the  quality  of  the  electricity  in  any  electri- 
fied body. 


ELECTROPKORUS.  A  machine  con- 
sisting of  two  plates,  one  of  which  is  a 
r-esinous  electric  and  the  other  metallic. 
When  the  former  is  once  excited  by  a 
peculiar  application  of  the  latter,  the  in- 
.strument  will  furnish  electricity  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  This  is  one  of  the  inge- 
nious contrivances  devised  by  Professor 
Volta,  about  the  year  1774,  which  may 
serve  aa  a  good  substitute  for  the  electrical 
uiaohiue.     When  properly  constructed,  it 


ELE 

has  been  known  to  retain  its  electricity  for 
three  weeks. 

ELECTUARY  (in  Pharmacy).  A  me- 
dicinal composition,  in  which  honey  or 
sirup  forms  a  necessary  ingredient. 

ELEGIAC  VERSE.  A  sort  of  verse  used 
in  elegies. 

ELEGY.  A  plaintive  kind  of  poetry,  or 
a  funeral  song. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Chymistry).  The  first 
principles  of  which  bodies  were  supposed 
by  the  ancients  to  be  composed  ;  these  were 
fire,  air,  earth,  and  water.  In  modern 
chymistry  no  such  elementary  principles 
are  admitted,  because  it  is  considered  that 
all  bodies  either  are  or  may  be  decom- 
posed. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Geometry).  The  infi- 
nitely small  parts  of  a  right  line,  curve,  or 
solid. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Science).  The  first 
principles  of  any  science. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Divinity).  The  bread 
and  wi:»e  prepared  for  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Grammar).  The  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  w'hich  are  the  elements  of 
language. 

ELEPHANT.  The  largest,  strongest,and 
most  sensible  of  all  quadrupeds.  It  is  not 
carnivorous,  but  feeds  on  herbs,  and  all 
sorts  of  pulse.  It  is  naturally  very  gentle, 
but  when  enraged  is  very  terrible.  It  is 
common  in  the  central  and  southern  parts 
of  Africa,  and  in  India.  In  the  latter 
country  it  is  tamed  and  rendered  useful  as 
a  beast  of  burden.  There  is  a  white  spe- 
cies, which  in  the  Birman  Empire,  is  re- 
verenced by  the  people.  In  central  Africa, 
Major  Denham  saw  a  herd  of  150. 


ELEVATION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
height  of  the  equator,  pole,  or  star,  &c. 
above  the  horizon. 

ELEVATION  (in  Architecture).  A 
draught  or  description  of  the  face  or  prin- 
cipal side  of  a  building,  which,  in  common 
language,  is  called  the  upright. 


ELM 

ELEVATION  (in  Gunneiy).  The  angle 
which  the  chase  of  a  cannon  or  mortar 
ftiakes  with  tlie  place  of  the  horizon. 

ELEVATION  OF  THE  HOST  (in  the 
Romish  Church).  That  part  of  the  ceremony 
of  the  mass  which  consists  in  the  priest's 
raising  the  host  above  his  head,  for  the 
adoration  of  the  people. 

ELF.  A  wandering  spirit  supposed  to  be 
seen  in  unfrequented  places. 

ELGIN  MARBLES.  Curious  marbles 
brought  by  the  Earl  of  Elgin  out  of  Greece, 
and  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 

ELISION  (in  Grammar).  The  striking 
out  a  vowel  at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  '  th' 
arch,'  for  '  the  arch.' 

ELIXIR.  A  very  powerful  tincture. 
The  Grand  Elixir  is  another  word  for  an 
all-powerful  medicine. 

ELK.  The  largest  of  the  deer  kind,  and 
inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  both  conti- 
nents.   It  is  called  Moose  in  America. 


EMB 


139 


ELL.  A  measure  of  length,  different  in 
different  countries.  The  English  and  Flem- 
ish ells  are  the  most  used  :  the  former  of 
which  is  three  feet  nine  inches,  or  one  yard 
and  a  quarter ;  the  latter  only  three  quar- 
ters of  a  yard. 

ELLIPSIS,  or  ELLIPSE.  A  curve 
which  cuts  the  cone  obliquely  through  both 
sides.    It  is  vulgarly  called  an  oval,  as  in 


the  subjoined  figure,  A  H  B  I,  where 
A  B  is  the  transverse  diameter,  H  I  the 
conjugate  diameter. 


ELM.  A  sort  of  tree  which  gi-ows  to  a 
very  great  height,  and  thrives  best  in  a 
rich  black  earth.  The  timber  of  elm  in 
England  is  next  to  that  of  oak  for  value, 
being  particularly  useful  for  mills. 

ELOCUTION  (in  Rhetoric).  The  adapt- 
ing words  and  sentences,  to  the  things  or 
sentiments  to  be  expressed.  It  consists  in 
apt  expressions,  the  happy  order  in  dis- 
posing the  words,  and  a  certain  musical 
cadence  which  arises  from  the  whole. 

ELONGATION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
removal  of  a  planet  to  the  farthest  distance 
it  can  be  from  the  sun,  as  it  appears  to  an 
observer  on  tbe  earth. 

ELOPEMENT  (in  Law).  The  volun- 
tary departure  of  a  wife  from  her  husband 
to  go  and  live  with  an  adulterer  ;  in  com- 
mon acceptation,  the  secret  departure  of 
any  female  with  her  lover. 

ELYSIAN  FIELDS.  The  paradise  of 
the  heathens. 

EMANCIPATION.  A  deliverance  from 
slavery  or  servitude ;  also  the  release  of 
the  Roman  Catholics  from  the  disabilities, 
which  prevented  them  from  filling  ofiices 
of  state. 

EMBALMING.  The  filling  a  dead  body 
with  spices,  gums,  and  other  antiseptics,  to 
prevent  it  from  putrifying.  The  Egyptians 
practised  this  art  most  successfullj',  so  that 
bodies  which  they  embalmed  two  thousand 
years  ago,  remain  whole  to  this  day. 

EMBARGO  (in  Commerce).  A  prohi- 
bition issued  by  authority  on  all  shipping, 
not  to  leave  any  port. 

EMBER  DAYS.  Particular  days  of  fast- 
ing and  humiliation  in  the  Ember  weeks. 

EMBER  WEEKS.  Four  seasons  in  the 
year,  more  particularly  set  apart  for  prayer 
and  fasting,  namely,  the  first  week  in  Lent, 
the  next  after  Whitsuntide,  the  fourteenth 
of  September,  and  the  thirteenth  of  De- 
cember. 

EMBEZZLEMENT.  The  appropriating 
a  thing  to  one's  own  use,  which  has  been 
intrusted  to  one. 

EMBLEM.  A  kind  of  painted  enigma, 
or  certain  figures  painted  or  cut  metaphor- 
ically, expressing  some  action. 

EMBOSSING.  A  sort  of  sculpture  or 
carving,  where  the  figure  is  protuberant, 
and  projects  from  the  plane  in  which  it  is 
cut. 

EMBRASURE  (in  Architecture).  An 
enlargement  made  in  a  wall. 

EMBRASURE  (in  Fortification).  A 
hole  in  a  parapet  for  the  reception  of  a  gun. 

EMBROCATION.  A  kind  of  fomenta- 
tion. 

EMBROIDERY.  Figured  work 
wrought  on  silk,  cloth,  or  stuffs. 


140 


EN  A 


EMBRYO.  The  foetus,  or  child  in  the 
womb. 

EMENDATION.  An  alteration  made 
in  the  text  of  any  book  by  verbal  criticism. 

EMENDATION  (in  Law).  The  correc- 
tion of  abuses. 

EMERALD.  A  precious  stone  of  a 
green  colour,  and  next  in  hardness  to  the 
ruby. 

EMERSION  (In  Astronomy).  The  re- 
appearance of  the  sun  and  moon  after  they 
have  undergone  an  eclipse  ;  also  of  a  star 
that  emerges  from  under  the  rays  of  the 
sun. 

EMERY.  A  sort  of  iron  ore,  of  a  gray- 
ish-black colour,  so  very  hard  as  to  scratch 
topaz,  and  not  to  be  frangible.  It  consists 
of  alumina,  silica,  and  iron,  and  is  used  in 
the  form  of  a  powder  for  polishing  hard 
minerals  and  metals. 

EMEU.  A  large  bird  of  the  ostrich  kind, 
peculiar  to  New  Holland.  Several  of  these 
birds  have  been  bred  at  the  King's  park  at 
Windsor,  England. 

EMIGRANT.  A  person  removing  from 
his  native  country  to  reside  in  some  foreign 
land. 

EMIR.  A  title  of  dignity  among  the 
Saracens  and  Turks. 

EMISSARY.  A  secret  agent  sent  to 
sound  the  sentiments  and  designs  of  ano- 
ther. 

EMMET.     An  ant  or  pismire. 

EMOLLIENTS.     Softening  medicines. 

EMPALEMENT  (in  Botany).  The 
flower  cup,  or  the  gi-een  leaves  which  cov- 
er the  flower. 

EMPANNEL.  The  writing  the  names 
of  a  jury  into  a  small  pannel  or  parch- 
ment, or  making  out  a  list  of  such  as  are 
to  be  summoned  to  serve  on  a  jury. 

EMPEROR.  Among  the  Romans,  im- 
perator,  or  commander,  a  title  of  political 
dignity  assumed  by  Augustus  and  his  suc- 
cessors ;  now  a  sovereign  prince  who  bears 
rule  over  large  countries. 

EMPIRIC.  Literally,  a  trier  or  experi- 
menter ;  particularly,  one  who,  without 
regard  to  the  rules  of  science,  makes  ex- 
periments with  medicines;  a  quack. 

EMPORI QM.  A  common  resort  of  mer- 
chants for  trade. 

EMPYREUMA.  The  peculiar  smell  of 
burnt  substances  in  distillation. 

EMULSION.     A  medicinal  drink. 

ENAMEL  (in  Anatomy).  The  fine  ex- 
terior covering  of  the  teeth. 

ENAMEL  (in  Painting).  A  composition 
of  mineral  colours,  formed  from  metallic 
oxide,  and  used  in  potteries. 

ENAMELLER.  One  who  professes  the 
art  of  painting  with  enamel  colours. 


ENG 

ENCAMPMENT.  The  pitching  of 
tents  or  disposing  an  army  in  an  open 
country. 

ENCHANTMENT.  Magical  charms 
practised  for  purposes  of  fraud. 

EJSTCHASING.  The  beautifying  gold, 
silver,  and  other  metal  works  by  figures. 
It  is  practised  only  on  hollow  thin  works, 
as  watchcases,  caneheads,  and  the  like.  It 
is  performed  by  punching  or  driving  out 
the  metal  to  form  the  figure,  so  as  to  stand 
out  prominent  from  the  surface  of  the 
metal. 

ENCHYRIDION.  A  manual  or  small 
volume. 

ENCLOSING.  The  parting  oif  of  com- 
mon grounds,  into  distinct  possessions. 

ENCORE.  Literally,  again ;  to  be  re- 
peated, as  applied  to  any  song  or  perform- 
ance in  a  theatre. 

ENCROACHMENT  (in  Law).  An  un- 
lawful gaining  upon  the  rights  and  posses- 
sions of  another. 

ENCYCLOPiEDIA.  A  dictionary  which 
professes  to  explain  the  whole  circle  of  the 
sciences. 

ENDEMIC.  An  epithet  for  disorders  to 
which  the  inhabitants  of  particular  coun- 
tries are  subject. 

ENDIVE.  An  herbaceous  plant,  a  sort 
of  succory,  used  as  a  vegetable  for  the  ta- 
ble. 

ENDORSING.  Writing  on  the  back  of 
a  bill  of  exchange  or  check. 

ENDOWMENT  (in  England).  The 
giving  or  assuring  a  dower  to  a  woman  ; 
also  the  assigning  certain  rents  and  reven- 
ues for  the  maintenance  of  a  vicar,  alms- 
houses, &c. 

ENFRANCHISEMENT  (in  Law).  The 
making  a  person  a  denizen,  or  free  citi- 
zen. 

ENGINE  (in  Mechanics).  A  compound 
machine,  consisting  of  one  or  more  me- 
chanical powers,  as  of  screws,  levers,  pul- 
lies,  (fcc.  in  order  to  raise,  cast,  or  sustain 
any  weighty  body. 

ENGINEER.  One  whose  office  is  to 
conduct  the  attack  and  defence  of  all  for- 
tresses. 

ENGLISH,  or  the  ENGLISH  LAN- 
GUAGE. A  compound  of  the  original 
British  or  Welsh,  tlie  Anglo-Saxon,  Nor- 
man, Frencli,  Tviitiii,  and  Greek,  which  is 
now  spoken  not  only  in  all  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  but  throughout  North  America  and 
all  the  English  colonies  in  different  parts 
of  the  habitable  globe. 

ENGRAVING.  The  art  of  representing 
figures  in  metal,  wood,  or  stone,  by  means 
of  lines  cut  thereon. 

ENGRAVING,   History   of.    Engrav- 


ENGRAVING. 


141 


iiig,  as  far  as  regards  the  representation  of 
figures  or  characters  on  metal,  stone,  or 
wood,  was  one  of  the  first  arts  on  which 
human  ingenuity  was  exercised,  Moses 
speaks  of  the  art  of  engraving  as  no  new 
invention-  The  tables  which  God  deliver- 
ed to  Moses  are  said  to  be  the  work  of  God, 
and  the  writing  was  the  writing  of  God 
engraved  upon  the  tables.  The  first  en- 
gravings of  human  workmanship  mention- 
ed in  the  Scriptures,  were  executed  by  Aho- 
liab  and  Bezaleel,  for  tlie  decoration  of  the 
tabernacle  and  the  ornaments  for  the  dress 
of  Aaron.  It  is  also  said  that  the  tables  of 
Seth  contained  the  astronomical  discove- 
ries of  that  patriarch  and  his  sons.  .  In 
process  of  time  we  find  that  the  clasps, 
buckles,  rings,  and  other  ornamental  parts 
of  dress,  as  also  the  cups  and  other  house- 
hold furniture,  together  with  the  arms  of 
military  chieftains,  were  probably  enriched 
with  the  first  specimens  of  engraving.  The 
shields  of  the  Carians,  as  described  by 
Herodotus,  were  ornamented  with  rude 
portraitures,  as  were  also  those  of  the  an- 
cient Celtic  nations,  but  the  hieroglyphic 
figures  of  the  Egj^ptians  afibrd  the  best  and 
eai-Jiest  specimens  of  engraving  properly 
so  called.  The  Phoenicians  probably  learn- 
ed this  art  from  the  Egyptians ;  and  their 
fcoins,  which  are  looked  upon  to  be  among 
the  most  ancient  extant,  prove,  as  Mr. 
Strutt  observes,  that  they  were  by  no  means 
indiflferent  artists.  It  is,  however,  gener- 
ally supposed,  that  there  are  no  remains  in 
antiquity,  either  in  sculpture,  painting,  or 
engraving,  prior  to  those  of  Etruscan  orig- 
inal. Some  of  those  which  are  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum  are  exceedingly 
rude,  and  evidently  executed  with  the 
graver  only  upon  a  flat  surface,  and  if  fill- 
ed with  ink  and  run  through  a  printing 
press,  provided  the  plate  would  endure  the 
operation,  might  produce  a  fair  and  perfect 
impression. 

The  art  of  engraving  on  their  shields 
was  practised  by  the  Saxons,  in  common 
with  the  other  northern  tribes.  Alfred  the 
Great  encouraged  this  among  the  other 
arts,  and  the  works  of  the  Saxon  artists, 
as  their  shrines  and  caskets,  rose  by  his 
encouragement  and  that  of  his  successors, 
considerably  in  estimation,  not  only  in 
England  but  on  the  continent.  Strutt  men- 
tions a  curious  remnant  of  antiquity  in  the 
Museum  at  Oxford,  namely,  a  very  valu- 
able jewel,  made  of  gold,  and  richly 
adorned  with  a  kind  of  work  resembling 
filagree,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  seen  the 
half  figure  of  a  man,  supposed  to  be  Saint 
Cuthbert.  The  back  of  this  jewel,  which 
was  engraved  by  command  of  Alfred,  is 


ornamented  with  foliage  very  skilfully 
executed.  Saint  Dunstan,  the  celebrated 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  died  a.  d. 
988,  is  also  noted  for  his  skill  in  the  arts. 
Osborn,  his  biographer,  enumerates  among 
his  other  endowments  that  he  could  '  scal- 
pello  imprimere  ex  auro,  argento,  eere,  et 
ferro.' 

After  the  Conquest,  it  appears  that  en- 
graving, which  had  hitherto  been  mostly 
followed  in  conjunction  with  the  sister  arts 
of  carving  and  chasing,  was  now  followed 
as  a  distinct  art,  and  carried  to  a  higher 
state  of  perfection,  as  may  be  learned  from 
the  brass  plates  so  frequently  to  be  met 
with  in  the  English  churches  or  on  the 
tombstones  in  the  fourteenth  and  following 
centuries.  These  are  usually  ornamented 
with  the  efiigies  of  the  person  to  whose 
memory  they  are  dedicated,  and  are  evi- 
dently executed  by  the  graver  only ;  the 
outlines  being  first  made,  then  the  shad- 
ows are  expressed  by  strokes  strengthened 
in  proportion  as  they  required  more  force, 
and  occasionally  crossed  with  other  strokes 
a  second  or  third  time,  precisely  in  the 
same  manner  as  copperplate  is  at  present 
engraved  for  printing.  Thus  we  see  that 
the  art  of  engraving  was  for  a  long  time 
practised,  before  it  was  made  to  answer 
the  noble  purpose,  of  perpetuating  the  la- 
bours of  the  painter. 

That  branch  of  the  art  of  engraving 
which  consists  in  taking  impressions  on 
paper  was,  according  to  Giorgio  Vasari, 
first  practised  by  the  Italians,  and  took  its 
rise  fi'om  an  accident.  One  Maso  Fini- 
guerra,  an  ingenious  goldsmith  and  sculp- 
tor of  Florence  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
used  to  design  and  emboss  figures  on  gold 
and  other  metals,  and  before  he  inlaid  them , 
he  used  to  fill  the  engraving  with  earth, 
and  cast  melted  sulphur  on  it,  which  gave 
it  a  sort  of  olive  colour,  after  which, 
pressing  a  piece  of  damp  paper  on  it  with 
a  smooth  wooden  roller,  the  engraving  on 
the  metal  remained  imprinted  on  the  paper, 
just  as  if  it  had  been  designed  with  a  pen, 
in  consequence  of  which  Andrew  Man- 
tegna  set  about  making  regular  prints  from 
his  engravings.  The  correctness  of  this 
story,  however,  as  far  as  regards  the  prior- 
ity of  the  discoverer,  is  disputed  by  Strutt 
and  others. 

It  should  seem  that  impressions  from 
engravings  on  wood,  had  been  taken  in 
Germany  prior  to  this,  and  that  the  brief 
malers,  or  the  makers  of  playing  cards, 
practised  the  art  of  card  making  about  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  from  the  making  of 
cards  were  led  to  the  execution  of  other 
figures  of  a  devout  nature,  so  as  to  form  a 


142 


ENN 


kind  of  books  containing  a  history  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  which  was 
printed  only  on  one  side  of  the  paper.  In 
this  manner  the  engraving  both  in  wood 
and  brass  continued  to  be  followed  by  the 
same  artists,  and  in  their  hands  made  great 
advances  to  perfection.  Martin  Schoen, 
of  Culmbach,  was  one  of  the  first  who 
distinguished  himself  in  this  art.  Israel 
von  Mecheln,  of  Mechelen,  was  the  rival  of 
of  Schoen;  the  style  of  which  latter  artist 
was  followed  by  Albert  Durer.  After  this 
arose  a  succession  of  distinguished  en- 
gravers in  France,  England,  and  Holland. 

Engraving  in  chiaro-scuro  is  justly  as- 
cribed to  the  Germans,  and  was  first 
practised  by  Muir.  At  what  time  etching 
was  introduced,  is  not  known.  One  of  the 
most  early  specimens  of  a  print,  by  Albert 
Durer,  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Cannon,  dated  1518. 

Engraving  with  dots,  called  stippling, 
was  of  Italian  invention,  and  was  first 
practised  by  Agostino  de  Musis.  The 
method  of  engraving  in  mezzotinto  was 
commenced  about  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  Engraving  in  aquatinta 
is  a  recent  invention.  In  modern  times, 
every  species  of  engraving  has  made  great 
advances  toward  perfection.  For  mezzo- 
tinto and  line  engraving,  steel  has  been 
lately  brought  into  use,  which  not  only 
enables  the  engraver  to  give  greater  delica- 
cy, and  a  higher  finish  to  his  works,  but 
affords  ten  times  as  many  good  impressions. 
Copper  is  now  little  used  for  fine  engra- 
vings. 

In  wood  engraving  there  has  been  still 
greater  improvement.  A  few  years  since 
it  was  imagined  that  the  birds  and  beasts 
of  Bewick  could  never  be  surpassed. 
But  Branstone  Wright,  Thompson  and  oth- 
ers, in  England  have  given  a  degree  of 
spirit,  delicacy  and  beauty  to  their  produc- 
tions, of  which  it  was  supposed  that  wood 
engravings  were  unsusceptible.  They 
have  shown  that  the  art  is  one  of  great 
scope,  and  is  capable  of  producing  ef- 
fects superior,  in  some  departments,  to  line 
engraving. 

ENGROSSING.  The  writing  any  thing 
fair  in  a  large  hand. 

ENLISTING.  The  entering  for  a  soldier 
into  the  military  service  for  a  certain  stip- 
ulated time,  as  for  a  terra  of  seven  years, 
or  during  a' war,  &:c. 

ENSIGN.  The  banner  under  which 
the  soldiers  are  ranged,  according  to  the 
different  regiments  to  which  they  belong  ; 
also  the  officer  who  carries  the  ensign  or 
colours. 

ENNUI.  Listless  fatigue. 


ENT 

ENNEANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
Linnajus's  classes  of  plants,  including  such 
as  bear  hermaphrodite  flowers,  with  nine 
stamens,  as  the  bay,  the  cashew  nut,  the 
flowering  rush,  &;c. 


ENTABLATURE.  That  part  of  a  column 
which  is  over  the  capital,  comprehending 
the  architrave,  frize,  and  cornice. 

ENTAIL.  An  entailed  estate,  or  an 
estate  abridged  and  limited,  by  certain 
conditions  prescribed  by  the  first  donor. 

ENTERTAINMENT.  A  species  of  the- 
atrical representation  following  a  tragedy 
or  comedy  ;  it  may  be  either  a  farce  or  a 
pantomime,  &c. 

ENTOMOLOGY.  The  science  which 
treats  of  insects,  as  to  their  structure, 
habits,  and  varieties.  The  body  of  an  in- 
sect consists  of  four  principal  parts,  namely, 
the  head,  the  trunk,  the  abdomen,  and  the 
limbs  or  extremities.  The  head  is  fur- 
nished in  most  insects  with  eyes,  antennae 
or  horns,  and  a  mouth.  The  eyes  are 
various,  both  in  colour,  shape,  and  number, 
in  different  kinds,  some  being  of  a  different 
colour  from  that  of  the  head,  and  some  of 
the  same  colour,  some  placed  close  to- 
gether, or  almost  touching  each  other,  some 
having  the  pupil  glassy  and  transparent, 
others  having  it  scarcely  distinguishable. 
Many  insects  have,  besides  the  large  eyes, 
also  three  small  spherical  bodies  placed 
triangularly  on  the  crown  of  the  head, 
called  ocelli,  or  stenimata.  The  antennce 
are  two  articulated  moveable  processes, 
placed  on  the  head,  which  are  also  subject 
to  great  variety  in  their  form  and  struc- 
ture, being  setaceous,  or  bristle  shaped, 
filiform,  or  thread-shaped,  &c.  The  mouth 
in  most  insects  is  situated  in  the  lower 
part  of  tlie  head,  and  consist  of  the  lips, 
upi>er  and  lower ;  the  mandibles,  or  horny 
substances,  one  on  each  side  of  the  mouth; 
the  maxillas,  or  jaws,  two  membranaceous 
substances,  differing  in  figure  from  the 
mandibles,  under  which  they  are  situated; 
the  tongue,  an  involuted  tubular  organ, 
which  constitutes  the  whole  mouth  in  some 
insects,  as  the  sphinx ;  the  rostrum,  beak, 
or  snout,  a  moveable  articulated  member 
in  the  grasshopper,  the  aphis,  &;c. ;  the 
proboscis,  or  trunk,  which  serves  as  a 
mouth  in  the  house  fly,  bee,  and  some 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


143 


other  insects  ;  the  feelers,  small  moveable 
filiform  organs,  placed  mostly  on  each  side 
the  jaw,  and  resembling  the  antennae,  but 
much  smaller  3  these  vary  in  number  from 
two  to  six  in  different  insects. 

The  trunk,  which  is  the  second  general 
division  of  which  an  insect  consists,  com- 
prehends that  portion  situated  between 
the  head  and  the  abdomen.  This  consists 
of  the  thorax,  or  upper  part  of  the  body, 
to  which  the  first  pair  of  legs  is  attached  ; 
the  breast,  or  under  part  of  the  thorax,  to 
which  the  four  posterior  feet  are  attached; 
the  breast  bone,  a  ridge  running  under  the 
breast,  which  is  conspicuous  in  some  in- 
sects ;  and  the  scutellum,  or  escutcheon,  a 
lobe-like  process,  situated  at  the  posterior 
part  of  the  thorax. 

The  abdomen,  or  third  principal  portion 
of  an  insect's  body,  is  composed  of  annular 
joints,  or  segments,  which  vary  in  form 
and  number  in  different  insects ;  this  is 
distinguished  into  the  back,  or  upper  part, 
and  the  belly,  or  under  part.  The  motion 
of  the  abdomen  is  most  visible  in  the  fly 
and  bee  tribes.  To  this  division  belong 
also  the  tail  and  the  sting.  The  tail  some- 
times spreads  like  a  leaf,  as  in  the  cock- 
roach ;  and  in  other  insects  is  bristle- 
shaped.  The  sting,  which  is  peculiar  to 
insects  of  the  bee  tribe  and  some  few 
others,  is  sometimes  simple,  having  but 
one  dart,  and  sometimes  compound,  having 
two  darts.  In  bees  and  wasps  the  sting  is 
retractile,  that  is,  capable  of  being  drawn 
in  ;  but  in  other  insects  it  is  almost  always 
hid  in  the  body,  or  seldom  thrust  out.  In 
some  tribes  of  insects  it  exists  in  the  males, 
in  others  in  the  females  only,  but  seldom 
in  both  sexes. 

The  members  or  extremities  of  insects 
are  the  legs  and  the  wings.  Insects  have 
sometimes  six  legs,  but  never  more,  except 
what  are  observable  in  the  larvje,  which 
are  termed  spirious  feet.  The  feet  vary  in 
their  form  and  use,  being  formed  either 
for  running,  swimming,  or  leaping,  with 
or  without  claws  or  spines,  &c.  The  wings 
are  mostly  two,  but  sometimes  four  in 
number ;  mostly  placed  on  each  side  the 
insect,  so  as  that  each  pair  should  corres- 
pond in  situation,  form,  &c. ;  but  where 
there  is  more  than  one  pair,  the  first  are 
mostly  larger  than  those  behind.  The 
wings  are  greatly  diversified  as  to  form, 
figure,  texture,  construction,  &c.  To  the 
wings  belong  also  the  elytra,  or  wing 
cases,  and  the  halteres,  or  poisers.  The 
elytra  are  two  coriaceous  wings,  which 
are  expanded  in  flight,  but  when  at  rest 
serve  to  cover  the  abdomen  and  enclose 
their  membranaceous  wings,  as  in  insects 


of  the  beetle  tribe;  the  poisers  are  two 
globular  bodies  placed  on  slender  stalks 
behind  the  wings  in  the  tribe  of  winged 
insects,  so  called  because  they  are  sup- 
posed to  keep  the  insect  gteady  in  its 
flight. 

The  internal  parts  of  insects  are  less 
perfect  and  distinct  than  those  of  larger 
animals,  and  of  course  less  known.  The 
brain  of  insects  is  altogether  different  from 
the  substance  which  bears  that  name  in 
other  animals,  being  little  more  than  gan- 
glions of  nerves,  two  in  number,  that  are 
observed  in  the  crab,  lobster,  &c.  The 
muscles  consist  of  fasciculi  of  fibres,  that 
serve  apparently  the  office  of  producing 
two  motions,  namely,  that  of  extending 
and  that  of  bending.  Some  insects  appear 
to  be  furnished  with  some  floating  vessels, 
which  secrete  a  fluid  varying  in  colour  in 
different  tribes,  but  very  similar  to  saliva. 
The  oesophagus,  or  organ  of  deglutition,  is 
a  straight  short  tube,  consisting  of  annular 
muscular  fibres,  like  the  proboscis  of  the 
common  fly. 

The  organs  of  digestion  vaiy  very  much 
in  different  tribes  of  insects.  Most  have  a 
single  stomach,  but  some  have  it  double, 
and  others  have  a  manifold  stomach.  In 
bees  the  stomach  is  membranaceous,  fitted 
to  receive  the  nectar  of  flowers  :  the  bug, 
the  boat  fly,  and  such  as  feed  on  animal 
substances,  have  a  muscular  stomach.  The 
beetle,  ladybird,  earwig,  and  some  others 
that  feed  on  other  insects,  have  a  double 
stomach,  the  first  of  which  is  muscular, 
after  the  manner  of  a  gizzard,  and  the 
second  is  a  membranaceous  canal.  Insects 
such  as  the  cricket  and  grasshopper,  which 
have  many  stomachs,  seem  to  employ  them 
much  after  the  manner  of  the  ruminating 
animals. 

Instead  of  organs  of  respiration,  it  has 
been  found  that  they  have  spiracula  run- 
ning on  each  side  the  body  that  serve  for 
the  reception  of  the  air,  and  other  vessels 
proceeding  from  these  that  serve  for  the 
exspiration  of  air.  Insects,  among  the 
ancients,  were  reckoned  to  be  bloodless 
animals  ;  but  it  has  since  been  ascertained 
that  the  process  both  of  circulation  and 
secretion  goes  forward  in  the  bodies  of 
insects,  although  in  a  different  manner. 
The  process  of  secretion  is  supposed  to  be 
performed  by  means  of  a  number  of  long 
slender  vessels,  which  float  in  the  internal 
cavity  of  the  body,  serving  to  secrete 
different  fluids,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  animal ;  thus  the  bee,  wasp,  sphinx, 
&c.  have  two  vessels  situated  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sting,  through  which  they  discharge 
an  acrid  fluid.     From  the  ant  is  extracted 


144 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


an  acid  well  known  to  chymists,and  other 
insects  have  other  iluids  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. As  to  the  process  of  circulation  in 
insects,  little  more  is  known  at  present 
than  that  a  contraction  and  dilatation  of 
the  vessels  is  observable  in  some  kinds, 
particularly  in  caterpillars  ;  but  the  fluid 
which  is  supposed  to  supply  the  place  of 
blood  is  not  of  the  same  colour. 

The  sexes  in  insects  are  of  three  kinds, 
namely,  the  males,  the  females,  and  the 
neuters,  which  have  not  the  usual  marks 
of  either  sex.  The  sexes  are  distinguished 
by  the  difference  of  size,  brightness  of 
colours,  form  of  the  antennaj,  &c. ;  the 
male  is  always  smaller  than  the  female, 
and  in  some  cases  the  female  is  several 
hundred  times  bigger  than  the  male  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  males  have  brighter 
colours  and  larger  antenna?.  In  many 
cases  the  females  have  no  wings ;  and  in 
some  instances,  as  that  of  the  bee,  the 
female  has  a  sting,  but  the  male  none. 

The  metamorphoses  of  insects  is  one 
characteristic  of  these  animals  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  all  others.  In  most 
insects  the  egg  is  the  first  state  ;  but  there 
are  examples  of  viviparous  insects,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  aphis,  the  fly,  &c.  The 
insect  in  the  second  or  caterpillar  state,  is 
now  called  the  larva,  but  formerly  the 
eruca.  The  larvae  differ  very  much  in 
different  insects  ;  those  of  the  butterfly  and 
moth  are  properly  called  caterpillars,  those 
of  the  flies  and  bees  are  called  maggots. 
The  larva?  of  the  beetle  tribe  differ  from  the 
complete  insect  only  by  being  destitute  of 
wings.  Butterflies,  in  their  caterpillar 
state,  are  very  voracious,  but  in  their  com- 
plete state  they  are  satisfied  with  the 
lightest  and  most  delicate  nutriment.  The 
third  state  into  which  insects  transform 
themselves  is  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis.  In 
most  of  the  beetle  tribe  the  pupa  is  fur- 
nished with  short  legs,  but  the  pupa  of 
the  butterfly  tribe  is  without  legs  :  that  of 
the  fly  tribe  is  oval,  but  that  of  the  bee 
tribe  is  very  shapeless.  The  last  and  per- 
fect state  of  insects  is  called  by  Linnseus 
the  imago,  in  which  state  it  continues 
until  its  extinction.  The  life  of  insects 
varies  as  to  its  duration.  Some,  as  bees 
and  spiders,  are  supposed  to  live  for  a 
considerable  time  ;  but  others  will  not  live 
beyond  a  year,  a  day,  or  some  hours,  in 
their  perfect  state,  although  they  will  con- 
tinue for  some  time  in  their  larva  state. 
Water  insects  generally  live  longer  than 
land  insects. 

As  to  the  classification  of  insects,  it 
suffices  here  to  observe,  that  Linnteus, 
whose  system  is  now  generally  followed, 


has  classed  them  according  to  their  wings 
into  seven  orders,  namely,  1.  Coleoptera, 
or  such  as  have  shells  that  cover  the  wings, 
as  the  beetle  tribe.  2.  Ilemiptera,  or  half 
winged  insects,  as  the  cock-roach,  locust, 
grasshopper,  bug,  &:c.  3.  Lepidoptera,  or 
scaly  winged  insects,  as  tlie  butterfly  and 
the  moth.  4.  Neuroptera,  or  nerve-winged 
or  fibre-winged  insects,  the  wings  of  which 
are  furnished  with  conspicuous  nerves, 
fibres,  or  ramifications,  as  the  dragon  fly, 
May  fly,  trout  fly.  5.  Hymenoptera,  or 
insects  with  four  wings  and  a  sting,  astht. 
bee,  wasp,  hornet,  termes,  or  white  ant, 
&c.  6.  Diptera,  or  two-winged  insects, 
as  the  gnat,  common  fly,  musquitto,  horse- 
leech, &c.  7.  Aptera,  or  insects  without 
wings,  as  the  spider,  flea,  lobster,  scorpion, 
&c. 

ENTOMOLOGY,  IIistort  of.  There 
are  scattered  notices  respecting  insects  at 
an  earjy  period,  from  which  we  may  infer 
that  they  had  not  escaped  the  notice  of 
inquirers  into  the  animal  kingdom.  Among 
the  books  of  Solomon  now  lost  to  the 
world,  it  is  recorded  that  he  treated  on 
insects  or  creeping  things.  Hippocrates 
wrote  a  work  on  insects,  from  which  Pliny 
has  given  some  few  extracts.  The  labours 
of  Aristotle  on  this  subject  are  still  extant, 
and  show  that  he  had  made  insects  his 
particular  study.  What  he  has  written  on 
this  subject  has  not  been  surpassed  in 
accuracy  by  any  thing  that  has  followed. 
Nicander,  Callimachus,  and  above  all  The- 
ophrastus,  are  mentioned  as  writers  on  in- 
sects ;  but  there  is  no  work  extant  on  that 
subject  before  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
Virgil  treats  on  the  subject  of  bees,  which 
were  much  cultivated  in  his  time.  Pliny 
has  devoted  the  eleventh  book  of  his 
Natural  History  to  this  subject,  and  men- 
tions several  Latin  writers  who  had  direct- 
ed their  attention  to  it.  ^lian,  in  his  work 
on  animals,  devotes  several  chaptei-s  to 
particular  insects,  as  the  spider,  scorpion, 
cricket,  &c.  ;  besides  that,  the  subject  is 
slightly  touched  upon  by  the  medical 
writers  /Etius,  Paulus  ^gineta,  Trallian, 
and  Oribasius,  and  also  by  the  Arabian 
authors  Rhazes,  Avicenna,  Avenzoar,  and 
Averrhoes.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fif- 
teenth century  no  writer  of  any  note  occurs 
on  the  subject  of  entomology.  Albertus 
Magnus  has  devoted  some  small  part  of 
his  work  De  Animalibus  to  this  subject. 
Agricola,  in  his  work  De  Animantibus 
Subteraneis,  which  appeared  in  1549,  has 
given  the  first  systematic  arrangement  of 
insects,  by  dividing  them  into  creeping 
insects,  flying  insects,  and  swimming  in- 
sects.   This  work  was  followed  in  the 


ENT 

same  century  by  Dr.  Wotton's  work,  De 
DiJfferentiis  Animalium,  and  cursory  re- 
marks on  insects  in  Rondeletius  Libri  de 
Piscibus  Marinis,  and  in  Conrad  Gesner's 
work  De  Serpentium  Natura. 

A  far  more  important  production  on  tlie 
subject  of  insects  appeared  in  1602>  from 
the  pen  of  that  industrious  naturalist  Al- 
drovandus,  entitled  De  Animalibus  Insec- 
tis,  in  which  he  divided  them  into  two 
classes,  terrestria  and  aquatica,  and  sub- 
divided them  into  orders,  according  to  the 
number,  nature,  position,  &c.  of  their 
wings.  This  work  was  followed  by  the 
Historia  Animalium  Sacra  of  Wolfang 
Frenzius,  and  other  works  from  the  pen  of 
Fabius  Columna,  Hoefnagle,  and  Archibald 
Simpson.  This  latter  work  is  entitled  to 
notice  because  it  was  the  first  work  on  en- 
tomology that  had  appeared  in  Britain. 

The  graphic  art  was  also  called  into  aid 
about  this  period,  to  illustrate  the  subject 
of  entomology,  as  appears  from  the  works 
of  the  celebrated  engravers  Hoefnagle, 
Robert  Aubret,  De  Bry,  Vallet,  Robin, 
Jonston,  &.C.  The  invention  of  the  micro- 
scope also  afforded  great  facilities  to  the 
study  of  entomologj',  and  enlarged  the 
sphere  of  observation  very  considerably. 
Of  these  facilities  many  naturalists  amply 
availed  themselves,  as  Hooke,  Leuwen- 
hoek,  Hartsoeker,  and  others.  The  latter 
writer  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  flu- 
ids in  insects.  Christopher  Marret  publish- 
ed, in  1667,  a  work  containing  an  account 
of  British  insects  ;  and  a  particular  descrip- 
tion of  the  tarantula  was  published  about 
the  same  time  by  Wolferdus  Sanguerdius  ; 
but  the  most  important  work  on  this  sub- 
ject was  Swammerdam's  General  History 
of  Insects,  which  displayed  an  anatomical 
knowledge  of  these  animals  that  raised 
the  reputation  of  this  writer  very  high. 
This  appeared  in  1669,  and  in  1578  Lis- 
ter's valuable  History  of  English  Spiders  ; 
the  year  following  the  first  part  of  Madame 
Merian's  extensive  work  on  the  metamor- 
phoses of  lepidopterous  insects,  which  was 
followed  by  other  parts  in  1683,  1718,  and 
1726,  which  last  is  a  splended  performance 
on  the  insects  of  Surinam.  Leuwenhoek 
also,  about  the  same  time,  added  materially 
to  the  stock  of  entomological  knowledge, 
by  giving  an  account  of  the  anatomy  of 
insects,  drawn  from  microscopical  obser- 
vations. Ray  published,  in  1710,  his  His- 
toria Insectorum,  which  was  the  joint 
labour  of  himself  and  his  friend  Willough- 
by.  In  this  history  insects  are  divided 
into  the  transmutabilia  and  intransmuta- 
bilia.  The  transmutabilia  are  divided  into 
four  orders  namely,  vaginipennes,  those 
13 


EPH 


145 


which  have  wings  covered  with  a  sheath  ; 
papiliones,  the  lepidopterous  insects  ;  qua- 
dripennes,  four  winged  insects ;  and  bi- 
pennes,  two  winged  insects :  which  are 
again  subdivided  into  families.  In  1735, 
the  system  of  Linnseus  was  published, 
which  has  since  been  universally  adopted. 
It  consisted  at  first  of  four  orders,  which 
he  afterwards  increased  to  the  number  of 
seven.  Some  writers,  as  Deger,  Reitzius, 
and  Fabricius,  have  attempted  to  improve 
upon  the  Linnsan  system,  but  their  alter- 
ations have  not  been  admitted. 

As  to  the  history  of  insects,  many  natu- 
ralists since  his  time  have  contributed  their 
share  to  the  stock  of  information,  either 
by  the  description  of  the  insects  in  par- 
ticular parts,  or  by  the  description  of  in- 
sects generally.  In  1753,  appeared  the 
Entomologia  Carniolica  of  Scopoli;  in 
1789,  Birkinfront  published  Outlines  of 
Natural  History  of  Britain  ;  in  Seward's 
Natural  History  is  given  an  account  of 
many  exotic  insects.  In  1770  were  pub- 
lished Illustrations  of  Natural  History ;  in 
177.5  Fabricius  published  his  Systema  En- 
tomologiae  ;  and  within  the  last  few  years 
we  have  had  Donovan's  Natural  History 
of  British  Insects,  in  15  vols.  ;  Lamarck's 
Systeme  des  Animaux  sans  vertebres ; 
Marcham's  Entomologia  Britannica,  and 
Kirby's  Monogi-aphia  Apium  Anglite. 

ENTRY  (in  Commerce).  The  act  of 
setting  down  in  merchant's  account  books 
the  particulars  of  trade. 

ENTRY  (at  the  Custom  House).  The 
passing  the  bills  through  the  hands  of  the 
proper  officers. 

ENTRY  (in  Law).  The  taking  posses- 
sion of  lands. 

ENVELOPE.  The  cover  that  encloses 
a  letter  or  note. 

ENVIRONS.  The  country  lying  round 
a  large  town  or  city. 

ENVOY.  A  person  in  degree  lower 
than  an  ambassador,  sent  on  some  par- 
ticular occasion  from  one  government  to 
another. 

EPACT  (in  Chronology).  A  number 
arising  from  the  excess  of  the  common 
solar  year  above  the  lunar,  by  which  the 
age  of  the  moon  may  be  found  every 
year. 

EPAULETTE.  The  shoulder  knot  worn 
by  a  soldier  or  footman. 

EPAULEMENT.  A  work  raised  to 
cover  sidewise,  made  of  earth,  gabions, 
&c. 

EPHEMERAL.  Beginning  and  ending 
in  a  day ;  an  ephemeral  insect  lives  but 
for  a  day,  as  the  day  fly. 

EPHEMERIS.    An  astronomical  alma- 


146 


EPI 


nack  or  table,  showing  the  state  of  the 
heavens  for  every  day  at  noon. 

EPHOD.  A  garment  worn  by  the  priests 
of  the  Jews. 

EPIC  POEM.  A  narrative  poem  formed 
upon  a  story,  partly  real  and  partly  ficti- 
tious, the  subject  of  which,  is  always  some 
hero  or  distinguished  person. 

EPICENE  (in  Grammar).  An  epithet 
for  the  gender  of  such  words  as  are  com- 
mon to  both  sexes,  as  in  the  Latin,  hie  et 
hajc  parens. 

EPICUREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  The 
doctrine  tauglit  by  Epicurus,  that  the  uni- 
verse consisted  of  atoms  or  corpuscles  of 
various  forms,  magnitudes,  and  weights, 
which,  having  been  dispersed  at  random 
through  the  immense  space,  fortuitously 
concurred  into  innumerable  systems.  To 
this  scheme  of  infidelity  he  added  the  notion 
that  happiness  consisted  in  sensual  indul- 
gence, particularly  in  the  pleasures  of  the 
table. 

EPICUREANISM,  or  EPICURISM. 
The  doctrine  of  Epicurus:  the  practice  of 
an  epicurean  or  epicure,  or  of  one  wlio  is 
addicted  to  his  sensual  gratifications. 

EPICYCLE.  A  little  circle  that  is  in 
the  centre  of  a  greater  circle. 

EPIDEMIC  DISEASES.  Such  as  pre- 
vail at  particular  seasons,  and  spread  among 
the  inhabitants  of  a  country. 

EPIDERMIS  (in  Anatomy).  The  cuticle 
or  scarf  skin,  that  which  rises  in  a  blister 

EPIGRAM.  A  short,  witty,  pointed 
poem. 

EPIGRAPHE.  An  inscription  on  a 
building,  stone,  &c. 

EPILEPSY,  or  the  Falling  Sickness. 
A  convulsion  of  the  whole  body,  with  a 
privation  of  sense. 

EPILOGUE  (in  Dramatic  Poetry).  A 
speech  addressed  to  the  audience  when 
the  play  is  ended. 

EPILOGUE  (in  Rhetoric).  The  conclu- 
sion of  a  speech,  a  recapitulation  of  the 
whole. 

EPIPHANY,  vulgarly  called  Twelfth 
Day.  a  festival  celebrated  on  the  twelfth 
day  after  Christmas  by  some  Christians, 
in  commemoration  of  the  manifestation 
made  to  the  Gentiles  of  our  Saviour's  na- 
tivity. 

EPISCOPACY.  A  form  of  church  go- 
vernment by  bi&'hops.  It  is  generally 
applied  to  the  English  church. 

EPISCOPALIAxV.  One  who  supports 
episcopacy,  or  a  member  of  the  English 
church. 

EPISODE  (in  Poetry).  A  separate  in- 
cident or  story,  which  the  poet  introduces 


EQU 

into  his  narrative  as  connected  with  the 
principal  action. 

EPITAPH.  An  inscription  on  a  tomb- 
stone. 

EPITHALAMIUM.  A  song  sung  at 
weddings. 

EPITHET.  A  word  expressive  of  a 
quality. 

EPITOME.  An  abridgment  or  short 
draught  of  a  book. 

EPOCH,  or  EPOCH  A.  A  terra  or  fixed 
point  of  time,  whence  years  are  num- 
bered, sucli  as  .the  Creation,  4004  b.  c.  ; 
the  Taking  of  Troy,  1184  b.  c.  ;  the  Build- 
ing of  Rome,  753  b.  c.  ;  the  Birth  of  our 
Saviour,  the  commencement  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  the  Hegira,  or  the  flight  of 
Mahomet  from  Mecca,  a.  d.  622. 

EPODE  (in  Lyric  Poetry).  The  third 
or  last  part  of  the  ode. 

EPOPGEIA  (in  Poetry).  The  fable  or 
subject  of  an  epic  poem. 

EPSOM  SALTS.  Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
formerly  procured  by  boiling  down  the 
mineral  water  from  the  spring  at  Epsom, 
but  now  prepared  from  sea  water.  They 
are  used  as  an  aperient. 

EaUABLE.  An  epithet  for  uniform 
motion.  Sec. 

EaUALITY.  A  term  of  relation  be- 
tween things  the  same  in  magnitude,  quan- 
tity, or  quality. 

ECIUATION  (in  Algebra).  An  expres- 
sion in  which  two  quantities  differently 
represented  are  put  equal  to  each  other 
by  means  of  the  sign  of  equality,  as 
7ax-[-3x=zb. 

EQUATION,  or  the  EQUATION  OF 
TIME  (in  Astronomy).  The  difference  be- 
tween mean  and  apparent  time,  or  the 
reduction  of  the  apparent  unequal  time  or 
motion  of  the  sun,  &c.  to  equable  time  or 
motioK. 

EQUATION,  or  EQUATION  OF  PAY- 
MENTS (in  Arithmetic).  A  rule  for  find- 
ing a  time  when  if  a  sum  be  paid  which 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  several  others  due 
at  ditferent  times,  no  loss  will  be  sustained 
by  either  party. 

EQUATOR.  A  great  circle  on  the  ter- 
restrial sphere,  equidistant  from  the  pole. 
•EQUATORIAL,  or  Portable  Observa- 
tory. An  instrument  by  which  most  of 
tlie  problems  in  astronomy  may  be  per- 
formed. 

EQUERRY.  In  England,  an  officer  who 
has  the  care  of  the  king's  horses. 

EQUES  AUR  ATUS.  A  knight,  socalled 
because  none  but  knights  were  allowed  to 
gild  their  armour. 

EQUESTRIAN.  One  on  horseback. 


ERI 

EaUESTRlAN  ORDER.  The  second 
rank  in  Rome,  next  to  the  senators. 

EaUESTRIAN  STATUE.  The  repre- 
sentation of  a  person  mounted  on  a  horse. 

EaUI ANGULAR.  Having  equal  an- 
gles. 

EaUiDISTANT.  At  an  equal  distance. 

EQ.UILATE11AL.  Having  equal  sides. 

EaUlLlBRIUM  An  equal  balance  or 
equality  of  weight  and  poise,  as  when  two 
ends  of  a  lever  hang  so  even,  as  to  poise 
neither  way 

EaUIMULTiPLES  (in  Arithmetic  or 
Geometry).  Numbers  and  quantities  multi- 
plied by  one  and  the  same  mnnber  and 
quantity,  as  12  and  6,  wliicli  are  equi- 
multiples of  4  and  2,  called  their  sub- 
multiples. 

EaUlNOCTiAL,  or  EaUINOCTIAL 
LINE.  A  great  circle  of  the  celestial  globe, 
answering  to  the  equator  on  the  terrestrial 
globe.  Whenever  the  sun  comes  to  this 
circle  the  days  and  nights  are  equal  all 
over  the  globe. 

EQUINOXES.  Thetiir.es  when  the  sun 
enters  the  first  points  of  Aries  and  Libra, 
that  is,  about  the  twenty-first  of  March  and 
the  twenty-first  of  September,  when  the 
days  and  nights  are  equal  all  over  the 
world. 

EQUIPAGE  (among  Travellers).  What- 
ever is  necessary  for  a  voyage  or  journey, 
as  horses,  attendants,  attire,  &.o; 

EQUIPAGE  (in  Military  Affairs). .What- 
ever is  necessary  for  an  army  on  its  march, 
as  tents,  baggage,  kitchen  furniturej  &c. 

EQUIPOLLENCE.  Equality  of  force 
and  power;  as  equipollent  propositions, 
such  as  have  the  same  meaning,  though 
differently  expressed. 

EQUITY  (in  Law).  A  correction  of  the 
common  law  wlierein  it  is  deficient. 

EQUITY,  Court  of.  A  title  given  by 
way  of  distinction  to  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cery, in  which  the  rigour  of  other  courts  is 
moderated,  and  controversies  are  supposed 
to  be  determined,  according  to  the  exact 
rules  of  equity  and  conscience. 

EQUIVOCAL.  An  epithet  for  words 
which  have  a  doubJe  meaning,  and  may 
be  applied  equally  well  in  both. 

EQUIVOCATION.  The  use  of  equivocal 
terms,  which  may  be  understood  by  the 
hearer  in  a  different  sense  from  that  in 
which  they  are  taken  by  the  speaker. 

EQUULECS.  An  old  constellation, 
having  from  four  to  six  stars. 

ERA.  See  .Era. 

ERIDANUS.  A  constellation  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  containing,  accord- 
ing to  different  authors,  from  nineteen  to 
eighty-four  stars. 


ESC 


147 


ERMINE.  A  little  animal  about  the  size 
of  a  squirrel,  the  fur  of  which,  bearing  the 
same  name,  is  very  valuable.  This  animal 
is  white  all  over,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
which  is  black.  The  common  weasel  of 
the  United  States,  which  in  winter  is  white, 
is  an  ermine.  In  some  parts  of  the  conn 
try  it  is  sometimes  called  Stoat. 


:.^^a 


ERMINE  (in  Heraldry).  A  fur  used  in 
coat  annour,  and  supposed  to  represent  the 
linings  and  doublings  of  mantles  and  robes. 
It  is  represented  by  a  white  field  pow- 
dered or  seme  with  black  spots. 


*  s  ^ 

!     t    %     % 

S     t     ■& 

;  t  t  4 

t  I  t  1 

ERRATUM.  An  error  of  the  press;  in 
the  plural.  Errata,  errors  of  the  press. 

ERRATIC.  Wandering,  not  fixed. 

ERUPTION  (in  Medicine).  A  breaking 
forth  in  a  morbid  manner,  as  spots  on  the 
skin. 

ERUPTION  (in  IMineralogy).  The 
breaking  forth  of  fire,  ashes,  stones,  &c. 
from  a  volcano. 

ERYSIPELAS,  vulgarly  called  Saint 
Anthony's  Fire.  A  disorder  in  the  skin, 
which  consists  in  a  swelling,  with  redness, 
heat,  and  pain. 

ESCALADE.  An  attack  of  a  fortified 
place  by  scaling  the  walls  with  ladders, 
without  breaking  ground  or  carrying  on 
a  regular  siege. 

ESCALOP  SHELLS.  The  shells  of 
escalops,  a  sort  of  fish,  which  are  regularly 
indented. 

ESCAPE  (in  Law).  A  violent  or  privy- 
evasion  out  of  some  lawful  restraint. 

ESCAPEMENT.  See  Scapement. 

ESCARBUNCLE.  See  Carbuncle. 


148 


EST 


ESCHEAT.  In  England,  lands  or  profits 
that  fall  to  a  lord  within  his  manor,  either 
by  forfeiture  or  the  death  of  the  tenant. 

ESCHEATOR.  In  England,  an  officer 
formerly  appointed  to  make  inquests  of 
titles  by  escheats. 

ESCORT.  A  company  of  armed  men , 
attending  by  way  of  distinction  or  pro- 
tection. 

ESCUAGE.  A  kind  of  knight's  service. 

ESCULENT.  A  plant  that  may  be 
eaten. 

ESCUTCHEON,  or  Shield.  Therepre- 
sentation  of  the  ancient  shields  used  in 
war,  on  which  armorial  bearings  are 
uainted. 

ESPALIER.  A  low  branching  fruit 
tree,  having  the  branches  trained  to  a 
frame. 

ESPIONAGE.  A  system  of  employing 
spies  either  in  military  or  political  affairs. 

ESPLANADE  (in  Fortification).  The 
slophig  of  the  parapet  of  the  covered  way 
towards  the  campaign. 

ESQ-UIRE.  In  England,  anciently,  the 
person  that  attended  a  knight  in  time  of 
war,  and  carried  his  shield;  now,  a  title  of 
honour  given  to  the  sons  of  knights,  or 
those  who  serve  the  king  in  any  worship- 
ful calling,  as  officers  of  the  king's  courts, 
counsellors  at  law,  &c.  In  the  United 
States  this  title  is  given  to  lawyers,  and  by 
courtesy  to  many  other  persons. 

ESSAY.  A  short  discourse  or  treatise 
on  some  subject. 

ESSAYIST.  A  writer  of  essays,  of  which 
there  have  been  many  in  England,  as 
Addison,  Steele,  Swift,  Pope,  Johnson, 
Hawkesworth,  Goldsmith,  Mackenzie, 
&c.  whose  works  have  been  collected  un- 
der the  name  of  the  British  Essayists. 

ESSENCE  (in  Chymistry).  The  purest 
and  subtlest  parts  of  a  body,  drawn  by 
means  of  fire,  &c. 

ESSENTIAL  OILS.  Acrid,  volatile 
oils,  having  a  strong  aromatic  smell,  which 
are  drawn  from  plants  by  distillation,  in 
distinction  from  native  oils  procured  by 
coction. 

ESSOIN  (in  Law).  An  excuse  by  rea- 
son of  sickness  or  any  other  just  cause,  for 
one  that  is  summoned  to  appear  and  answer 
an  action,  &c. 

ESTABLISHMENT  (in  Military  Af- 
fairs). The  quota  of  officers,  and  men  in 
an  army. 

ESTABLISHMENT  (in  Trade).  The 
Btock,  capital,  &c.  which  are  essential  for 
carrying  on  a  business. 

ESTAFETTE.  A  military  courier,  sent 
from  one  part  of  an  army  to  another. 


EUD 

ESTATE  (in  Law).  The  title  or  interest 
a  man  has  in  lands  or  tenements. 

ESTATES  OF  THE  REALM.  In  Eu 
rope,  the  distinct  parts  of  any  state  or 
government,  as  the  King,  Lords,  and  Com- 
mons in  England. 

ESTIMATE.  A  calculation  of  the  ex- 
penses of  any  undertaking,  made  according 
to  the  regular  charges  of  trade,  as  the 
estimate  of  builders,  engineers,  printers, 
publishers,  &lc. 

ESTOPPEL.  An  impediment  or  bar  to 
an  action. 

ESTRAY.  A  tame  beast  found  without 
any  owner  known. 

ESTREAT  (in  Law).  The  copy  of  an 
original  writing,  particularly  of  the  penal- 
ties or  fines,  to  be  levied  by  the  bailifi:'or 
other  officer,  of  every  man  for  his  offence. 

ESTUARY.  The  mouth  of  a  lake  or 
river,  or  any  place  where  the  tide  comes. 

ETC.  or&c.  i.  e.Ex  Cetera.  Literally, 
And  other  things  not  mentioned. 

ETCHING.  A  method  of  engraving,  in 
which  the  lines  and  strokes  are  eaten  in, 
with  aquafortis. 

ETHER.  A  very  volatile  fluid,  produced 
by  the  distillation  of  alcohol  with  an 
acid. 

ETHICS.  The  science  of  moral  duties, 
showing  the  rules  and  measures  of  human 
conduct  which  tend  to  happiness. 

ETIQUETTE.  Rules  and  ceremonies  of 
good  manners,  observed  either  at  court  or 
in  genteel  life. 

ETYMOLOGY.  A  branch  of  grammar, 
which  teaches  the  original  and  derivation 
of  words. 

ETYMOLOGIST.  One  who  traces 
words  from  their  original  sources. 

EVACUATION  (in  Medicine).  The  dis- 
charge of  superfluous  humours  or  excre- 
ments out  of  the  body. 

EVACUATION  (in  Military  Affairs). 
The  leaving  a  town,  fortress,  or  any  place 
which  has  been  occupied  as  a  military 
post  or  position. 

EVANGELIST.  Literally,  the  bringer 
of  good  tidings;  particularly,  the  writers 
of  our  Saviour's  history,  as  Matthew,Mark, 
Luke,  and  John. 

EVAPORATION  (in  Chymistry).  A 
process  in  which  the  superfluous  moisture 
of  any  liquid  substance  is  dispersed  by 
means  of  fire. 

EUCHARIST.  The  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  so  called,  because  the  death 
of  our  Redeemer  is  thereby  commemorated 
with  thankful  remembrance. 

EUDIOMETER.  An  instrument  for 
ascertaining  the  purity  of  air,  or  the  quan- 


EXC 

tity  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  atmospheri- 
cal air. 

EVERGREEN  (in  Gardening).  A  spe- 
cies of  perennials  which  preserve  their 
verdure  all  the  year  rounds  such  as  hollies, 
laurustinus,  bays,  pines,  firs,  &c. 

EVERLASTING  PEA.  A  perennial  of 
the  vetch  kind,  which  grows  naturally  in 
some  places,  and  may  be  cultivated  with 
advantage  as  food  for  cattle. 

EVIDENCE  (in  Law).  The  testimony 
adduced  in  a  court,  which  may  either  be 
written,  as  by  deeds,  bonds^  and  other 
documents,  or  verbal,  by  witnesses  ex- 
ammed  vivsL  voce. 

EULOGY.  Praise  or  commendation  of 
a  person. 

EVOLUTION  (in  Arithmetic).  The  ex- 
traction of  the  roots  of  any  power. 

EVOLUTION  (in  Military  Tactics). 
Tlie  complicated  movement  of  a  body  of 
men  when  they  change  their  position. 

EVOLUTION  (in  Geometry).  The  un- 
folding of  a  curve. 

EVOLUTION  (in  Botany).  The  expan- 
sion or  opening  of  the  bud., 

EUPHONY  (in  Grammar).  Good  sound 
in  pronouncing  a  word:  It  is  properly  a 
figure,  whereby  a  letter  that  is  too  harsh 
is  converted  into  a  smoother,  contrary  to 
the  ordinary  rules,  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
moting smoothness  and  elegance- in  pro- 
nunciation. 

EURITHMY  (in  Paintings  Architec- 
ture, and  Sculpture).  A  certain  majesty 
and  elegance  of  appearance  in  the  compo- 
sition of  diverse  parts  of  a  body,  painting, 
or  piece  of  sculpture.  Vitruvms,  who 
ranks  eurithmy  among  the  essentials  in 
architecture,  makes  it  to  consist  in  the 
beauty  of  the  construction  or  assemblage 
of  the  several  parts  of  the  work. 

EWE.  The  female  of  the  sheep. 

EX  (in  Composition).  Now  signifies 
late,  as  the  ex-minister,  the  late  minister. 

EXACTION  (in  Law).  Injury  done  by 
an  officer,  or  one  who,  under  colour  of  his 
office,  takes  more  than  what  the  law 
allows, 

EXAGGERATION.  The  making  things 
appear,  more  than  they  really  are. 

EXALTATION  (in  Chymistry).  The 
raising  a  thing  to  a  higher  degree  of  virtue, 
or  increasing  the  principal  property  in  a 
body. 

EXAMINATION  (in  Law).  The  ex- 
amining of  witnesses  by  questions. 

EXAMINERS  (in  Law).  Two  officers 
in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  in  England,  ap- 
pointed to  examine  witnesses. 

EXCELLENCY.  In  England,  the  title 
given  to  ambEissadors,  commanders,  and 
13* 


EXE 


149 


others  not  entitled  T,o  that  of  highness.  In 
America  the  title  is  given  to  the  Presi- 
dent, to  ambassadors,  and  governors  of 
states. 

EXCENTRICITY'.  See  Eccentricitt. 

EXCEPTION  (in  Law).  A  stop  or  stay 
to  any  action,  which  consists  either  of  a 
denial  of  the  matter  alleged  in  bar  to  the 
action j  or,  in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  it  is 
what  is  alleged  against  the  sufficiency  of 
an  answer. 

EXCHANGE  (in  Commerce).  The 
trucking  or  bartering  one  thing  for  ano- 
ther; also  the  place  where  merchants  meet 
for,  tlie  purpose  of  transacting  business; 
and.  likewise  the  giving  a  sum  of  money 
in  one  place  for  a  bill,  ordering  the  pay- 
ment of  it  in  another  place. 

EXCHANGE  (in  Arithmetic).  The  re- 
ducing of  moneys  of  difl^erent  denomina- 
tions from-ojie  to  another,  or  the  method 
of  finding  what  quantity  of  the  money  of 
one  place  is-eqyal-to  a  given  sum  of  ano- 
ther, according,  to  a  certain  course  of 
exchange. 

EXCHANGE  (in  Law).  A  mutual  grant 
of  equal  interests-,  the  one  in  consideration 
of  the  other. 

EXCHANGE  BROKERS.  Men  who 
give  the  merchants  information  how  the 
exchange  goeSf 

EXCHEGtUER  (in  Law).  In  England 
the  office  or  place,  where  the  king's  cash 
is  kept  and  paid. 

EXCHEQUER  COURT.  In  England, 
a  court  in  which  all  causes  relating  to  the 
revenue  are  tried;  also  the  Prerogative 
Court  of  the  Archbishop  of  York. 

EXCHEai.TERED.  Summoned  before 
the  Exchequer,  in  England,  to  answer  any 
charge  of  defrauding  the  revenue,  &c. 

EXCISE  DUTIES.  Inland  taxes  on 
commodities  of  general  consumption. 

EXCOMMUNICATION.  An  ecclesi- 
astical censure,  whereby  a  person  is  ex- 
cluded from  communion  with  the  church, 
and  in  England  deprived  of  some  civil 
riglits. 

EXCORIATION.  The  rubbing  or  peel- 
ing away  the  cuticle  or  external  skin. 

EXCORTICATION.  The  stripping  a 
tree  of  its  bark. 

EXCRESCENCE  (in  Surgery).  Any 
preternatural  formation  of  flesh  on  any 
part  of  the  body,  as  warts,  wens,  &;c. 

EXECUTION  (in  Law).  A  judicial  writ 
granted  on  the  judgment  of  the  court 
whence  it  issues. 

EXECUTION  (in  Military  A ff^airs).  The 
plundering  and  wasting  a  country  in  time 
of  war. 

EXECUTIVE  (in  Law).  That  branch 


150 


EXP 


of  the  government,  which  executes  the 
functions  of  governing  the  state. 

EXECUTOR  (in  Law).    One  appointed 
by  a  testator  to  see  that  his  will  is  exe- 
cuted. 
EXECUTRIX.  A  female  executor. 
EXEMPLIFICATION.  A  duplicate  of 
letters  patent. 

EXERCISE  (in  Military  Tactics).  The 
practice  of  all  military  movements. 

EXHALATION.  A  fume  or  vapour 
rising  from  the  earth. 

EXHIBITION.  A  public  display  of 
whatever  is  interesting,  either  as  a  matter 
of  art,  or  a  natural  curiosity;  in  England, 
particularly  the  exhibition  of  paintings  at 
Somerset  House,  which  is  by  distinction 
called  The  Exhibition. 

EXHUMATION.  The  act  of  digging  up 
a  body  that  has  been  interred. 

EXIGENT  (in  Law).  A  writ  or  part  of 
the  process  of  outlawry. 

EXILE  (in  Law).  A  person  sent  into 
some  place  distant  from  his  native  country, 
under  a  penalty  not  to  return  within  a 
certain  period. 

EXIT  (in  Theatricals).  Going  off  the 
stage. 

EX  OFFICIO.  By  virtue  of  one's  office, 
as,  in  England,  ex  officio  informations, 
prosecutions  commenced  by  the  king's  at- 
torney general  by  virtue  of  his  office,  witli- 
out  applying  to  the  court  for  permission. 
EXORCIST.  One,  who  by  prayers  and 
incantations,  professes  to  cast  out  evil 
spirits. 

EXORDIUM.  The  commencement  of  a 
speech,  serving  to  prepare  the  audience. 

EXOTIC  PLANTS.  Plants  of  foreign 
growth,  which  in  this  climate  require  a 
hothouse  and  every  kind  of  nurture. 

EXPANSION.  An  increase  of  the  bulk 
of  any  body  by  a  power  acting  within, 
particularly  by  the  action  of  heat. 

EX  PARTE  (in  Law).  On  one  side. 
as  exparte  statements,  a  partial  statement, 
or  tliat  which  is   made  on  one  side  only. 

EXPECTATION.  In  the  doctrine  of 
chances,  is  applied  to  any  contingent  event, 
upon  the  happening  of  which,  some  bene- 
fit is  expected. 

EXPECTORANTS.  Medicines  which 
promote  expectoration,  or  a  discharge  of 
mucus  from  the  breast. 

EXPERIMENT.  A  trial  of  the  results 
of  certain  applications  and  motions  of  natu- 
ral bodies,  in  order  to  discover  something 
of  their  laws,  nature,  Slc. 

EXPERIMENTAL  .  PHILOSOPHY. 
That  philosophy,  which  deduces  the  laws 
of  nature,  from  sensible  experiments  and 
observations. 


EXT 

EXPERIMENTUM  CRUCIS.  A  lead- 
ing or  decisive  experiment. 

EXPIRATION.  A  breathing  out  air 
from  the  lungs. 

EXPLOSION.  A  sudden  and  violent 
expansion  of  an  aerial  or  elastic  fluid,  ac- 
companied with  a  noise. 

EXPONENT  (in  Algebra).  The  number 
or  quantity  expressing  the  degree  or  eleva- 
tion of  a  power,  as,  in  x^,  2  is  tlie  exponent 
of  the  square  number. 

EXPORTS  (in  Commerce).  Goods  ex- 
ported or  sent  out  of  one's  own  country  to 
a  foreign  land. 

EXPOSITOR.  One  who  explains  the 
writings  of  otliers,  particularly  one  who 
professes  to  expound  the  Scriptures. 

EX  POST  FACTO.  Literally,  from 
something  done  afterwards,  as  an  ex  post 
facto  law,  a  law  which  operates  upon  a 
subject  not  liable  to  it  at  the  time  the  law 
was  made. 

EXPRESS.  A  messenger  sent  with  di- 
rect and  specific  instructions. 

EXPRESSED  OILS.  Oils  obtained 
from  bodies  by  pressing. 

EXPRESSION  (in  Chymistry  or  Phar- 
macy). The  pressing  of  tlie  oils  or  juices 
of  vegetables. 

EXPRESSION  (in  Painting).  The  dis- 
tinct exhibition  of  character  or  of  senti- 
ment, in  the  characters  represented. 

EXTEMPORE,  or  EXTEMPORANE- 
OUSLY. Without  preparation  or  premed- 
itation. 

EXTENSION.  One  of  the  essential  pro- 
perties of  a  body,  to  occupy  some  space, 

EXTENT  (in  Law).  A  writ  of  execu- 
tion for  valuing  lands  and  tenements. 

EXTENT  (in  Music).  The  compass  of  a 
voice  or  instrument. 

EXTENT  IN  AID.  In  England,  a  seiz- 
ure made  by  the  crown,  when  a  public 
accountant  becomes  a  defaulter. 

EXTINGUISHMENT  (in  Law).  The 
annihilation  of  an  estate,  &c.  by  means  of 
its  being  merged  or  consolidated  witli 
another. 

EXTIRPATION  (in  Surgery).  The  com- 
plete removal  or  destruction  of  any  part, 
either  by  excision  or  by  means  of  caustics. 
EXTORTION  The  unlawful  act  of  an 
officer  who,  by  colour  of  his  office,  takes 
money  or  any  other  thing  when  none  at 
all  is  due. 

EXTRACT  (in  Chymistry).  The  purer 
parts  of  any  substance  extracted  from  its 
grosser  parts  by  means  of  decoction,  and 
formerly  also  ity  distillation,  until  they 
were  of  the  consistence  of  paste  or  honey. 
EXTRACT  (in  Literature).  Some  select 
matter  or  sentences  taken  from  a  book. 


FAC 

EXTRACT  (in  Law).  A  draught  or  copy 
of  a  writing. 

EXTRACTION  (in Surgery).  The  draw- 
ing any  foreign  matter  out  of  the  body. 

EXTRACTION  (in  Arithmetic).  The 
finding  out  tlie  true  root  of  any  number  or 
quantity. 

EXTRACTION  (in  Genealogy).  The 
line,  stem,  or  branch  of  a  family  from 
which  a  person  is  descended. 

EXTRACTOR  (in  Surgery).  An  instru- 
ment for  drawing  the  stone  from  the 
body. 

EXTRAORDINARY.  Out  of  the  com- 
mon course;  as  an  Extraordinary  Courier, 
one  sent  on  an  urgent  occasion;  Extraor- 
dinary Gazette,  one  published  to  announce 
some  particular  event. 

EXTRAVASATION.  The  state  of  the 
fluids  when  they  are  out  of  their  proper 
vessels,  as  when  by  the  breaking  of  a  blood 
vessel  in  the  dura  mater,  the  blood  is  effus- 
ed in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain. 

EXTREME     UNCTION.     A    solemn 
anointing  of  any  person  in  the  Romish 
church,  who  is  at  the  point  of  death. 
EXUDATION.  The  emitting  of  moisture 


FAC 


151 


through  the  pores,  as  the  exudation  of  gums 
through  the  bark  of  trees. 

EXUVIAE.  The  slough  or  cast  otf  cover- 
ings of  animals,  particularly  those  of  the 
snake  kind. 

EYE  (in  Anatomy).  The  organ  of  sight, 
whereby  visible  objects  are  represented  to 
the  mind.  The  external  parts  of  the  eye 
are  the  eyebrows,  eyelashes,  eyelids,  the 
lachrymal  ducts,  &c.;  the  internal  parts  of 
the  eye,  which  compose  the  ball  or  globe  of 
the  eye,  consist  of  membranes,  chambers, 
and  humours, 

EYE.  A  term  applied  to  different  ob- 
jects from  some  supposed  resemblance  to 
the  natural  eye. 

EYE  (in  Architecture).  The  aperture  at 
the  top  of  a  dome,  and  to  the  centre  of  a 
volute. 

EYE  (in  Botany).  That  part  of  a  potatoe 
and  other  things  where  the  bud  puts 
forth. 

EYE  (in  Printing).  The  graving  in  re- 
lievo, on  the  top  or  face  of  the  letter. 

EYEGLASS.  A  glass  put  close  to  the 
eye,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  objects 
nearer. 


F. 


F,  the  sixth  letter  in  the  alphabet,  stood 
as  a  numeral  for  40,  and  with  a  dash  over 
it,  for  40,000;  it  now  stands  for  one  of  the 
Dominical  or  Sunday  letters,  and  also,  in 
Music,  for  the  fourth  note  in  the  diatonic 
scale. 

FA  (in  Music).  The  fourth  note  of  the 
modern  scale,  which  is  either  flat  or  sharp; 
the  flat  is  marked  thus  \),  and  the  sharp 
thus  ■jp^. 

FABLE.  A  tale  or  fictitious  narration 
intended  to  instruct  or  convey  a  moral,  as 
the  Fables  of  ^sop;  also  the  principal 
part  of  an  epic  or  dramatic  piece. 

FABRIC  (in  Commerce).  The  same  as 
manufacture;  lace  of  the  fabric  of  Brus- 
sels, (fcC. 

FACADE.  The  front  or  the  principal 
side  of  a  building. 

FACE  (in  Anatomy).  The  lower  and 
anterior  part  of  the  skull;  in  general,  the 
fore  part  of  any  thing,  as  the  face  of  a 
stone,  anvil,  &c. 

FACE  (in  Fortification).  The  face  of  a 
bastion,  the  most  advanced  part  towards 
the  field. 

FACE  (in  Gunnery).  The  metal  at  the 
extremity  of  the  muzzle  of  a  gun. 

FACE  (in  Military  Tactics).  The  side 
of  a  battalion  formed  into  a  squaie. 

FACET.  The  small  side  of  a  diamond. 


FAC  SIMILE,  The  copy  of  a  person's 
writing,  as  of  a  letter  in  imitation  of  his 
own  handwriting. 

FACTITIOUS.  Made  by  art,  as  facti- 
tious cinnabar;  in  distinction  from  that 
procured  naturally. 

FACTOR  (in  Commerce).  An  agent 
commissioned  by  merchants  to  buy  or 
sell  goods  on  their  account. 

FACTORS  (in  Arithmetic).  The  two 
numbers  that  are  multiplied  together. 

FACTORY.  A  place  in  a  distant  coun> 
try,  where  factors  reside  for  purposes  of 
trade;  also  the  trades  themselves  collec- 
tively. 

FACULiE  (in  Astronomy).  Bright  spots 
on  the  surface  of  the  sun, 

FACULTIES,  Court  of.  In  England, 
a  court  under  the  archbishop  of  Canterbu- 
ry for  granting  faculties  or  privileges. 

FACULTIES  t,in  the  Universities).  The 
divisions  under  which  the  arts  and  sciences 
are  classed,  and  degrees  granted.  These 
are  for  the  most  part  four,  as  1.  Arts,  in- 
cluding Humanity  and  Philosophy;  2.  The- 
ology; 3.  Physic;  and  4.  Civil  Law. 

FACULTY  (in  Law).  A  dispensation 
or  privilege. 

FACULTY  (in  Physics).  That  power 
by  which  a  living  creature  moves  and  acts. 
This  may  be  either  an  animal,  or  corporeal 


152 


FAL 


faculty  belonging  to  the  body  ,01-  a  rational 
faculty  belonging  to  the  mind. 

F^'ECES.  The  dregs  or  gross  substances 
which  settle  after  fermentation. 

F^CULiE.  Small  dregs  or  lees. 

FAGG,  A  sea  term,  for  the  end  of  the 
strands  which  do  not  go  through  the  tops 
when  a  cable  or  rope  is  closed. 

FAINTS  (in  Chymistry).  The  weak  spi- 
rituous liquor  that  runs  off  from  the  still 
after  the  proof  spirit  is  taken  away. 

FAIR.  A  larger  kind  of  market,  held 
once,  twice,  or  ofteaer  in  the  year,  ac- 
cording to  the  charter  granted  to  any  par- 
ticular place. 

FAIR  MAID  OF  FRANCE.  A  plant 
of  the  ranunculus  tribe,  bearing  an  ex- 
ceedingly white  flower. 

FAIRY.  A  kind  of  genii  or  imaginary 
spirits  of  a  diminutive  size,  and  fabled  to 
haunt  houses  and  revel  in  meadows  du- 
ring night,  &c. 

FAIRY  CIRCLE  or  RING,  A  pheno- 
menon frequently  seen  in  the  fields,  con- 
sisting of  a  round  bare  path  with  grass  in 
the  middle,  formerly  ascribed  to  the  dances 
of  the  fairies.  It  is  supposed  by  some  to 
be  a  fungus  which  eats  away  the  grass  in 
this  circular  form,  or  by  others  the  effect 
of  lightning. 

FAIRY  TALES.  Eastern  tales  of  the 
wonderful  proceedings  wrought  by  fairies. 

FAKIR.  A  sort  of  dervises  or  Maho- 
metan monks.  Religious  devotees  of  Hin- 
dostan. 

FALCHION.  A  kind  of  sword  turned 
up  somewhat  like  a  hook. 

FALCON.  A  bird  of  the  hawk  tribe, 
about  the  size  of  a  raven,  and  capable  of 
being  trained  for  spoit,  in  which  it  was 
formerly  much  employed.  It  is  usually 
represented  in  coats  of  arms  with  bells  on 
its  legs,  and  also  decorated  with  a  hood, 
virols,  rings,  &c.  The  falcon  gentii  is 
here  represented. 


FALCONER.  One  who  looks  after,  and 
trains  hawks. 


FAR 

FALL  (in  Physics).  The  descent  or  na- 
tural motion  of  bodies  towaras  the  earth. 
FALL  (in  Military   Affairs).  The  sur- 
render of  a  town)   among   Seamen,  the 
loose  end  of  a  tackle. 

FALL  (in  Husbandry).  The  descent  of 
ground  which  serves  to  carry  off  the  water. 
FALLACY.    A  logical  artifice,   or  an 
argument  framed  so  as  to  deceive;  a  so- 
phism. 

FALLING  SICKNESS.  See  Epilepsy. 
FALLOW.  Land  laid  up  and  left  with- 
out a  crop  for  a  year,  in  order  to  give  tlie 
soil  time  to  recover  itself;  the  act  of  so 
doing  is  called  fallowing. 

FALLOVV-DEER.  The  common  deer 
seen  in  the  parks  of  England.  The  Vir- 
ginia deer  of  America. 

FALLOW-FINCH.  A  bird,  otherwise 
named  Wheat  Ear. 

FALSE.  An  epithet  used  in  Law,  as 
False.  Imprisonment,  the  trespass  of  im- 
prisoning a  man  without  lawful  cause;  in 
Mineralogy,  as  False  Diamond,  a  diamond 
counterfeited  with  glass. 

FALSE  FLOWER  (in  Botany).  A 
flower,  which  does  not  seem  to  produce 
any  fruit. 

FALSE  ROOF  (in  Carpentry).  That 
part  of  a  house  which  is  between  the  roof 
and  the  covering. 

FALSIFYING  (in  Law).  Proving  a 
thing  to  be  false,  as  falsifying  records. 

FAMILY  (in  Law).  All  living  in  one 
house  under  one  head;  also  the  kindred 
or  lineage  of  a  person. 

FAMILY  (in  Natural  History).  Any 
order  of  animals,  or  other  natural  produc- 
tion of  the  same  class. 

FAN.  A  sort  of  basket  in  which  the 
corn  is  winnowed,  to  separate  the  chaff 
from  it. 

FANDANGO.  A  dance  much  used  in 
Spain. 

FAR.   An  abbreviation  for  farthing. 
FARCE.  A   sort  of  mock  comedy,  in 
which   there   is  nmch   grimace  and  buf- 
foonery. 
FARCY.  A  sort  of  leprosy  in  horses. 
FARE.  Money  paid  for  the  passage  of 
a  person  in  any  vehicle,  either  by  land  or 
by  water. 

FARtNA.  The  pulverulent  and  gluti- 
nous part  of  wheat  and  other  seeds,  ob- 
tained by  grinding. 

FARM.  In  England,  part  of  an  estate  in 
land  employed  in  husbandry,  and  let  to  a 
tenant  on  condition  of  paying  rent  to  the 
owner  thereof.  In  the  United  States,  the 
term  is  applied  to  any  estate  in  land 
whetlier  rented  or  cultivated  by  the  pro- 
prietor. 


FAT 

FARMER.  Properly,  one  who  occupies 
and  cultivates  a  farm  or  hired  ground;  a 
cultivator  of  ground  generally.  In  Eng- 
land the  farmers  are  not  proprietors  of  the 
lands  which  usually  belong  to  rich  per- 
Bons,  who  let  them  to  tenants. 

FARMIiNG.  The  cultivating  of  land  for 
the  purposes  of  profit. 

FARRAGO.  A  mixture  of  several  sorts 
of  seed  sown  in  the  same  plot  of  ground. 

FARRIER.  One  who  shoes  horses,  and 
also  cures  their  diseases.  In  London,  the 
farriers  are  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  city 
companies.  As  farriers  worked  most  in 
iron,  they  were  originally  called  ferrers  or 
ferriers,  from  ferrum,  iron. 

FARRIERY.  The  art  of  shoeing  and 
managing  a  horse  altogether,  including  also 
the  cure  of  his  diseases.  On  the  application 
of  science  to  this  art,  it  rose  in  importance 
and  estimation;  a  college  was  formed  some 
years  ago  in  England  for  practitioners  in 
animal  medicine  and  surgery,  which,  in 
imitation  of  the  French,  was  called  the 
Veterinary  College,  and  the  art  itself  the 
Veterinary  Art, 

FARTHING.  The  fourth  part  of  a  penny. 

F.  A.  S.  i.  e.  Fraternitas  Antiquariorum 
Socius,  or  Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  So- 
ciety in  England. 

FASCES.  Bundles  of  rods  bound  round 
the  helves  of  hatchets,  which  were  carried 
before  the  Roman  consuls  as  insignia  of 
their  office. 

FASCETS.  Irons  used  in  a  glass  manu- 
factory. 

FASCINES  (in  Fortification).  Small 
branches  of  trees  bound  up  in  bundles  for 
gUing  ditches,  &c. 


FAST.  An  abstinence  from  food  on  a 
religious  account. 

FASTI.  The  Roman  calendar,  in  which 
were  set  down  the  feasts,  games,  cere- 
monies, &c. 

FAT.  A  concrete  oily  matter  contained 
In  the  cellular  membrane  of  animals. 

FATES.  The  destinies;  according  to 
the  poets,  the  three  fatal  sisters,  Clotho, 
Lachesis,  and  Atropos,  who  determined 
the  duration  of  life. 

FATHER  LASHER.  A  voracious  fish, 
Inhabiting  the  shores  of  Greenland  and 
Newfoundland. 

FATHER  LONG-LEGS.  A  harmless 
insect,  with  a  small  body  and  exceedingly 
long  legs. 

FATHOM.  A  long  measure  of  six  feet. 


FEL 


153 


FAUNS.  Rural  deities  having  horns  on 
their  heads,  with  pointed  ears  and  tails. 

FAWN.  A  young  deer;  a  buck  or  doe 
of  the  first  year. 

F.  E.  An  abbreviation  for  Flemish  Ells. 

FEASTS.  Anniversary  times  of  feasting 
and  thanksgiving,  such  as  Christmas  and 
Easter,  &:c.  Some  feasts  are  moveable, 
that  is,  not  confined  to  any  particular  day, 
as  Easter  and  all  that  are  governed  by  it; 
others,  as  Christmas,  &c.  are  immoveable, 
that  is,  fixed  to  a  day. 

FEATHER.  That  which  forms  the  co- 
vering of  birds.  The  constituent  parts  of 
feathers  are,  for  the  most  part,  albumen, 
with  a  little  gelatin. 

FEATHER  (in  the  Manege).  A  row  of 
hair  turned  back  and  raised  on  the  neck 
of  a  horse. 

FEATHER-EDGED  BOARDS.  Boards 
having  one  edge  thinner  than  the  other. 

FEATHERS.  The  finest  kind  of  feathers, 
as  Ostrich  Feathers,  which  are  used  for 
ornament.  The  Prince's  Feathers  are  those 
which  adorn  the  cognizance  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales. 

FEB.  An  abbreviation  for  February. 

FEBRIFUGE.  A  sort  of  medicines 
which  abate  the  violence  of  fever. 

FEDERAL.  United  by  a  compact,  as 
Federal  States. 

FEDERAL  CONSTITUTION.  The 
constitution  of  the  United  States  in  which 
the  several  states  are  united,  or  federated 
under  one  general  government. 

FEE.  An  estate  of  inheritance,  or  the 
interest  Avhich  a  man  has  in  land  or  some 
other  immoveable:  this  is  called  a  fee 
simple  when  it  is  unconditional,  and  a 
fee  tail,  when  limited  to  certain  heirs  ac- 
cording to  the  will  of  the  first  donor. 

FEED.  What  is  given  to  a  horse  at  one 
time,  either  of  hay  or  corn. 

FEEDER.  A  sort  of  drain  which  carries 
the  water  into  other  drains, 

FEELERS.  Organs  fixed  to  the  mouth 
of  insects,  which  are  vulgarly  called  horns: 
the  feelers  are,  however,  smaller  than  the 
antennee,  or  horns,  in  some  insects. 

FEELING.  One  ofthe  five  senses,  which 
acts  by  means  of  the  nerves,  that  are  dis- 
tributed in  all  parts  ofthe  body. 

FEES.  Perquisites  allowed  to  officers 
in  the  administration  of  justice. 

FEIGNED  ACTIOJNr.  An  action  which 
is  brought  simply  to  try  the  merits  of  a 
question, 

FEINT  (in  Military  Tactics).  A  mock 
attack,  made  to  conceal  the  true  one. 

FELLOES,  The  pieces  of  wood  which 
form  the  circumference  or  circular  part  of 
the  wheel. 


154 


FEO 


FELLOW.  The  member  of  a  college  or  I 
of  a  corporate  body. 

FELLOWSHIP  fin  Arithmetic).  A  rule 
by  which  the  loss  and  gain  of  each  parti- 
cular person  in  a  joint  stock  concern,  is 
discovered. 

FELO  DE  SE,  i.  e.  properly  Felonia 
DE  SE.  A  suicide,  or  one  who  commits  a 
felony  on  himself  by  self-murder. 

FELONY.  Any  offence  next  to  treason, 
such  as  murder,  burglary,  (Slc.  the  punish- 
ment of  which  in  England  is  death. 

FELSPAR.  A  siliceous  mineral  found 
mostly  in  mountains. 

FELT.  A  sort  of  coarse  wool  or  hair 
used  in  the  making  of  hats. 

FELT-GRAIN.  The  grain  of  cut  timber 
that  runs  transversely  to  the  annular  rings 
or  plates. 

FELTING.  The  process  of  working  felt 
into  hats. 

FELTING  (in  Carpentry).  The  splitting 
of  timber  by  the  felt-grain. 

FELUCCA.  A  light  open  vessel  with  six 
oars,  much  used  in  the  Mediterranean.  Its 
helm  may  be  used  either  at  the  head  or 
the  stern. 

FEMALE  FLOWER.  A  flower  having 
pistils  or  stigmas  without  stamens. 

FEMALE  SCREW.  A  screw,  the  spiral 
thread  of  which  is  cut  in  the  cavity  of  the 
cylinder. 

FEME  COVERT  (in  Law).  A  marded 
woman. 

FEME  SOLE.  A  single  woman. 

FEMININE  GENDER  (in  Grammar). 
Nouns  which,  by  their  ending,  denote  the 
female  sex. 

FEN.  A  place  overflowed  with  water, 
and  abounding  in  bogs. 

FENCE  (in  Husbandry).  A  hedge,  wall, 
or  ditch,  &c.  made  to  part  off  a  field  or 
garden. 

FENCING.  The  art  of  using  the  sword, 
either  in  attack  or  defence.  In  the  exer- 
cise of  this  art,  foils  or  thin  swords  are 
used,  which,  being  blunted  at  the  points 
and  bending  readily,  are  perfectly  harm- 
less. 

FENDER.  An  iron  plate  to  keep  the 
fire  and  ashes  from  the  room. 

FENDERS.  A  sea  term  for  pieces  of 
old  cable,  &c.  hung  over  the  sides  of  a  ship 
to  keep  off  other  ships. 

FENNEC.  An  animal  found  in  Africa 
resembling  a  dog. 

FEOFFEE  (in  Law).  He  to  whom  a 
feoff'ment  is  made. 

FEOFFMENT  (in  Law).  The  gift  or 
grant  of  any  hereditament  to  another  in 
fee  simple. 

FEOFFOR.  He  who  maltes  a  feoffment. 


FET 

FERiE.  The  third  order  of  animals  in 
the  Linnaean  system,  including  such  as 
have  from  six  to  ten  conic  fore  teeth  and 
one  tusk,  as  the  seal,  the  dog,  the  wolf, 
the  hytena,  the  jackal,  the  lynx,  the  tiger, 
the  panther,  &c. 

FERMENT.  Any  substance  which  has 
the  property  of  causing  fermentation  in 
another  body,  as  the  acid  in  leaven. 

FERMENTATION.  The  intestine  com- 
motion in  the  small  insensible  particles  of 
a  mixed  body,  usually  caused  by  the  ope- 
ration of  acid  matter.  When  animal  liquids 
alone,  or  mixed  with  vegetable,  become 
sour,  this  is  called  acetous  fermentation, 
and  the  product  is,  generally  speaking, 
acetic  acid  or  vinegar.  When  saccharine 
matter,  or  the  sweet  juices  of  fruits, 
undergo  this  intestine  change,  it  is  called 
vinous  fermentation,  and  the  result  is  an 
intoxicating  liquor,  as  wine  or  beer,  &c. 

FERN.  A  weed,  very  common  in  dry 
and  barren  places,  which  is  very  injurious 
to  the  land  in  which  it  has  once  taken 
root. 

FERRET.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  tribe, 
with  red  eyes  and  a  long  snout ;  it  is  much 
used  in  Europe,  in  catching  rabbits  and  rats 


FERRUGINOUS.  An  epithet  for  any 
thing  partaking  of  iron,  or  containing  any 
particles  of  that  metal. 

FERRY.  A  vessel  employed  for  con- 
veying persons  and  goods  over  a  narrov/ 
piece  of  water. 

FERRYMAN.  One  who  keeps  a  ferry. 

FERULA.  An  instrument  of  correction 
in  schools,  with  which  boys  are  beaten  on 
the  hand. 

FERULA  (in  Botany).  A  plant,  other- 
wise called  Fennel  Giant,  which  is  an 
herbaceous  perennial. 

FESCUE-GRASS.  A  sort  of  grass  cul- 
tivated as  food  for  cattle. 

FESTOON.  An  ornament  of  carved 
wood,  in  manner  of  wreaths  or  garlands 
hanging  down. 

FETLOCK.  A  tuft  of  hair  that  grows 


FIE 

behind  the  pastern  joint  in  the  feet  of 
many  horses. 

FESSE  (in  Heraldry).  One  of  the  hon- 
ourable ordinaries,  which  occupies  the 
third  part  and  the  middle  of  the  field. 


FIG 


155 


FETTERS  (in  Law).  A  sort  of  irons 
put  on  the  legs  of  malefactors. 

FEUD.  In  England,  the  right  which  the 
vassal  or  tenant  had  in  lands  and  other 
immoveable  things  of  his  lord's,  to  use 
the  same  and  take  the  profits  thereof,  ren- 
dering unto  his  lord  such  duties  and  services 
as  belonged  to  military  tenure,  the  property 
of  the  soil,  &c.  always  remaining  to  the 
lord.  The  laws  respecting  these  feuds, 
which  are  comprehended  under  the  name 
of  the  Feudal  System,  regulated  all  the 
principles  of  landed  property  in  this  king- 
dom until  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  ;  and 
vestiges  of  this  system  are  still  to  be  seen 
in  the  modern  tenures,  particularly  in 
copyholds. 

FEVER.  A  disease  characterized  by  an 
increase  of  heat,  an  accelerated  pulse,  a 
foul  tongue,  and  an  impaired  state  of  se- 
veral functions. 

FIAT,  i.  e.  Let  it  be  done.  In  Eng. 
A  short  order  or  warrant  of  some  judge, 
for  making  out  and  allowing  certain  pro- 
cesses. 

FIBRE  (in  Anatomy).  Asimple filament, 
serving  to  form  other  parts,  as  the  muscles, 
nerves,  &c. 

FIBRE  (in  Botany).  Threads  or  hair-like 
strings  in  plants,  roots,  Sec. ;  the  first  con- 
stituent parts  of  bodies. 

FIBRIL.  A  small  fibre. 

FIBRINA  (in  Cliymistry).  That  sub- 
stance which  const! tiites  the  fibrous  part 
of  muscles.  It  is  of  a  v.'hite  colour,  with- 
out taste  or  smell,  and  not  soluble  in  alco- 
hol or  water. 

FIBROLITE.  A  mineral  consisting  of 
alumina,  silica,  and  iron. 

FIBULA  (in  Anatomy).  The  lesser  and 
outer  bone  of  the  leg. 

FICTION  (in  Law).  A  supposition  that 
a  thing  is  true,  so  that  it  may  have  the  effect 
of  truth  as  far  as  is  consistent  with  equity. 

FIELD.  Arable  land,  or  any  plot  of 
ground  parted  off  for  cultivation. 


FIELD  (in  Heraldry).  The  whole  sur- 
face of  the  shield  or  escutcheon, 

FIELD  (in  Military  Tactics).  The  ground 
chosen  for  any  battle. 

FIELD  (in  Painting).  The  ground  or 
blank  space  on  which  any  tiling  may  he 
drawn. 

FIELD-BED  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
folding  bed  used  by  officers  in  their  tents. 

FIELDFARE.  A  migratory  bird  of  the 
thrush  tribe,  that  visits  England  about 
Michaelmas  and  leaves  it  in  March. 

FIELD-OFFICERS.  Those  who  com- 
mand a  whole  regiment. 

FIELD-PIECE.  A  sort  of  cannons,  con- 
sisting of  eighteen-pounders  and  less. 

FIELD-WORKS  (in  Fortification). 
Works  thrown  up  by  an  army  in  be- 
sieging a  fortress. 

FIERI  FACIAS.  A  writ  commanding 
a  sheriff  to  levy  the  debt  or  damages  on 
the  goods  of  one,  against  whom  judgment 
has  been  had  in  an  action  of  debt. 

FIFE.  A  shrill  wind  instrument  of  the 
martial  kind,  consisting  of  a  short  narrow 
tube,  with  holes  disposed  along  the  side 
for  the  rejTulation  of  its  tones. 

FIFER.  One  who  plays  on  the  fife  in 
the  army. 

FIG.  A  tree,  with  an  upright  stem 
branching  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  with 
large  palmated  or  hand-shaped  leaves.  It 
flourishes  in  warm  climates,  and  bears  a 
fruit  as  represented  underneath,  which, 
when  dried,  is  remarkable  for  its  luscious 
sweetness. 


FIG  (in  Farriery).  A  kind  of  wart  on 
the  flesh  of  a  horse,  that  is  often  filled 
with  foul  humours. 

FIGHTS.  Waste  clothes  hung  round  a 
ship  in  battle,  to  prevent  the  men  from 
being  seen. 

FIGURE  (in  Painting).  The  lines  and 
colours  which  form  the  representation  of 
an  object. 

FIGURE  (in  Geometry).  A  space  ter- 
minated on  all  parts  by  lines  curved  or 
straight. 

FIGURE  (in  Arithmetic).  One  of  the 
nine  digits,  as  1,  2,  3,  Sec. 

FIGURE  (in  Grammar  and  Rhetoric). 
A  word  or  form  of  expression  which  de- 


156 


FIN 


viates  from  the  common  and  natural 
meaning. 

FILACER.  In  England,  an  officer  of 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  who  files  the 
writs,  whereon  he  makes  out  process. 

FILAGREE,  or  FILIGRANE.  An  or- 
namental work  in  which  flowers  or  other 
figures  are  wrought  with  gold  or  silver 
threads. 

FILAMENT  (in  Botany).  The  thread- 
like part  of  the  stamen,  which  supports 
the  anther. 

FILBERT.  A  sort  of  nut  tree  cultivated 
in  gardens,  the  fruit  of  which  is  larger  and 
finer  than  the  common  wild  nut. 

FILE  (in  Trade  and  Law).  A  wire  or 
thread  on  which  loose  papers  are  filed  up 
together. 

FILE  (among  Mechanics).  A  tool  of 
steel,  with  which  iron  or  any  other  metal  is 
polished.  Files  are  cut  in  little  furrows  in 
a  certain  direction,  and  of  a  certain  depth, 
according  to  the  grain  or  touch  required. 
Files  are  either  cut  by  the  hand  with  a 
chisel  and  mallet,  or  by  means  of  a  ma- 
chine ;  but  the  latter  mode  is  not  so  good. 

FILE  (in  Military  Tactics).  A  straight 
line  or  row  formed  by  soldiers. 

FILICES.  An  order  of  plants  of  the 
class  cryptogamia  in  the  Linufean  system, 
including  the  fern,  horse-tail,  adder's 
tongue,  maiden-hair,  spleenwort,  polypo- 
dy, &c. 

FILLET  (in  Heraldry).  A  kind  of  bor- 
dure. 

FILLET  (in  Architecture).  A  little 
member  that  connects  the  other  members. 

FILLET  (in  Painting).  A  little  ringlet 
of  leaf  gold. 

FILM  (in  Surgery).  A  thin  skin  that 
covers  the  eye. 

FILM  (in  Botany).  The  thin  woody  skin 
that  separates  the  seed  in  the  pod. 

FILTER  (in  Chymistry).  A  strainer 
through  which  any  fluid  is  passed  so  as  to 
separate  the  grosser  particles  from  it. 

FILTERING  PAPER.  Paper  without 
size,  that  may  be  used  in  filtering. 

FILTER  [NG-STONE.  A  sort  of  stone 
or  basin  which  is  sometimes  used  for  puri- 
fying water.  It  is  artificial  as  well  as 
natural,  and  has  been  variously  constructed 
to  answer  the  i)urpose. 

FIN.  The  membrane  in  fishes  by  which 
they  perform  their  movements  in  the  wa- 
ter. 

FINAL.  The  last  or  concluding.  Final 
letters  are  those  which  are  used  only  at 
the  end  of  words,  as  in  the  Hebrew  and 
other  oriental  languages. 

FINAL  (in  Music).  The  last  sound  of  a 
verse  in  a  chant. 


FIR 

FINALE.  The  last  piece  in  a  concert,  &c . 

FINANCES  (in  Political  Economy). 
The  treasures  or  revenue  of  the  country. 

FINANCIER.  An  officer  who  manages 
the  finances  of  the  country. 

FINE  (in  Lavi^).  A  penalty  or  amends 
made  in  money  for  an  offence  ;  also  money 
paid  for  the  renewal  of  a  lease,  and  a  con- 
veyance of  lands  or  tenements  in  order  to 
cut  oft' all  controversies. 

FINE-DRAWING.  Se win  g  up  the  rents 
in  woollen  cloths  so  finely  that  they  can- 
not be  seen. 

FINERS  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 
Those  who  separate  the  metals  from 
coarser  ores, 

FINERY.  The  furnace  in  which  met- 
als are  refined,  that  is,  hammered  and 
fashioned  into  what  is  called  a  bloom  or 
square  bar. 

FIN-FISH.     A  smaller  sort  of  whale. 

FIR,  or  FIR  TREE.  A  tree  valuable 
for  the  timber,  pitch,  tar,  &c.  which  it 
yields  in  abundance.  The  sorts  most 
esteemed  in  England,  are  the  Scotch  fir, 
Norway  fir,  Spruce  fir,  and  Canada  fir. 
In  the  United  States,  the  white  and  yellow 
pine,  are  the  most  valued. 

FIRE  (in  Chymistry).  Was  formerly 
reckoned  one  of  the  four  elements  ;  but  it 
is  now  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  it  be 
a  distinct  substance,  or  whether  it  arises 
solely  from  the  intestine  and  violent  mo- 
tion of  the  parts  of  bodies. 

FIRE-ENGINE.  An  engine  for  the 
extinguishing  of  fire,  which  consists  of  two 
forcing  pumps  so  combined  that  their  joint 
action  produces  a  constant  and  powerful 
stream  of  water,  which,  by  means  of  a  pipe, 
may  be  directed  at  pleasure  to  any  point. 


FIREBALLS.  Luminous  bodies  usually 
appearing  at  a  great  height. 

FIREBRAND.  A  piece  of  burning 
wood  taken  out  of  the  fire. 

FIRE-DAMPS.     See  Damps. 

FIRE-FLY.  A  species  of  flies  common 
in  Guiana,  having  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
a  globular  luminous  body,  that  shines  like 
a  star.  They  live  in  rotten  trees  in  tho 
day,  and  always  appear  at  night. 


FIX 

FIRE-MAN.  One  who  is  employed  in 
extinguishing  fires. 

FIRE-SHIP.  A  ship  filled  with  com- 
bustibles, to  set  fire  to  the  vessels  of  the 
enemy. 

FIRE-WORKS,  Compositions  of  sul- 
phur, saltpetre,  and  charcoal,  which  exhib- 
it a  handsome  appearance  when  fired  off. 

FIRKIN.  An  English  measure  of  capa- 
city, containing  nine  gallons  of  beer. 

FIRMAN.  A  passport  granted  in  Tur- 
key and  India  for  the  liberty  of  trade. 

FIRST-FRUITS  (in  England.)  The 
profits  of  every  spiritual  living  for  one 
year,  given  to  the  king. 

FIRSTLING.  The  young  of  cattle 
which  are  first  brought  forth. 

FISH,  or  FISHES  (in  Natural  Histo- 
ry). Water  animals  in  general ;  one  class 
of  the  animal  kingdom  in  the  Linnaean 
system. 

FISH,  or  Royal  Fish  (in  Law).  The 
whale  and  sturgeon,  so  denominated  hi 
England,  because  the  king  is  entitled  to 
them  whenever  they  are  thrown  on  shore, 
or  caught  near  the  coasts. 

FISH  (among  Mariners).  A  machine 
employed  to  hoist  and  draw  up  the  flooks 
of  ships'  anchors  towards  the  top  of  the 
bow. 

FISHERY.  The  place  where  fish  are 
caught  for  tlie  purposes  of  trade. 

FISH-GIG.  An  instrument  for  striking 
fish  at  sea. 

FISHING-FLY.  A  bait  used  fot  catch- 
ing fish. 

FISHING-HOOK.  An  instrument  of 
steel  wire,  fitted  for  catching  and  retaining 
fish. 

FISHTNG-LIxNE.  A  line  of  twisted 
hair  fixed  to  a  rod  called  the  fishing-rod, 
and  having  at  one  end  the  fishing-hook. 

FISHMONGER.  A  dealer  in  fish. 
There  were  formerly  two  companies  of 
fishmongers  in  London,  namely,  the  stock- 
fishmongers  and  salt-fishmongers,  which 
were  united  in  1536. 

FISTULA.     A  long  and  sinuous  ulcer. 

FITCHET.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  or 
ferret  kind. 

FIXATION.  The  making  any  volatile 
spirituous  body  endure  tlie  fire. 

FIXED  AIR.  A  name  formerly  given 
by  chymists,  to  the  air  which  was  extri- 
cated from  lime,  magnesia,  and  alkalies, 
now  commonly  cn.lled,  carbonic  acid  gas. 

FIXED  BODIES.  Such  as  neither  fire 
nor  any  corrosive  menstruum,  have  the 
power  of  reducing  to  their  component 
elements,  as  ammonia. 

FIXED  STARS.     Such  as  do  not  change 
their  positions  in  respect  to  one  another. 
14 


FLA 


157 


FLAG  (in  Naval  or  Military  Affairs). 
The  colours  or  ensign  of  a  ship,  or  of  a 
regiment  of  land  forces.  The  first  flag  in 
Great  Britain  is  the  standard,  only  to  be 
hoisted  when  the  king  or  queen  is  on  board. 


FLAG  (in  Botany).  A  sort  of  rush  with 
a  large  leaf.  It  is  of  diflerent  kinds,  as  the 
common  flag^  or  water  iris,  that  grows  in 
rivers  and  bears  a  yellow  flower ;  the  corn 
flag,  or  gladiole,  a  bulbous  plant ;  and  the 
sweet  flag,  a  perennial  j  which  two  last  are 
cultivated  in  gardens. 

FLAGEOLET.     A  little  flute. 

FLAG-OFFICER.  An  officer  command- 
ing a  squadron. 

FLAGON.    A  large  drinking  vessel. 

FLAG-SHIP.  A  ship  commanded  by  a 
flag-officer. 

FLAG-STAFF.  The  staff"  set  on  the 
head  of  the  topgallant  mast,  on  which  the 
flag  is  placed. 

FLAGSTONE.  A  sort  of  stone  used  for 
smooth  pavement. 

FLAIL.  An  instrument  used  for  thresh- 
ing cora. 

FLAME.  The  most  subtle  part  of  fire, 
which  is  properly  the  fume  or  vapour  of 
fire,  heated  red-hot  so  as  to  shine. 

FLAMINGO.  A  sort  of  bird  in  Africa 
and  America. 

FLANK.  The  side  of  an  army,  or  a  bat- 
talion encamped  on  the  right  and  left. 

FLANK  (in  Fortification).  Any  part  of 
a  work  that  defends  another  work  along 
the  outside  of  its  parapet. 

FLANNEL.  A  slight,  loose,  woollen 
stuff",  woven  on  a  loom  with  two  treadles 
after  the  manner  of  baize.  It  serves  to 
keep  the  body  warm,  because,  from  its 
light  and  spongy  texture,  it  does  not  ad- 
mit of  a  passage  for  the  heat. 

FLASK.  A  measure  for  holding  gun- 
powdet. 

FLAT  (in  Music).  A  character  marked 
thus  [7,  vi'hich  lowers  a  note  one  semitone. 

FLAX.  A  plant,  from  tlie  fibres  of  which 
linen  thread  is  made.    Common  flax,  as 


158 


FLO 


represented  underneath,  is  an  annual  5  but 
the  other  kinds  are  perennials. 


FLAX  EARTH,  or  Mountain  Flax. 

See  Asbestos. 

FLEA.  A  little  insect  of  a  deep  purple 
colour,  remarkable  for  its  agility  in  leap- 
ing, for  which  it  has  three  pair  of  Jegs^ 
It  sucks  the  blood  of  larger  animals. 

FLEAM.  An  instrument  for  lancing  the 
gums  or  bleeding  cattle. 

FLEECE.  A  flock  of  wool,  or  what 
comes  from  a  sheep  at  one  shearing. 

FLEET.  A  number  of  ships  together  in 
company  or  under  one  commander. 

FLEET.  A  prison  in  London,  where 
debtors  are  confined. 

FLESH  (in  Anatomy).  The  soft  and 
fibrous  part  of  an  animal  body;  also  the 
red  part  of  a  muscle. 

FLESH  (in  Botany).  The  pulpy  sub- 
stance of  any  fruit  or  root. 

FLEUR  DE  LIS,  or  Flower  de 
Luce  (in  Heraldry).  A  bearing  in  the 
arms  of  France,  and  in  other  coats  of  arms. 

FLINT.  A  semitransparent  and  hard 
stone,  which  possesses  the  property  of 
emitting  fire  when  struck. 

FLINT  (among  Gunsmiths).  Apiece  of 
flint,  cut  so  as  to  go  between  the  jaws  of 
the  cock  of  a  gun. 

FLOAT.  A  raft  or  number  of  pieces 
of  timber,  fastened  together  with  rafters 
athwart,  to  be  driven  down  a  riv«r  with 
the  tide. 

FLOATING  BATTERY.  Vessels  used 
as  batteries  to  cover  troops  in  landing  on 
an  enemy's  coast. 

FLOCK.  A  number  of  sheep  in  com- 
pany; also  a  lock  of  wool. 

FLOETZ.  Beds  or  strata  of  earth,  con- 
taining the  remains  of  animal  or  vegetable 
substances,  &c. 


FLO 

FLOOD.  The  flux  of  the  tide  when  the 
water  continues  rising. 

FLOOD-GATE.  A  sluice  or  gate  that 
may  be  opened  or  shut,  for  the  admission 
or  exclusion  of  the  water. 

FLOOR.  The  area  or  surface  of  a  room. 

FLOOR  (in  Ship  Building).  The  bottom 
of  the  ship  which  rests  on  the  ground. 

FLORA  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology). 
The  goddess  of  flowers;  in  Botany,  the 
title  of  some  botanical  works. 

FLORIN.  A  coin  of  different  value; 
the  silver  florin  of  Holland  is  worth  about 
Is.  M. 

FLOUR.  The  fine  parts  of  wheat  or  rye 
ground  and  sifted. 

FLOWER.  The  beautiful  part  of  a  plant, 
the  blossom;  the  parts  or  divisions  of 
which  are  called  petals.  It  contains  the 
parts  of  fructification,  or  the  germ  of  the 
fruit. 

FLOWER  DE  LUCE.  A  species  of 
the  iris;  a  bulbous  root  having  a  lily 
flower  of  one  leaf,  shaped  like  that  of  the 
common  iris. 

FLOWERS  (in  Chymistry).  The  fine 
mealy  matter  which,  in  sublimation,  ia 
carried  up  to  the  head  of  the  vessel,  as 
the  flowers  of  benjamin,  zinc,  &:c. 

FLUATES.  A  kind  of  salts  formed  by 
the  combination  of  fluoric  acid  with  difle- 
rent  bases,  as  the  fluate  of  ammonia. 

FLUE.  The  small  winding  chimney  in 
a  furnace  for  conveying  smoke,  air,  and 
heat  into  a  larger  chimney;  also  the  down 
or  soft  hair  of  rabbits  and  feathers. 

FLUELLEN.  An  annual  that  grows  in 
gardens. 

FLUID  (in  Physiology).  A  fluid  body, 
or  one  whose  parts  yield  to  the  smallest 
force  impressed,  and  are  easily  moved 
among  each  other.  Fluids  are  either  elas- 
tic, as  the  air,  or  non-elastic,  as  water, 
mercury,  &:c. 

FLUID  (in  Anatomy).  The  fluids  of  the 
animal  body  are  the  humours  and  juices, 
as  the  blood,  chyle,  saliva,  &c. 

FLUIDITY,  The  state  of  bodies  when 
their  parts  are  very  readily  moveable  in 
all  directions  with  respect  to  each  other. 
It  stands  directly  opposed  to  solidity  or 
firmness,  and  is  distinguished  from  liquid- 
ity and  humidity,  inasmuch  as  the  latter 
imply  also  wetting  and  adhering.  Melted 
metals,  air,  ether,  smoke,  and  flame  are 
fluid  but  not  liquid  bodies,  their  parts  being 
dry  and  leaving  no  sense  of  moisture. 
Solids  are  converted  into  fluids  by  means 
of  heat. 

FLUOR  SPAR.  A  species  of  salt  which 
abounds  in  nature,  and  consists  of  a  cal- 
careous earth  in  combination  with  fluoric 


FLY 

acid.  It  is  called  fliior  because  it  melts 
readily;  it  is  called  spar  because  it  has  a 
sparry  form  and  fracture;  and  it  is  also 
called  vitreous  spar  because  it  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  glass. 

FLUORIC  ACID.  A  gaseous  substance 
procured  from  fluor  spar,  which  is  of  a 
corroding  nature,  and  will  dissolve  glass, 
for  which  reason  it  has  been  used  for 
etching  on  glass.  This  acid  gas  readily 
combines  with  water;  and  when  dropped 
in,  a  hissing  noise  is  produced  with  much 
heat. 

FLUTE.  A  wind  instrument,  and  the 
simplest  of  its  kind,  with  stops  for  the 
fingers. 

FLUTES.  The  hollow  channels  found 
along  the  surface  of  a  column. 

FLUX  (in  Physiology).  That  motion  of 
the  water  by  which  it  rises. 

FLUX  (in  Chymistry).  Any  substance 
or  mixture  added  to  assist  the  fusion  of 
minerals  and  metals.  In  assaying,  alkalies 
are  used  as  fluxes,  which  render  the  earthy 
mixtures  fusible  by  connecting  them  with 
glass. 

FLUXIONS.  That  branch  of  algebra 
which  treats  of  the  velocities  with  which 
the  fluents  or  flowing  quantities  increase 
or  decrease.  The  variable  or  flowing  quan- 
tities are  represented  by  the  letters  w,  ic, 
X,  7j,  z  j  tbe  invariable  quantities,  by  the 
letters  a,  b,  c,  d,  &c.  The  fluxion  is  re- 
presented by  a  dot  thus  y,  z. 

FLY  (in  Natural  History).  A  small 
winged  insect,  that  is  always  flying  about 
in  houses. 

FLY  (among  Mechanics).  That  part  of 
a  jack  which  puts  the  rest  of  the  machine 
in  motion. 

FLY  (among  Mariners).  That  part  of  a 
compass  on  which  the  thirty-two  points 
are  described. 

FLY  (among  Carpenters).  Flies  or  flyers 
are  the  series  of  steps  which  go  straight 
forward  without  winding. 

FLY-BOAT.  A  large  vessel  with  a  broad 
bow,  used  in  the  coasting  trade. 

FLY-BLOW.  The  deposit  of  the  eggs, 
maggots,  or  nymphse  of  flies  in  meat. 

FLY-CATCHER.  A  sort  of  bird  inha- 
biting Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  so  called 
because  it  lives  upon  flies.  The  king  bird 
is  a  well  known  variety  in  this  country. 

FLYING  BRIDGE.  See  Bridge. 

FLYING-FISH.  A  fish  inhabiting  the 
European  and  American  seas,  which,  by 
the  help  of  its  long  pectoral  fins,  is  ena- 
bled to  raise  itself  out  of  the  water  and  to 
fly  a  short  distance  when  pursued  by  other 
fish. 

FLYING    SaUIRREL.     A    beautiful 


FOL 


159 


American  Squirrel,  which  by  the  use  of 
membranes  attached  to  its  legs  sails  from 
the  tops  of  trees  to  a  great  distance. 

FLYING  DRAGON.  A  four-footed  rep- 
tile of  the  lizard  tribe,  inhabiting  Africa 
and  India,  which  has  a  lateral  membrane 
serving  as  a  wing. 


FLY-ORCHIS.  A  plant,so  called  from  the 
resemblance  it  bears  in  its  figure  to  a  fly. 

FLY-TRAP,  or  Venus's  Fly-Trap.  A 
sensitive  plant,  the  leaves  of  which  consist 
of  two  lobes,  that  close  when  they  are 
irritated  within,  and  consequently  entrap 
any  insect  that  lights  upon  them. 

FOAL.  The  young  of  a  horse,  or  ass. 

FOCUS  (in  Optics).  The  point  of  con- 
vergence or  concourse,  where  all  the  rays 
meet  after  passing  through  a  convex  lens. 

FOCUS  (in  Geometry  and  Conic  Sec- 
tions). A  certain  point  in  the  parabola 
and  ellipses,  &c.  where  the  rays  reflected 
from  all  parts  of  these  curves  concur. 

FODDER.  Dry  food  for  cattle. 

FODDER  (in  England).  The  prerogative 
of  the  king  formerly,  to  be  provided  with 
fodder  for  his  horses  in  any  warlike  ex- 
pedition. 

FOG,  or  Mist.  A  meteor  consisting  of 
condensed  vapours  floating  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

FOIL  (in  Fencing).  An  instrument  with- 
out a  point,  to  fence  with  by  way  of  exer- 
cise. 

FOIL  (among  Glass-grinders).  A  sheet 
of  tin  laid  on  the  back  of  a  looking-glass, 
to  make  it  reflect. 

FOIL  (among  Jewellers),  A  thin  leaf 
of  metal  placed  under  a  precious  stone,  to 
increase  its  brilliancy. 

FOLD.  An  enclosed  place  in  which 
sheep  are  confined. 

FOLIAGE.  A  cluster  or  assemblage  of 
the  leaves  of  trees. 

FOLIAGE  (in  Architecture).  Ornaments 
representing  leaves,  used  in  cornices,  &c. 

FOLIATING.  Spreading  the  plates  of 
glass  over  with  the  foil,  in  order  to  make 
them  reflect. 

FOLIO.  The  full  size  of  paper  as  it 
comes  from  the  manufacturer;  also  books 
printed  on  paper  of  that  size. 


160 


FOR 


FOLIO  (in  Merchants'  Accounts).  The 
page,  including  the  right  and  left  hand 
page,  in  a  merchant's  ledger,  which  are 
numbered  by  the  same  figure,  so  that  they 
may  correspond. 

FOMENTATION.  The  batliing  any  part 
of  the  body  with  a  decoction  of  herbs,  &;c. 
A  similar  application  with  bags  of  herbs 
and  other  ingredients,  is  called  a  dry  fo- 
mentation. 

FOOT.  A  measure  of  length  consisting 
of  twelve  inches. 

FOOT  (in  Poetry).  A  certain  number 
of  syllables  which  serve  for  measuring  the 
verse. 

FOOT  (in  Military  Tactics).  Soldiers  who 
serve  on  foot, 

FORAGE.  Provender  for  horses  in  an 
army. 

FORCE  (in  Physiology).  Whatever  is, 
or  may  be  made,  the  primary  cause  of 
motion  in  bodies. 

FORCE  (in  Law).  Unlawful  violence. 

FORCE  (in  Military  Affairs).  Any  body 
of  men  that  may  be  employed  in  action. 

FORCEPS.  A  siiigeon's  tongs,  pin- 
cers, &G. 

FORCER,  or  FORCING-PUMP.  A 
pump  with  a  forcer  or  piston  without  a 
valve. 

FORCING  (among  Gardeners).  A  me- 
thod of  obtaining  fruits  and  flowers  before 
their  season,  by  the  application  of  heat. 

FORCING  (in  Commerce).  The  fining 
down  wines  so  as  to  render  tliem  fit  for 
immediate  use. 

FORE.  A  sea  term  for  near  the  stem; 
as  '  fore  and  aft,'  that  is,  from  stem  to  stern. 

FORECASTLE.  A  short  deck  in  the 
fore  part  of  the  ship. 

FORECLOSED  (in  Law).  Excluded  or 
barred  the  equity  of  redemption  on  mort- 
gages, &CC. 

FOREIGN  ATTACHMENT  (in  Law), 
an  attachment  of  foreigners'goods. 

FORENSIC.  Belonging  to  the  bar  or 
courts  of  law. 

FORESHORTEIVING  (in  Painting). 
The  making  a  head  or  face  in  a  drawing 
appear  shorter  before. 

FOREST.  In  England,  a  large  wood 
privileged  to  hold  the  king's  game  of  all 
kinds. 

FORESTALLING.  The  buying  or  bar- 
gaining for  corn  or  other  merchandise,  be- 
fore it  comes  into  the  market. 

FORESTER.  In  England,  the  keeper 
of  a  forest. 

FORFEITURE  (in  Law).  The  loss  of 
goods,  lands,  or  employments,  &c.  for  neg- 
lecting to  do  one's  duty,  or  for  some  crime 
committed. 


FOR 

FORGE.  A  furnace,  in  which  smiths 
heat  their  metals  red-hot,  orjn  which  the 
ore  taken  out  of  the  mine  is  melted  down. 
FORGERY  (in  Law).  The  fraudulen- 
making  or  altering  any  record,  deed,  or 
writing,  &c.  to  tlie  prejudice  of  another 
man's  right,  particularly  the  counterfeiting 
the  signature  of  another  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud, which,  by  the  law  of  England,  is 
made  a  capital  felony..  In  the  United 
States,,  it  is  punished  by  ianprisonment. 

FORGING  (in  Smithgry).  The  beating 
or  hammering  iron  on  an  anvil. 

FORK.  An  instrument  divided  at  the 
end  into  two  or  more  prongs,  for  various 
uses. 

FORM  (in  Physiology).  The  essential 
and  distinguishing  modification  of  the  mat- 
ter of  which  any  body  is  composed. 

FORM  (among  Mechanics).  A  kind  of 
mould  in  which  any  thing  is  wrought. 

FORM  (among  Printers).  The  chase  or 
frame  filled  with  type  or  letter  the  size 
and  form  of  a  page,  made  ready  for  the 
press.  This  form  will  be  quarto  if  the 
sheet  consist  of  8  pages,  octavo  if  it  con- 
sist of  16  pages,  and  duodecimo  if  it  con- 
sist of  24  pages. 

FORMA  PAUPERIS,  i.  e.  In  the 
Form  of  a  Paupbr.  In  England,  a  form 
in  which  any  one  may  sue  who  swears 
that  he  is  not  worth  five  pounds,  and  brings 
a  certificate  from  some  lawyer  that  he  has 
just  cause  of  suit.  In  that  case  he  has 
counsel  assigned,  and  is  released  from 
costs  of  suit,  &c. 

FORMIC  ACID.  The  acid  of  ants,  which 
is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  red  ant. 

FORMULA  (in  Mathematics).  A  general 
theorem  or  literal  expression,  for  resolving 
any  part  of  a  problem. 

FORMULA  (in  Theology).  A  profession 
of  faith. 

FORMULARY.  A  book  of  forms  and 
precedents  for  law  matters. 

FORT.  A  small  castle  or  strong  hold, 
a  place  of  small  extent,  fortified  either  by 
art  or  nature,  being  encompassed  with  a 
moat,  rampart,  and  parapet,  as  represented 
underneath,  to  secure  some  high  ground, 
or  the  passage  of  a  river. 


FORTIFICATION.  The  science  of  mili- 
tary architecture,  which  teaches  the  best 
mode  of  putting  a  city,  town,  or  any  other 


FOR 

place,  into  a  state  of  defence  by  making 
works  around  it.  A  fortification  is  eitlier 
regular  or  irregular:  a  regular  fortification 
is  built  in  a  regular  polygon,  as  in  the 
subjoined  figure;  an  irregular  fortification 
is  where  the  sides  and  angles  are  not 
uniform.  A  temporary  fortification  is  that 
which  is  raised  for  any  particular  emer- 
gency, as  fieldworks,  &c.  This  is  distin- 
guished from  a  durable  fortification,  which 
serves  as  a  permanent  defence  of  a  place. 
A  defensive  fortification  is  that  by  which 
a  town  is  defended  in  case  of  a  siege,  in 
distinction  from  an  offensive  fortification, 
which  is  raised  by  besiegers  for  the  attack 
of  a  place.  The  works  of  a  place  are  those 
about  the  place,  in  distinction  from  the 
outworks,  which  are  constructed  before 
the  body  of  the  place.  The  principal  works 
belonging  to  a  fortification  are,  the  ditch 
or  trench  made  round  each  work;  the 
rampart,  or  elevation  of  earth,  raised  along 
the  faces  of  any  work,  to  cover  the  inner 
part;  the  parapet,  or  that  part  of  a  rampart 
which  serves  to  cover  the  troops  planted 
there;  the  bastion,  that  part  of  the  inner 
enclosure  of  a  fortification  making  an  angle 
towards  the  field;  the  counterscarp,  the 
slope  of  the  ditch  facing  the  body  of  the 
place;  the  covert  way,  the  space  extending 
round  the  counterscarp;  the  glacis,  the  part 
beyond  the  covert  way,  to  which  it  serves 
as  a  parapet;  the  curtain,  the  front  of  a 
wall  between  two  bastions;  the  flank,  any 
part  of  a  work  which  defends  another; 
the  gorge,  that  part  next  to  the  body  of 
the  place  where  there  is  no  rampart:  the 
epaule,  the  shoulder  of  the  bastion;  besides 
the  barriers,  palisades,  portcullis,  place  of 
arms,  &c. 


FOU 


161 


FORTIORI,  or  A  FORTIORI.   A  term 
used  in  reasoning,  for  any  conclusion  or 


inference  that  is  much  stronger  than  an- 
other. 

FORUM.  A  public  place  in  Rome,  where 
causes  were  tried  and  business  transacted, 

FOSS  (in  Fortification).  A  hollow  ditch, 
commonly  full  of  water,  lying  between  the 
scarp  and  the  counterscarp. 

FOSSAN.  An  animal  ofthe  weasel  kind, 
found  in  the  Asiatic  islands,  about  the 
size  ofthe  ferret. 

FOSSILS.  All  manner  of  things  dug 
out  of  the  earth,  whether  they  be  native 
fossils  growing  in  and  of  the  earth,  as 
metals,  stones,  salts,  earths,  and  other  min- 
erals; or  whether  they  be  foreign  substan- 
ces, as  the  exuviffi  of  sea  and  land  animals, 
namely,  shells,  bones,  teeth,  &:c.;  or  whe- 
ther they  be  vegetables,  as  leaves,  wood, 
&.C.  which  have  lain  long  buried  in  the 
earth. 

FOUL.  A  sea  term  for  the  running  of 
one  ship  against  another. 

FOUNDATION  (in  Architecture).  That 
part  of  a  building  which  is  under  ground. 

FOUNDATION  (in  Law).  A  donation 
in  money  or  lands  for  the  maintenance 
and  support  of  some  community,  as  an 
hospital,  a  school,  &c. 

FOUNDER  (in  Law).  One  who  founds 
and  endows  a  church,  school,  college,  &c. 

FOUNDER  (in  Trade).  One  who  casts 
metals  in  various  forms,  as  gun-founders, 
bell-founders,  &c.  The  company  of  foun- 
ders was  incorporated  in  London,  in  1614. 

FOUNDRY.  The  art  of  casting  metals 
in  various  forms;  also  the  place  where 
this  business  is  done.  Small  works  are 
cast  in  sand,  which,  being  duly  prepared, 
is  put  into  a  wooden  frame;  then  wooden 
or  metal  models  of  what  is  intended  to  be 
cast  are  put  into  the  sand  so  as  to  leave 
their  impression,  and  along  the  middle  of 
the  mould  is  laid  a  small  brass  cylinder  to 
form  a  chief  canal  for  the  metal  to  run 
through,  from  which  canal  run  others  ex- 
tending to  each  model  or  pattern  placed 
in  the  frame.  When  the  moulds  are  fully 
prepared,  the  fused  metal  is  poured  out  of 
the  crucible  intothechief  canal,  and  thence 
conveyed  to  each  pattern.  After  the  whole 
has  been  set  to  cool,  the  cast  work  is  taken 
out  ofthe  sand.  The  mould  for  very  large 
articles  is  made  of  wet  tempered  loam, 
built  up  by  degrees  in  a  pit,  into  which 
the  melted  metal  is  made  to  run  along  a 
channel  on  the  ground  to  the  mould.  The 
composition  used  in  casting  bells  Is  termed 
bell  metal. 

FOUNT,  or  FONT.  A  set  or  certain 
quantity  of  letters  cast  at  one  time  by  a 
letter-founder  for  the  use  of  a  printer. 
Founts   are  large  or  small,  according  to 


162 


FOU 


the  wants  of  a  printer,  who  orders  them 
by  the  hundred,  weight  or  by  the  sheet. 
A  fount  of  five  hundred,  including  letters, 
points,  spaces,  quadrats,  &:c.  is  to  weigh 
500  lb.  A  fount  of  ten  sheets  is  expected 
to  contain  a  sufficiency  for  composing  ten 
sheets  without  being  obliged  to  distribute  ; 
in  the  making  of  which  the  founder  takes 
care  that  those  sorts  of  letters  should  be 
best  supplied  for  which  there  are  the 
greatest  calls  in  composition  ,so  thatscarcely 
any  two  boxes  will  contain  the  same  num- 
ber of  letters.  The  proportion  which  the 
different  sorts  of  characters  in  a  fount 
should  bear  to  each  other  has  been  now 
reduced  to  a  rule,  which  by  the  French  is 
called  the  police. 

FOUNTAIN.  A  natural  spring  of  water 
rising  out  of  the  ground  ;  also  a  stream  of 
water  ejected  through  a  pipe  by  means  of 
a  machine  contrived  for  this  purpose.  Arti- 
ficial fountains  are  various  in  their  forms, 
but  they  all  act  on  the  principle  of  a  pres- 
sure, either  from  a  head  of  water,  or  arising 
from  the  spring  and  elasticity  of  the  air. 
When  fountains  are  formed  by  the  pressure 
of  a  head  of  water,  or  any  other  fluid  of 
the  same  kind,  with  the  fountain  or  jet, 
then  will  this  spout  up  nearly  to  the  same 
height  as  tliat  head,  allowing  a, little  for 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  with  that  of  the 
adjutage,  &c.  in  the  fluid  rushing  through;, 
but  when  the  fountain  is  produced  by  any 
otlier  force  than  the  pressure  of  a  column 
of  the  same  fluid  as  itself,  it  will  rise  nearly 
to  the  altitude  of  the  fluid,  whose  pressure 
is  equal  to  the  given  force  that  produces 
the  fountain.  The  subjoined  figure  repre- 
sents the  circulating  fountain,  or  the  foun- 
tain of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  invented  by  him,  in  which 


the  air,  being  compressed  by  a  concealed 
fall  of  water,  forms  a  jet  that  appears  as  if 


FRA 

it  had  a  perpetual,  motion,  and  that  the 
same  water  which  fell  from  the  jet  rose 
again  ;  but,  in  reality,  that  water  does  not 
come  up  again,  for^  running  down  through 
a  pipe  into  the  bottom  box,  it  drives  out 
the  air  through  an  ascending  pipe  into  the 
box  at  the  top  containing  water,  which, 
being  pressed  upon,  is  forced  through  the 
spout  as  long  as  there  is  any  in  it. 

FOWL.  The  largest  sort  of  birds,  whether 
domestic  or  wild,  as  geese,  pheasants,  par- 
tridges, &c. ;  also  a  full  grown  chicken,  or 
young  hen. 

FOWLING:  The  art  of  taking  or  killing 
birds,  either  by  means  of  snares  or  nets,  or 
by  various  devices,  as  imitating  their  voices 
or  using  decoy  birds  and  the  like. 

FOWLINGriECE.  A  light  gun  for 
shooting  birds. 

FOX.  A  crafty,  lively  animal,  nearly 
allied  to  the  dog,  which  seeks  its  food  by 
night  among  the  poultry,  rabbits,  and  hares. 
The  fox  is  borne  in  coats  of  arms,  and  as 
a  charge,  is  supposed  to  denote  a  subtle  wit 
by  which  a  man  has  served  his  country. 


FOXGLOVE.  See  Digitalis. 

FOX-TAIL-GRASS.  An  herbaceous 
plant. 

F.  R.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
London. 

FRACTURE  (in  Mineralogy).  The  break- 
in  g  of  minerals,  or  the  manner  in  which 
they  break,  which  is  one  of  their  specific 
characters. 

FRACTURE  (in  Surgery).  The  break- 
ing of  any  bone  by  an  external  act  of 
violence. 

FR^NUM  LINGUiE  (in  Anatomy). 
The  ligament  under  the  tongue. 

FRAME  (with  Painters).  A  kind  of 
square,  composed  of  four  long  pieces  or 
slips  of  wood  joined  together,  the  inter- 
mediate space  of  which  is  divided  by  little 
strings  or  thre.-ids  into  a  great  number  of 
little  squares,  like  the  meshes  of  a  net, 
used  in  reducing  figures  from  great  to 
small  or  from  small  to  great. 

FRANCHISE  (in  Law).  A  privilege 
or  exemption  from  ordinary  jurisdic 
tion. 


FRE 

FRANK  FREE.  A  term  much  used  in 
the  old  English  law,  as  Frank  pledge  free- 
men, who  used  to  be  pledges  or  sureties, 
for  the  good  behaviour  of  those  wlio  were 
of  their  community ;  in  modern  law,  an 
exemption  from  paying  postage  for  letters, 
which  is  enjoyed  by  members  of  parliament 
in  England,  and  members  of  Congress  to  a 
certain  extent. 

FRANK.  A  French  coin,  worth  twenty 
sols,  or  about  eighteen  cents  and  3-4. 

FRANKINCENSE.  An  odoriferous, 
dry,  resinous  substance,  procured  from  the 
juniper  tree  in  Turkey  and  the  East  In- 
dies. 

FREEBOOTER.  A  soldier  that  serves 
for  plunder,  without  pay. 

FREEHOLD.  That  land  or  tenement 
which  a  man  holds  in  fee  simple,  fee  tail, 
or  for  term  of  life. 

FREEHOLDERS.  Possessors  of  a  free- 
hold estate. 

FREEMAN(in  Ancient  Law).  In  Eng. 
one  free  from  servitude,  as  distinguished 
from  a  villain  or  bondsman  ;  also  one  who 
enjoys  the  freedom  of  a  city  or  borough. 
A  freeman  in  the  United  States,  is  one 
who  has  a  right  to  vote. 

FREE  SCHOOL.  An  endowed  school, 

where  children  are  taught  free  of  expense. 

FREESTONE.  A  sort  of  stone  used  in 

building,  that  may  be  cut  freely  in  any 

manner. 

FREIGHT  (in  Commerce).  The  sum  of 
money  agreed  to  be  paid  for  the  burden 
of  a  ship  3  also  the  burden  itself,  or  the 
cargo  of  a  ship. 

FRENCH  HORN.  A  musical  instru- 
ment, bent  into  a  circle,  and  going  two  or 
three  times  round.  It  grows  gradually 
larger  and  wider  towards  the  end,  and  in 
some  horns  is  nine  or  ten  inches  over. 


FRI 


163 


freezing  mixtures,  or  compositions  of  such 
ingredients  as-  when  mixed  with  other 
bodies,  cause  them  to  congeal ;  such  as 
snow  and  common  salt,  or  muriate  of  am- 
monia, nitre  and  water,  &c. 

FRESCO.  A  method  of  painting  in 
relievo  on  walls,  so  as  to  endure  the 
weather ;  it  is  performed  with  water  colours 
on  fresh  plaster,  so  that  the  colours  incor- 
porate with  the  mortar. 

FRESHES.  A  sea  term  for  an  impetu- 
ous ebb  tide  increased  by  heavy  rains. 

FRET  (in  Architecture).  An  ornament 
consisting  of  small  fillets  interlaced,  that 
were  used  by  the  ancients  on  flat  mem- 
bers.. 


1 

Ef- 

^1 

L 

FREEZING  (in  Physiolog}')-  The  fixing 
a  fluid  body  into  a  firm  and  solid  mass  by 
the  action  of  cold.  The  process  of  freezing 
may  be  artificially  produced  by  means  of 
the  air  pump,  and  sometimes  by  certain 


FRET  (in  Music).  A  kind  of  stop  on 
some  instruments-,  particularly  bass  viols 
and  lutes. 

FRICTION  (in  Mechanics).  The  rub- 
bing of  the  parts  of  engines  and  machines 
against  each  other,  by  which  means  a  great 
part  of  their  effect  is  destroyed. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES.  In  England, 
associations  chiefly  among  the  lower  clas- 
ses, for  affording  relief  to  each  other  in 
time  of  sickness,  or  to  the  widows  and 
children  at  their  death. 

FRIGATE.  A  light  built  ship  of  war, 
from  twenty  to  fifty  guns,  fitted  for  iX 
sailing.. 


FRIGID  ZONES.  The  two  zones  or 
divisions  of  the  earth,  comprehended  be- 
tween the  poles  and  the  polar  circles. 
They  are  the  north  frigid  zone,  at  the  north 
pole,  and  the  south  frigid  zone,  at  the  south 
pole. 


164 


FRU 


FRIT,  or  FRITT  (in  the  Glass  Manu- 
facture). The  matter  or  ingredients  of  which 
glass  is  to  be  made,  after  they  have  been 
calcined  or  baked  in  a  furnace.  It  is  of 
different  kinds,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  glass.  Crystal  frit,  for  the  best  kind, 
is  made  with  salt  of  pulverine  and  sand. 
The  ordinary  or  common  glass  is  made  of 
the  bare  ashes  of  pulverine,  or  barilla, 
without  extracting  the  salt  from  them  ;  this 
is  the  second  kind  of  frit.  The  third  kind 
of  frit,  for  green  glass,  is  made  of  common 
ashes,  without  any  preparation. 

FRITH  (in  Geography).  An  arm  of  the 
sea,  as  the  Frith  of  Forth,  or  of  Edinburgh, 
the  Frith  of  Clyde,  &c. 

FRIZING  CLOTH.  A  process  in  the 
woollen  manufacture,  of  forming  the  nap 
of  cloth  or  stuff  into  a  number  of  little 
hard  burrs  or  prominences,  sp  as  to  cover 
almost  the  whole  ground.  This  process  is 
now  performed  by  machinery. 

FROG.  An  amphibious  animal,  having 
a  smooth  body,  and  longer  legs  than  the 
toad. 


FROG  (in  Farriery).  The  hard  project- 
ing substance  in  the  hollow  of  a  horse's 
foot. 

FROG-FISH,  or  Fishing  Frog.  A  kind 
of  fish  resembling  a  frog  in  the  tadpole 
state,  that  puts  forth  its  slender  horns  and 
entices  the  little  fish  to  itself,  in  order  to 
seize  them. 

FRONT.  The  principal  face  or  side  of 
a  building. 

FRONTIER.  The  boundary  of  a  king- 
dom, which  separates  it  from  another  king- 
dom on  the  land  side. 

FRONTISPIECE.  The  ornament  or 
picture  which  faces  the  title  page  in  a 
book. 

FRONTLET.  A  band  worn  on  the 
forehead . 

FRUCTIFICATION  (in  Botany).  The 
temporary  part  of  vegetables,  appropriated 
to  their  propagation,  consisting  of  the  flow- 
er and  the  fruit. 

FRUIT  (in  Botany).  That  which  suc- 
ceeds the  flower;  it  may  either  be  seed 


FUL 

only,  or  it  may  be  an  esculent  pulpy  sub- 
stance, as  the  apple  or  the  pear  ;  or  it  may 
be  hard,  like  the  nut,  pea,  &c. 

FRUITERER.  One  who  deals  in  fruit- 
The  company  of  fruiterers  in  London,  was 
incorporated  in  1604. 

FRUSH.  The  tender  part  of  a  horse's 
heel,  next  the  hoof. 

FRUSTUM  (in  Mathematics).  A  part 
of  some  solid  body  separated  from  the  rest. 

FRUSTUM  OF  A  CONE.  The  part  of 
a  cone  that  remains  when  the  top  is  cut 
off  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the  base ;  it  is 
otherwise  called  a  truncated  cone. 

FRUSTUM  of  a  GLOBE  or  SPHERE. 
Any  part  of  it  cut  off  by  a  plane. 

F.  S.  A.  An  abbreviation  for  Fellow  of 
the  Society  of  Arts. 

FUCI.  A  genus  of  plants  in  the  Linnje- 
an  system,  comprehending  most  of  those 
which  are  commonly  called  seaweeds, 
from  which,  when  burnt,  an  impure  alkali 
is  procured  called  kelp. 


FUCUS.  The  name  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  a  sea  plant,  from  which  a  dye 
was  procured,  for  dyeing  woollen  and  lin- 
en cloths  of  that  colour. 

FUGITIVE  PIECES.  Little  pieces  of 
composition  of  temporary  interest. 

FUGITIVE'S  GOODS  (in  Law).  The 
goods  of  one  who  flies  upon  felony. 

FUGUE  (in  Music).  A  species  of  com- 
position, in  which  the  different  parts  follow 
each  other,  each  repeating  in  order  what 
the  first  had  performed. 

FULCRUM  (in  Mechanics).  The  prop 
or  support  by  which  a  lever  is  sustained. 

FULLER.  One  who  cleans  and  scours 
cloth. 

FULLER'S  EARTH.  A  species  of  clay 
remarkable  for  the  property  of  absorbing 


FUN 

oil,  wherefore  it  is  used  by  fullers  to  take 
grease  out  of  cloth. 

FULLING.  The  art  of  cleansing,  scour- 
ing, and  pressing  cloths,  to  make  them 
stronger,  closer,  and  firmer,  which  is  done 
by  means  of  a  water  mill,  called  a  fulling 
or  scouring  mill.  These  mills  are  nearly 
the  same  as  corn  mills,  except  in  the  mill- 
stones and  the  hopper.  In  France,  corn 
is  ground  and  cloth  is  fulled  by  the  motion 
of  the  same  wheel :  cloths  and  woollen 
stuffs  are  sometimes  fulled  by  means  of 
soap,  in  the  following  manner  ;  the  cloth  is 
laid  in  the  trough  of  the  fulling  mill,  and 
then  the  soap  dissolved  in  pails  of  river 
or  spring  water  is  to  be  poured  upon  it 
by  little  and  little.  The  cloth,  after  lying 
two  hours  in  the  soap,  is  taken  out,  stretch- 
ed, and  then  returned  to  the  trough.  Up- 
on being  taken  out  a  second  tune,  the 
grease  and  filth  is.  then  wrung  out.  This 
process  is  afterwards  repeated,  and  when 
the  cloth  has  thus  been  brought  to  the 
quality  and  thickness  required,  it  is  scour- 
ed in  hot  water  until  it  is  quite  clean. 

FULMINATION.  The  noise  which 
some  minerals  or  metals  make  when  heat- 
ed in  a  crucible ;  as  fulminating  powder, 
which  is  made-  of  nitre,  potash,  and  the 
flowers  of  sulphur,  triturated  in  a  warm 
mortar.  If  this  powder  be  fused  in  a  ladle, 
and  then  set  on  fire,  it  will  explode  with  a 
noise  like  thunder.  If  a  solution  of  gold 
be  precipitated  by  ammonia,  the  product 
will  be  fulminating  gold,  a  grain  of  which, 
if  held  over  a  flame,  will  explode  with  a 
sharp  loud  noise. 

FUMIGATION.  A  process  by  means  of 
which  the  nitrous  and  other  mineral  acids, 
in  a  state  of  vapour,  are  dispersed  through 
any  place. 

FUNCTION.  The  performance  of  any 
duty. 

FUNCTION  (in  Physiology).  The  ex- 
ercise of  any  faculty  or  power,  as  the  vital 
functions,  or  those  which  are  necessary  to 
life. 

FUNCTION  (in  Algebra).  An  algebra- 
ical expression  of  a  certain  letter  or  quan- 
tity. 

FUND  (in  Commerce).  The  capital  or 
stock  of  a  public  company. 

FUNDAMENTAL  NOTE  (in  Music). 
The  lowest  note  of  the  chord,  to  which  all 
the  rest  are  in  some  measure  adapted,  and 
by  which  they  are  regulated  5  it  is  other- 
wise called  the  key  to  the  song. 

FUNDS,  PUBLIC  FUNDS,  or 
STOCKS.  The  national  debt  formed  into 
different  capitals,  upon  which  interest  is 
payable. 

FUNGI.    The  fourth  order  of  the  class 


FUS 


165 


Cryptogamia  in  the  Linnaean  system,  con- 
sisting of  funguses,  mushrooms,  truffles, 
&c.  A  fungus  of  this  order  is  represented 
underneath. 


FURLONG..  A  measure  of  length,  con- 
sisting of  forty  poles.. 

FURLOUGH.  Leave  of  absence  given 
to  a  soldier,  or  noncommissioned  officer. 

FURNACE.  A  fire  place  for  melting, 
distilling,  and  other  chymical  processes,  so 
built  as  to  cause  the  fire  to  burn  vehe- 
mently. 


FUR.  The  coat  or  covering  of  some 
animals,  as  sables,  beavers,  martens, 
squirrels,  &c.  which  is  used  in  various  ar- 
ticles of  dress,  either  for  ornament  or 
warmth. 

FURS.  Tinctures  in  coats  of  arms, 
which  are  supposed  to  represent  the  furs 
of  animals. 

FURRIER.  One  who  deals  in  furs,  and 
prepares  them  for  the  manufacturer. 

FURRING  (in  Carpentrj  ).  The  fixing 
thin  scantlings  or  laths  on  the  edges  of 
timbers,  to  bring  them  to  the  even  surface 
they  were^^ intended  to  form. 

FURRINGS  (in  Carpentry).  The  pie- 
ces of  timber  employed  in  making  an  even 
surface. 

FURROW.  A  small  trench  cast  up  by 
the  plough  between  the  lands. 

FUSEE  (in  Clockwork).  A  mechanical 
contrivance  for  equalizing  the  power  of 


166 


GAG 


the  main  spring  of  a  watch.  The  fusee  on 
which  the  chain  or  catgut  is  wound,  is 
made  somewhat  conical,  so  that  its  radius 
at  every  point  may  correspond  with  the 
strength  of  the  spring,  being  greater  and 
greater  as  the  action  of  the  spring  becomes 
more  and  more  weakened  by  unbending. 

FUSEE  (in  Gunnery).  The  tube  fixed 
into  a  bomb  or  grenade  shell,  which  is 
filled  with  combustible  materials,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  quick  match  on  the  top  of 
it.  When  it  is  used  it  is  driven  into  the 
bomb,  being  cut  to  a  length  proportioned 
to  the  distance  that  the  bomb  is  to  be 
thrown,  that  it  may  be  spent  and  the  bomb 
break  when  it  falls. 


GAL 

FUSIL.    A  small  light  musket. 

FUSIL  (in  Heraldry).  An  artificial 
charge,  representing  a  spindle.  It  is  of 
the  same  shape  as  the  lozenge,  but  it  is 
longer. 

FUSION.  The  art  of  reducing  bodies  to 
a  fluid  state  by  the  artificial  application  of 
heat ;  as  in  the  case  of  metals,  glass,  and 
similar  bodies.  Those  substances  which 
admit  of  being  fused  are  termed  fusible, 
but  those  which  resist  the  action  of  fire  or 
heat  are  termed  refractory. 

FUST.     The  shaft  of  a  column. 

FUSTIAN.     A  sort  of  nappy  cotton. 

FUSTIC.  A  dyeing  wood  brought  from 
the  West  Indies. 


G,  the  seventh  letter  in  the  alphabet,  as  a 
numeral,  formerly  stood  for  400  ;  as  a  sign, 
it  stands  for  the  treble  cliff,  or  the  highest 
of  the  three  cliffs  ;  as  an  abbreviation,  for 
grand,  as  G.  C.  B.  Knight  Grand  Cross  of 
the  Bath. 

GABEL.  Formerly  an  excise  in  France 
on  salt ;  in  old  English  records,  a  rent,  cus- 
tom, or  duty  due  to  the  lord. 

GABIONS.  Baskets  of  willow  filled  with 
earth  to  make  a  parapet  or  cover. 


GABLE  END.  The  triangular  end  of  a 
house,  from  the  cornice  or  eaves  to  the 
top. 

GADFLY.  An  insect  which  has  a  face 
resembling  that  of  an  ape.  It  deposits  its 
eggs  on  the  backs  of  horses  and  other 
cattle. 


GAGE,  or  GAUGE.  An  instrument  for 
ascertainingmeasures  of  different  kinds,  as 
for  measuring  the  state  of  rarefaction  in 
the  air  pump,  or  determining  the  variations 


in  the  barometer,  or  for  measuring  the 
force  of  the  winds,  &c. 

GAL.  An  abbreviation  for  gallon  or 
Galatians. 

GALAXY,  or  Milky  Wat.  A  long 
white  luminous  tract  which  seems  to  en- 
compass the  heavens  like  a  girdle,  formed 
by  innumerable  stars. 

GALBANUM.  A  resinous  substance 
like  frankincense. 

GALE  (among  Mariners).  A  storm  or 
violent  wind. 

GALL.    Another  name  for  the  bile. 

GALL  BLADDER.  An  oblong  mem- 
braneous receptacle  for  the  bile. 

GALLERY.  A  passage  leading  to  sev- 
eral apartments. 


GALLERY  (among  Miners).  A  long 
narrow  passage  under  ground. 

GALLERY  (in  Fortification).  Acovered 
walk  across  a  ditch  in  a  besieged  town, 
made  of  strong  planks  and  covered  with 
earth.  It  was  formerly  used  for  carrying 
a  mine  to  the  foot  of  the  ramparts.  It 
ought  to  be  eight  feet  higli  and  ten  or 
twelve  feet  wide.  The  beams  ought  to  be 
half  a  foot  thick,  and  planks  nailed  on  each 
side. 


GAL 

GALLEY  (in  Printing).  A  frame  into 
which  the  compositor  empties  his  stick  as 
often  as  it  is  filled. 

GALLEY  (in  Shipbuilding).  A  low 
built  vessel,  much  used  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. 


GAL 


167 


GALLEY-SLAVE.  One  condemned 
by  way  of  punishment  to  work  at  the  oar, 
to  which  he  is  chained,  on  board  of  a  gal- 
ley. 

GALL-FLY.  An  insect  which  produces 
the  galls  or  excrescences  on  the  branches 
and  leaves  of  trees. 

GALLICISM.  A  form  of  expression 
peculiar  to  the  French. 

GALL  NUTS,  or  GALLS.  Excrescen- 
ces on  trees,  which  are  occasioned  by  the 
gall-flies.  Those  whicli  come  on  the  oak, 
vulgarly  called  oak  apples,  are  used  in 
making  ink,  dyeing,  and  dressing  leather. 
They  are  represented  underneath. 


GALLOWAY.  A  kind  of  Scotch  horse 
not  more  than  fourteen  hands  high. 

GALVANIC  BATTERY.  An  appara- 
tus which  is  employed  in  accumulating  the 
electricity  of  galvanism  by  the  mutual 
agencies  of  certain  metallic  and  carbona- 
ceous substances  and  peculiar  fluids.  See 
Galvanism.    This  battery,  as  represented 


nnderneath,  consists  of  pieces  of  zinc,  sil- 
ver, and  wet  cloth,  disposed  in  threes  al- 


ternately, to  the  number  of  twenty  or  thir- 
ty triplicates,  as  may  be  thought  proper. 

GALVANISM.  A  branch  of  the  science 
of  electricity,  first  discovered  accidentally 
by  Galvani,  a  professor  of  Bologna,  from 
whom  it  derives  its  name.  This  science 
treats  of  the  effects  of  applying  metals  to 
the  nerves  and  muscles  of  dead  animals, 
which  has  been  found  to  produce  strong 
contractions  and  convulsions.  The  first 
observation  on  this  extraordinary  effect  of 
electricity  was  made  in  the  laboratory  of 
M.  Galvani,  when  one  of  his  assistants 
happened  to  bring  the  point  of  his  scalpel 
to  the  crural  nerves  of  a  skinned  frog  lying 
near  the  conductor,  upon  which  the  mus- 
cles of  the  limb  were  agitated  with  strong 
convulsions.  Madame  Galvani,  who  was 
present  at  the  time,  was  struck  with  the 
circumstance,  and  communicated  it  in- 
stantly to  M.  Galvani,  who  repeated  the 
experiment,  and  found  that  the  convulsion 
only  took  place  when  a  spark  was  drawn 
from  the  conductor  at  the  time  the  scalpel 
was  in  contact  with  the  nerve.  After  this, 
Galvani  continued  his  experiments  in  vari- 
ous ways,  and  ascertained  that  the  mere 
agency  of  metallic  substances,  provided 
they  were  dissimilar  metals,  would  produce 
such  convulsions.  This  subject  engaged 
the  attention  of  experimentalists  both  be- 
fore and  after  the  death  of  M.  Galvani, 
which  happened  in  1798  ;  but  none  added 
any  thing  materially  to  his  discovery  ex- 
cept M.  Volta,  who  repeated  the  experi- 
ments of  the  former,  and  found  that  when 
two  pieces  of  metal  of  different  kinds  were 
placed  in  difl'erent  parts  of  an  animal,  and 
were  either  brought  into  contact  or  into 
connexion  by  means  of  a  metallic  arc,  con- 
vulsions ensued  every  time,  and  that  this 
effect  was  strongest  when  the  metals  were 
zinc  and  silver,  particularly  when  several 
pairs  of  metals  were  employed,  having 
pieces  of  moist  cloth  between  them.  This 
led  him  to  the  idea  of  constructing  a  batte- 
ry, for  the  purpose  of  accumulating  elec- 
tricity, which  has  since  been  called  the 
galvanic  battery,  or  Voltaic  pile. 

The  apparatus  first  m.ade  by  Volta,  in 
1800,  consisted  of  a  certain  number  of  pairs 
of  zinc  and  silver  plates,  separated  from 
each  other  by  pieces  of  wet  cloth,  in  the 
order  of  zinc,  silver,  wet  cloth,  zinc,  sil- 
ver, wet  cloth,  in  regular  succession.  The 
silver  plates  were  chiefly  pieces  of  coins, 
the  plates  of  zinc  and  the  pieces  of  wet 
cloth  being  of  the  same  size.  He  found 
this  much  more  powerful  when  the  pieces 
of  cloth  were  moistened  with  a  solution  of 
common  salt  instead  of  pure  water,  and 
an  apparatus  thus  prepared  was  found  to 


168 


GAN 


possess  the  power  of  giving  a  very  smart 
shock,  similar  to  that  of  a  small  electric 
jar ;  and  this  effect  took  place  as  often  as 
a  communication  was  made  between  each 
end  of  the  pile,  and  as  long  as  the  pieces 
of  cloth  remained  moist :  an  improvement 
was  made  on  this  apparatus  by  Mr.  Cruick- 
shank,  of  Woolwich,  which  was  denomi- 
nated a  galvanic  trough,  and  consists  of  a 
box  of  baked  wood,  in  which  plates  of 
copper,  or  of  silver  and  zinc,  soldered  to- 
gether at  their  edges,  are  cemented  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  leave  a  number  of  water- 
tight cells,  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
the  series ;  this  serves  to  remedy  the  defect 
of  the  Voltaic  pile,  which,  on  account  of 
the  loss  of  moisture,  loses  its  electrical 
action  in  a  few  days ;  but  by  Mr.  Cruick- 
shank's  contrivance  its  activity  may  be 
renewed  by  filling  the  cells  with  the  proper 
saline  fluid. 

GAMBOGE.  A  yellow  resinous  sub- 
stance used  by  painters.  It  is  the  produce 
of  a  tree  native  of  Cambogia  or  Cambaja, 
in  the  East  Indies. 

GAME.  All  sorts  of  birds  and  beasts 
that  are  objects  of  Ihe  chase.  The  laws 
which  in  England  particularly  protect  this 
sort  of  property,  are  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Game  Laws  By  these  laws  certain 
qualifications  of  property  are  required,  to 
give  a  person  the  privilege  of  being  allowed 
to  kill  game  ;  and  penalties  are  imposed  on 
all  persons  who  kill  game,  either  without 
such  qualification  or  at  improper  seasons  ; 
likewise  the  sale  of  game  is  prohibited  un- 
der every  circumstance.  Attempts  have 
been  repeatedly  made  in  parliament  to 
procure  a  repeal,  either  wholly  or  in  part, 
of  these  laws,  which  are  thought  to  be 
oppressive  in  their  operation. 

GAME.  Any  sport  or  amusement  which 
affords  a  subject  of  contest,  and  a  display 
of  skill  or  superiority. 

GAMECOCK.  A  cock  bred  to  fight. 

GAMESTER.  One  who  is  viciously 
addicted  to  playing  at  games. 

GAMING.  The  wanton  and  extravagant 
playing  at  games  for  purposes  of  gain. 

GAMUT  (in  Music).  The  table  or  scale 
of  notes  laid  down  by  Guido,  and  marked 
by  the  monosyllables  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la  ; 
also  the  first  note  in  the  scale. 

GANG  (among  Mariners-).  A  select  num- 
ber of  a  ship's  crew,  appointed  on  any  , 
particular  service. 

GANG.  A  number  of  persons  who  go  or 
herd  together  for  wicked  purposes. 

GANGLIONS.  Suiall,  hard,  knotty  tu 
mours,  formed  on  the  nervous  and  tendi 
nous  parts. 


GAR 

GANGRENE.  A  mortification  in  its 
first  beginning. 

GANGWAY  (among  Mariners).  The 
name  of  several  ways  or  passages  from  one 
part  of  a  ship  to  another. 

GANNET.  A  large  water  bird,  common 
on  the  coasts  of  Scotland. 

GANTLOPE,  or  GANTLET  (in  Mili- 
tary Affairs),  An  old  punishment  in  which 
the  criminal,  running  between  the  ranks, 
receives  a  lash  from  every  man. 

GAOL  (in  Law).  A  prison  for  the  con- 
finement of  criminals  or  debtors. 

GAOL  DELIVERY.  In  England,  the 
clearing  of  a  prison  by  a  judicial  condem- 
nation or  acquittal  of  the  prisoners  ;  also  a 
commission  from  the  king  to  deliver  or 
clear  the  gaols. 

GARB.  A  wheatsheaf,  signifying  peace 
and  plenty,  in  coats  of  arms. 

GARBLERS.  In  England,  officers  of 
the  city,  authorized  to  examine  spices  and 
drugs  offered  in  shops  for  sale. 

GARDE JV.  A  plot  of  ground  enclosed 
and  cultivated  with  extraordinary  care, 
and  furnished  with  the  fine  kinds  of 
plants  and  flowers,  for  pleasure  and  use. 

GARDENING.  The  process  of  tilling 
a  garden  and  keeping  it  in  order. 

GARDENING,  History  of.  Gardening 
is  one  of  those  domestic  arts  so  essentially 
connected  with  the  refined  enjoyments  of 
mankind,  that  with  a  garden  has  ever  been 
associated  every  idea  of  cultivation  and 
pure  pleasure.  From  Holy  Writ  we  learn 
that  our  first  parents,  before  their  fall, 
passed  their  lives  in  a  garden,  and  their 
posterity,  although,  according  to  the  denun- 
ciation of  their  Maker,  doomed  to  till  the 
ground  with  the  sweat  of  their  brow,  never- 
theless have  at  all  times  endeavoured  to 
sweeten  their  labour  by  bringing  home  to 
themselves  the  enjoyments  of  cultivation 
within  the  narrow  circle  of  their  own 
habitation.  The  accounts  of  gardens  among 
the  ancients  are  confined  to  those  of  princes 
or  great  men,  as  the  garden  of  Solomon 
and  the  garden  of  Alcinous  the  Pha;acian 
king,  which  is  minutely  described  by 
Homer  in  his  Odyssey.  The  hanging  gar- 
dens of  Babylon,  particularly  spoken  of 
by  Diodorus  and  Strabo,  may  be  reckoned 
among  the  wonders  of  art.  Each  side  ex- 
tended four  hundred  feet,  so  that  the  area 
of  the  base  was  nearly  an  acre.  They  rose 
with  terraces,  constructed  one  above  ano- 
ther, and  supported  with  pillars  to  the 
height  of  four  hundred  feet.  These  ter- 
races were  formed  of  stone,  covered  with 
reeds,  and  cemented  with  bitumen,  over 
which  was  laid  a  double  row  of  bricks, 


GAR 

and  then  a  layer  of  earth  of  sufficient 
depth  for  plants  to  grow  in  it.  The  Per- 
sian kings  also  displayed  their  magnifi- 
cence in  their  gardens,  which  they  took 
care  should  contain  all  that  was  useful  as 
well  as  beautiful.  Their  trees  were  ranged 
in  straight  lines  and  regular  figures,  and 
the  margins  of  the  walks  were  lined  with 
tufts  of  roses,  violets,  and  other  odoriferous 
flowers.  Firs  and  planes  were  their  fa- 
vourite trees. 

The  Greeks  appear  to  have  derived  their 
ideas  of  gardening  from  the  Persians,  if 
we  may  judge  from  the  allusions  of  writers 
to  this  subject.  Xenophon  particularly 
admires  the  garden  of  Cyrus  at  Sardis. 
The  narcissus,  the  violet,  the  rose,  the  ivy, 
the  pines,  and  other  plants  chosen  by  the 
Persians,  either  for  their  beauty  or  their 
fragrance,  were  the  theme  of  praise  among 
the  Grecian  poets  and  philosophers.  They 
also  consulted  shade,  fresh  breezes,  and  the 
beauties  of  verdant  scenery,  as  we  learn 
from  the  vale  of  Tempe  described  by 
iElian,  and  the  shady  groves  of  Athens 
described  by  Plutarch.  With  the  beauties 
of  nature  they  also  associated  those  of  art, 
particularly  such  as  derived  an  interest 
from  their  religious  or  social  attachments. 
Hence  we  find  that  their  gardens  were 
decorated  with  temples  or  altars  dedicated 
to  their  gods,  or  the  tombs  of  their  ances- 
tors or  of  great  men  whose  memory  they 
held  dear.  Their  favourite  fruits  were  the 
vine,  the  fig,  the  pomegranate,  and  the 
melon. 

The  first  garden  mentioned  among  the 
Romans  is  that  of  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
which  abounded  with  flowers,  chiefly  roses 
and  poppies.  As  the  Roman  people  exten- 
ded their  conquests,  and  their  intercourse 
with  other  nations  became  more  frequent, 
they  increased  in  luxurious  and  expensive 
indulgences,  which  they  displayed  in  the 
decorations  of  their  gardens.  Lucullus,  the 
conqueror  of  Mithridates,  who  introduced 
from  Asia  the  cherry,  the  peach,  and  the 
apricot,  first  gave  the  Romans  a  specimen 
of  Asiatic  grandeur,  in  his  garden  near 
BaiEe,  in  Naples,  which  was  remarkable 
for  prodigious  works  of  art,  as  artificial 
mountains,  immense  pieces  of  v/ater,  and 
numerous  costly  embellishments.  This 
gave  that  tone  of  artificiality  to  the  Roman 
gardens  which  was  for  so  many  centuries 
after  retained  in  Europe.  Slopes,  terraces, 
a  wilderness,  shrubs  methodically  trimmed 
or  cut  into  certain  shapes,  a  marble  basin, 
artificial  fountains,  or  a  cascade  falling  into 
the  basin,  bay  trees  alternately  planted 
with  planes,  a  straight  walk,  from  which 
issued  others,  parted  off  by  hedges  of  box, 
15 


GAS 


169 


and  apple  trees,  with  obelisks  placed  be- 
tween every  two  3  these  were  the  ingredi- 
ents of  a  Roman  garden,  as  described  by 
Pliny  the  younger,  in  which  was  wanted 
nothing  but  the  decoration  of  a  parterre  to 
make  a  garden  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  to 
serve  for  a  description  of  one  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  A  more  correct  taste  in 
the  art  of  gardening  has  obtained  within 
the  last  century.  Nature  now  derives 
every  possible  assistance  from  art,  without 
losing  any  thing  of  her  simplicity. 

GARLAND.  An  ornament  of  flowers 
made  for  the  head  or  other  purposes. 

GARLAND  (among  Mariners).  A  collar 
of  rope  wound  up  about  the  head  of  a 
main  mast,  to  keep  the  shrouds  from 
galling. 

GARLIC.  A  bulbous  root,  consisting  of 
many  small  tubercles  included  in  its  coats. 
It  has  a  strong  smell  and  an  acrid  taste, 
but  is  much  used  for  food. 

GARNET.  A  sort  of  carbuncle,  so  called 
from  its  red  colour,  resembling  the  seed  of 
a  pomegranate. 

GARNISHMENT  (in  Law).  A  warning 
given  to  any  one  for  his  appearance  in 
court. 

GARRET.  The  uppermost  floor  in  a 
house. 

GARRISON.  A  place  of  defence  occu- 
pied by  troops  ;  also  the  troops  themselves. 

GARTER.  A  bandage  for  the  leg. 

GARTER  (in  Heraldry).  The  principal 
badge  of  the  highest  order  of  knighthood 
in  the  kingdom,  called  the  most  Noble 
Order  of  the  Garter. 

GARTER  KING  AT  ARMS.  The  chief 
of  the  three  kings  at  arms. 

GARTER,  Order  of  the.  In  England, 
an  order  of  knights  instituted  by  Edward 
III.  which  consists  of  twenty-six  knights 
companions.  The  habit  and  ensigns  of 
this  order  are  the  garter,  mantle,  cap,  and 
collar.  The  badge  of  the  order  is  the  im- 
age of  Saint  George,  called  the  George. 

GAS.  A  chymical  term  derived  from 
the  German  geist,  spirit,  denoting  an  elas- 
tic aerial  fluid,  of  which  there  are  different 
kinds,  some  being  acid,  as  carbonic  acid  ; 
some  alkalies,  as  ammonia,  &c. 

GAS  LIGHT.  Light  produced  by  gas 
burning  in  lamps,  &:c.  This  gas,  which  is 
a  combination  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  is 
carried  away  by  pipes  and  burnt  at  the 
orifice  of  escape.  It  is  produced  either 
from  pit  coal  or  whale  oil.  The  process 
for  producing  coal  gas  is  as  follows.  The 
coal,  being  broken  to  a  convenient  size,  is 
placed  in  oblong  cast  iron  retorts,  ranged 
in  furnaces  to  keep  them  at  a  red  heat, 
and  all  the  volatile  products  are  conveyed 


170 


GAT 


by  a  common  tube  into  a  condensing 
vessel,  which  is  kept  cool  by  being  im- 
mersed in  water.  In  the  condenser  are 
retained  the  water,  tar,  and  other  con- 
densible  vapours,  while  the  gaseous  pro- 
ducts, namely,  the  carburetted  hydrogen, 
the  sulphuretted  hydrogen,and  the  carbonic 
oxyde  and  acid  are  passed  through  strata 
of  slaked  lime,  by  which  the  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  and  carbonic  gases  are  absorbed, 
and  the  carburetted  hydrogen  and  hydro- 
gen gases  in  their  purified  state  are  trans- 
mitted into  the  gasometers,  from  which  the 
several  pipes  are  supplied  that  convey  the 
gas  to  the  lamps.  The  best  kind  of  coal 
for  distillation  is  that  which  contains  most 
bitumen  and  least  sulphur. 

After  the  discovery  of  obtaining  gas  from 
coal,  attempts  were  made  to  extract  it 
from  other  substances.  The  method  of  pro- 
cuiing  it  from  oil  is  said  to  have  originated 
in  an  attempt  made  in  1814  to  convert  coal 
tar  into  gas.  Since  that  period,  numerous 
works  have  been  constructed  for  fche  man- 
ufacture of  oil  gas,  which,  in  tlie  opinion 
of  many,  is  preferable  to  the  coal  gas. 

GASOMETER,  or  GAZOMETER.  A 
reservoir  for  holding  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  gas.  It  is  made  of  thin  tinned  iron 
plate,  and  mostly  provided  with  some 
contrivance  for  measuring  the  quantity  of 
gas  it  contains. 


GASTRIC  JUICE.  A  fluid  separated 
by  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  stomach, 
and  serving  as  the  principal  solvent  of  the 
food.  Tliis  juice  in  a  healthy  subject  is 
inodorous,  of  a  saltish  taste,  and  limpid 
like  water. 

GATE.  A  moveable  part  of  a  fence, 
made  of  wood  or  iron.  Gates  with  five 
or  six  bars,  large  enough  to  admit  of  carts 


GEM 

GAVELKIND.  A  tenure  or  custom  in 
Kent  in  England,  whereby  the  lands  of 
the  father  were  divided  equally  at  his 
death  among  his  sons. 

GAUGING.  The  art  of  measuring  the 
capacities  of  all  kinds  of  vessels. 

GAUNTLET.  An  iron  glove  for  the 
hand,  which  was  formerly  used  in  single 
combat.  It  is  borne  in  coat  armour,  as  in 
tlie  annexed  figure. 


passing  through,  are  most  commonly  em- 
ployed in  fences  for  parting  off  fields. 


GAUZE.  A  very  thin  sort  of  silk. 

GAZELLE.  A  beautiful  species  of  the 
Antelope  frequently  alluded  to,  in  Persian 
poetry. 

GAZETTE.  A  newspaper;  particularly 
that  published  by  authority.  The  first 
Gazette  in  England  was  published  in  1665, 
at  Oxford,  where  the  court  then  was. 

GAZETTEER.  A  writer  or  publisher 
of  a  Gazette;  also  the  title  of  a  geographi 
cal  dictionary. 

GELATINE,  or  Jelly.  An  animal  sub- 
stance, soluble  in  water,  and  capable  of 
assuming  an  elastic  or  tremulous  consist- 
ence when  cooled,  and  liquifying  again 
by  the  application  of  heat. 

GEM.  A  precious  stone;  or  a  sort  of 
siliceous  earth,  consisting  of  silica  and 
alumina,  with  a  small  portion  of  lime  and 
oxyde  of  iron.  The  gem  is  remarkable 
for  its  hardness  and  internal  lustre.  Under 
this  name  is  comprehended  the  diamond, 
ruby,  sapphire,  hyacinth,  beryl,  garnet, 
clirysolite,  &c.  To  these  have  been  added 
rock  crystals,  the  finer  flints  of  pebbles,  the 
cat's  eye,  the  oculus  mundi,  the  chalcedo- 
ny, the  moon  stones,  the  onyx,  the  corne- 
lian, the  sardonyx,  agate,  &c. 

The  imitation  of  antique  gems,  by  taking 
the  impressions  and  figures  upon  them,  in 
glass  of  the  colour  of  the  original  gem,  or 
on  sealing  wax  or  brimstone,  has  been 
practised  at  different  times  by  persons  who, 
in  respect  to  the  first  method  of  taking 
them  on  glass,  have  kept  the  art  to  them- 
selves, and  suffered  it  to  die  with  them. 
But  the  process  adopted  by  Mr.  Homberg, 
which  has  also  been  communicated  by  him 
to  the  world,  is  highly  esteemed  for  the 
perfection  to  which  he  has  brought  the  art. 
From  the  engraved  gems  of  the  king's 
cabinet,  he  took  such  exact  resemblances 
of  the  originals  as  sometimes  to  deceive 


GEN 

the  nicestjudges,  who  mistook  them  for  the 
true  antique  stones.  His  method  consists 
in  taking  the  impression  of  the  gem  in  a 
very  fine  earth,  and  then  conveying  the 
impression  from  the  earth  to  a  piece  of 
half  melted  glass. 

GEMINI,  the  Twins.  A  constellation, 
and  sign  in  the  zodiac,  marked  thus  II- 

GEN.  An  abbreviation  for  General  and 
Genesis. 

GENDARMES,  or  GENS  D'ARMES. 
A  select  body  of  soldiers  in  the  French 
army,  who  are  now  much  employed  by 
the  police. 

GENDER  (in  Grammar).  A  distinction 
in  nouns  to  mark  the  sexes;  genders  are 
either  masculine,  for  the  male  sex;  femi- 
nine, for  the  female  sex;  or  neuter,  for 
those  which  are  of  neither  sex. 

GENEALOGY.  A  series  or  succession 
of  ancestors;  also  an  account  of  the  rela- 
tions and  alliances  of  any  person  or  family. 

GENERAL  (in  Military  Affairs).  An 
officer  in  chief,  to  whom  the  command  of 
troops  is  intrusted;  also  a  particular  beat 
of  drum  in  the  morning,  to  give  notice  to 
the  foot  to  march. 

GENERALISSIMO.  The  supreme  gene- 
ral or  commander  in  chief  of  an  army. 

GENERAL  ISSUE  (in  Law).  That  plea 
which  traverses  ordeuies  atoncetlie  whole 
declaration  or  indictment. 

GENERAL  OFFICERS.  All  officers 
above  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
line. 

GENERATING  (in  Geometry).  A  term 
for  a  line  or  figure,  which  by  its  motion 
produces  any  other  figure. 

GENERIC  CHARACTER  (in  Natural 
History).  The  character  which  distin- 
guishes the  genera  or  general  kinds  of 
plants,  animals,  &c.  from  each  other. 
This  character  belongs  to  all  the  species 
of  the  same  genus  or  kind. 

GENERIC  iYAME  (in  Natural  History). 
The  name  of  any  genus  or  kind  of  animal, 
plant,  or  mineral.  This  name  can  be  de- 
scribed only  by  describing  the  generic 
character. 

GENET,  An  animal  of  the  weasel  kind, 
resembling  the  civet  cat  in  its  musk  smell. 

GENEVA.  See  Gin. 

GENITIVE  CASE.  The  second  case  in 
Latin  and  Greek  nouns,  which  denote  pos- 
session. It  is  marked  in  English  by  s  with 
an  apostrophe,  thus  ('s). 

GENII.  Good  or  evil  spirits,  much 
thought  of  in  the  eastern  nations.  The 
Tales  of  the  Genii  profess  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  their  proceedings  and  dealings 
with  mankind. 

GENTILES.  A  name  given  by  the  Jews 


GEO 


171 


to  all  who  were  not  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel;  among  Christians,  it  is  the  name  of 
all  heathens  who  did  not  embrace  the 
Christian  faith. 

GENTLEMAN.  Anciently,  one  above 
the  state  of  a  yeoman. 

GENTRY  (in  Law).  The  order  and  rank 
ofgentlemen,descended  from  ancient  fami- 
lies, that  had  always  borne  coat  armour. 

GENTOO.  A  native  of  Hindostan. 

GENUS  (in  Natural  History).  A  sub- 
division of  a  class  or  order  of  natural  ob- 
jects, animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral,  and 
having  under  it  different  species  or  variety. 

GENUS  (among  Logicians).  That  which 
is  common  to  a  number  of  individuals;  the 
summum  genus,  or  highest  genus,  is  that 
which  appertains  to  the  greatest  number 
of  individuals,  as  substance,  which  belongs 
to  all  material. 

GEOCENTRIC.  Being  concentric  with 
the  earth,  or  having  the  earth  for  its  centre  ; 
a  term  applied  to  a  planet  in  its  orbit. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  MILE.  The  60th 
part  of  a  degree. 

GEOGRAPHY.  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  earth  as  an  habitable  world, 
comprehending  a  description  of  the  whole 
globe,  together  with  an  account  of  all  its 
parts,  limits,  inhabitants,  &.c.  Geography 
is  either  general  or  particular.  General 
geography  comprehends  the  knowledge  of 
the  earth  in  general,  and  the  affections 
common  to  the  whole  globe,  as  its  figure, 
magnitude,  motions,  circles,  winds,  tides, 
meteors,  divisions  into  land  and  water, 
&c.  Particular  geography  has  respect  to 
particular  countries,  showing  their  boun- 
daries, figure,  climate, seasons, inhabitants, 
arts,  customs,language,  history,  &c.  When 
it  respects  regions,  districts,  or  parts  of 
countries,  it  is  called  chorography,  and 
when  particular  cities,  towns,  or  villages, 
(fee.  it  is  called  topography.  Particular 
geography  is  also  distinguished  into  ancient 
geography,  when  it  treats  of  the  countries 
and  places  existing  among  the  ancients  ; 
modern  geography,  when  it  treats  of  mo- 
dern places;  the  geojrraphy  of  the  middle 
ages,  which  treatsof  places  that  flourished 
in  the  middle  ages  ;  and  lastly,  sacred 
geography,  which  treats  of  places  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible. 

The  earth,  considered  as  a  planet,  is 
supposed  to  be  marked  by  circles  corres- 
ponding to  those  which  the  sun  apparently 
describes  in  the  heavens,  as  the  horizon, 
which  divides  the  sphere  into  two  parts 
or  hemispheres,  the  one  upper  and  visible, 
the  other  lower  and  invisible;  the  equator, 
which  is  equidistant  from  both  the  poles, 
and  divides  the  globe  into  northern  and 


172 


GEOGRAPHY. 


southern  hemispheres;  the  azimuth,  or  ver- 
tical circles,  which  intersect  each  other  at 
the  zenith  and  nadir;  the  meridian,  which 
crosses  the  equator  at  right  angles,  and 
from  which  the  distance  of  places  east  and 
west  is  reckoned  ;  the  parallels  of  latitude, 
small  circles  supposed  to  be  parallel  to 
the  equator,  which  show  the  latitude  of 
places,  or  their  distance  north  and  south 
from  the  equator  ;  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
circles,  two  circles  at  the  distance  of  tvyen- 
ty  three  degrees  and  a  half  from  the  north 
and  south  poles;  the  two  tropics,  namely, 
the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn,  the  first  north  and  the  second 
south,  twenty-three  degrees  and  a  half  dis- 
tant from  the  equator;  to  these  might  be 
added  the  hour  circles,  or  the  twenty-four 
circles  passing  through  the  equator,  and 
corresponding  to  the  twenty-four  hours  of 
the  day. 

From  the  diversity  in  the  length  of  the 
days  and  nights,  geographers  divide  the 
globe  into  certain  districts,  called  climates, 
measured  either  by  hours  or  half  hours  ; 
and  from  the  effects  of  light  and  heat  upon 
the  earth  in  different  parts,  it  is  distin- 
guished into  five  zones,  namely,  one  torrid 
or  burning  zone,  between  the  tropics;  two 
temperate,  between  the  polar  circles  and 
the  tropics;  two  frigid  or  frozen  zones, 
between  the  polar  circles  and  the  poles. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  as  to  their 
relative  situation  in  regard  to  each  other, 
are  distinguished  into  the  antipodes,  who 
live  directly  opposite  to  each  other;  the 
antoeci,  who  live  under  the  same  meridian, 
but  opposite  parallels  of  latitude;  the  pe- 
rioeci,  who  live  under  the  same  parallels 
of  latitude,  but  opposite  meridians. 

The  earth  is  naturally  divided  into  land 
and  water,  and  according  to  some  compu- 
tations about  three-fourths  of  it  is  occupied 
by  water,  and  the  remaining  fourth  by 
land.  The  land  is  distinguished  into  con- 
tinents, or  large  portions  not  separated  by 
any  sea,  as  the  four  great  continents,  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  which 
are  the  four  quarters  of  the  world;  islands, 
smaller  portions,  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  as  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  &c.; 
peninsulas,  or  tracts  of  land  almost  sur- 
rounded by  water,  as  the  Morea,  in  Greece; 
isthmuses,  or  necks  of  land  joining  two 
continents,  as  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  joining 
Africa  to  Asia;  promontories,  or  capes, 
high  portions  of  land  stretching  out  into 
the  sea,  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  moun- 
tains, or  elevations  of  the  earth's  surface, 
such  as  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  in  Europe, 
the  Caucasus  and  Uralian  Mountains  in  j 


Asia,  and  the  Andes  in  America.  The 
water  is  distinguished  into  oceans,  which 
are  vast  collections  which  separate  the 
continents  from  each  other,  as  the  Pacific 
and  Atlantic  Oceans;  seas,  or  smaller  col- 
lections of  water,  as  the  Indian  Sea,  Black 
Sea,  &c.;  gulfs,  parts  of  any  sea  surrounded 
nearly  with  land,  as  the  Gulf  of  Venice, 
if  they  have  a  wide  entrance  they  are  bays, 
as  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  straits,  narrow  pas- 
sages joining  two  seas,  as  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar;  lakes,  large  collections  entirely 
surrounded  by  land,  as  the  Lake  of  Geneva; 
rivers,  streams  of  water  which  have  their 
source  in  some  spring,  and  empty  them- 
selves into  some  other  river  or  piece  of 
water.  The  principal  rivers,  as  to  their 
magnitudes,  are  the  Amazons,  Senegal, 
Nile,  St.  Lawrence,  La  Plata,  Mississippi, 
Volga,  Oronooko,  Ganges,  Euphrates,  Da- 
nube, Don,  Indus,  Dnieper,  and  Dwina, 
but  if  estimated  according  to  the  length  of 
course  which  they  run,  their  order  will  be 
rather  different,  but  the  Amazons  is  the 
largest  in  every  respect. 

The  earth  is  politically  divided  into 
countrie3,which,  according  to  their  govern- 
ment, are  distinguished  into  empires,  if 
they  are  of  great  extent,  as  the  Russian 
and  Austrian  empires;  or  kingdoms,  aa 
the  kingdoms  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
Spain,  &,c.;  or  states,  as  the  states  of  Hol- 
land and  America;  or  republics,  as  the 
republics  of  Venice,  Genoa,  &;c.  Under 
this  head  geography  treats  of  the  subdi- 
visions of  each  country  into  provinces, 
cities,  towns,  &c.;  also  of  the  number  of 
inhabitants,  the  nature  and  produce  of  the 
soil,  the  animals  peculiar  to  each  place, 
the  state  of  the  arts,  manufactures,  com- 
merce, &c.  which  constitute  the  wealth  of 
each  country,  and  is  comprehended  under 
the  name  of  statistics.  To  all  this  may  be 
added  an  account  of  curiosities,  natural 
and  artificial,  as  volcanoes, caverns,  canals, 
springs,  fountains,  and  the  like.  Besides 
geography  treats  not  only  of  the  earth's 
surface,  but  also  of  the  affections  which  it 
is  exposed  to  from  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
which  produce  the  flux  -and  reflux  of  the 
tide,  and  the  currents  belonging  to  par- 
ticular seas,  as  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
Euxine  seas;  likewise  of  the  winds  which 
blow  in  particular  manners  and  directions, 
such  as  the  monsoons, or  trade  winds,  which 
blow  for  some  months  in  the  year  one 
way  and  the  rest  another;  and,  lastly,  the 
meteorological  peculiarities  of  each  coun- 
try, such  as  regards  the  degree  of  heat  and 
cold,  the  quantity  of  rain  which  falls  in 
particular  places,  or  within  a  given  period, 


GEOGRAPHY. 


173 


the  duration  of  frosts,  and  other  particulars 
respecting  the  climate,  and  its  eftects  upon 
the  surrounding  objects. 

Geographical  descriptions  are  moreover 
illustrated  by  engraved  delineations,  which 
when  they  represent  an  ocean,  sea,  or  any 
piece  of  water,  is  called  a  chart,  but  when 
they  represent  any  parts  of  the  earth  gene- 
rally are  termed  maps.  In  all  maps  the 
north  is  at  the  top  and  the  south  at  the 
bottom,  the  east  on  the  right  and  the  west 
on  the  left.  Maps  are  alw-ays  laid  down 
according  to  a  certain  scale,  taken  from 
the  degrees  of  latitude  which  are  marked 
on  tlie  east  and  west  side  of  the  map, 
those  of  longitude  being  marked  on  the 
north  and  south  side.  As  the  earth  is  a 
globe,  a  map  of  the  whole  earth  must 
necessarily  consist  of  two  parts,  both  sides 
of  the  globe  not  being  visible  at  once; 
according  y  in  a  universal  map  the  right 
hand  circle  shows  the  old  world;  that  is, 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  the  left 
hand  circle  tlie  new  world,  or  America. 
Upon  the  general  map  are  marked  the 
circles  correspondent  to  those  of  the  sphere, 
as  the  equator,  (fee.  Particular  maps,  be- 
ing parts  of  this  globe,  retain  the  meridians 
and  parallels  belonging  to  the  particular 
part,  which  are  made  smaller  or  larger 
according  to  the  size  of  the  map,  and  the 
distance  of  the  places  mentioned  are  pro- 
portioned to  the  breadth  of  the  parallels  as 
nearly  as  they  can  be. 

In  maps  the  sea  is  denoted  by  an  open 
space,  the  thick  shadowing  denotes  the  sea- 
coast,  rivers  are  marked  by  shadowed  ser- 
pentine lines,  if  large  by  double  and  treble 
lines  made  strong  and  black,  roads  by 
double  lines,divi3ionsofcountries  by  dotted 
lilies,  and  sometimes  distinct  colours,  those 
for  kingdoms  and  provinces  being  larger 
tUAH  the  rest;  forests  are  represented  by 
trees,  mountains  by  rising  shadows,  sands 
by  dotted  beds,  lakes  by  shadowed  coasts, 
rocks  by  pointed  things  sticking  up  sharp 
in  the  sea,  the  course  of  the  winds  by 
arrows.  The  names  of  villages  are  written 
in  a  running  hand,  those  of  towns  in  a 
Roman  character,  those  of  cities  in  small 
capitals,  and  those  of  provinces  in  large 
capitals.  Cities  or  great  towns  are  made 
like  small  houses,  with  a  little  circle  in  the 
middle  of  them,  but  smaller  towns  or 
villages  are  marked  only  with  little  circles; 
bridges  by  a  double  line  across  the  river. 
In  some  maps,  particularly  old  maps,  cities, 
as  the  sees  of  bishops,  were  marked  with 
a  cross  or  mitre,  and  those  of  archbishops 
with  a  double  cross,  universities  with  a 
6tar  or  a  caduceus,  abbeys  with  a  crook  or 
pastoral  staff,  fortresses  with  an  angle,  as 
15* 


ofa  bastion,  castles  with  alittle  flag,  gentle- 
men's seats  with  a  single  house  only,  &.c. 
The  apparatus  called  the  terrestrial  globe, 
has  a  complete  map  of  the  earth  drawn  on 
its  surface,  with  the  several  imaginary 
circles,  and  is  moreover  fitted  to  illustrate 
the  movements  of  the  earth  as  a  planet, 
the  latitudes,  longitudes,  and  distances  of 
places,  the  hours  of  day  and  night  in 
different  part,  with  a  number  of  other  in- 
teresting problems. 

GEOGRAPHY,  History  of.  The  study 
of  geography,  as  far  as  it  was  connected 
with  or  depended  upon  astronomy,  in  all 
probability  began  and  kept  pace  with  it. 
Thales,  the  Grecian  astronomer,  construct- 
ed a  globe,  representing  the  land  and  sea 
upon  a  table,  which  art  he  derived  from 
the  Egyptians,  among  whom  maps  were 
in  use  even  as  early  as  the  days  of  Sesostris. 
This  conqueror  is  said  to  have  represented 
in  this  manner  the  conquests  he  made  and 
the  countries  he  marched  through.  That  the 
Israelites  practised  the  art  of  geography  at 
an  early  period  is  clear  from  the  account 
we  have  in  Scripture  of  Joshua  having 
sent  men  to  walk  through  the  land  of 
Canaan,  which  they  described  in  seven 
parts,  in  a  book.  The  first  map  among 
the  Greeks  on  record  is  that  of  Anaxi- 
mander,  which  is  probably  referred  to  by 
Hipparchus,  under  the  designation  of  the 
ancient  map.  Geographical  descriptions 
were,  however,  prior  to  this,  for  the  works 
of  Homer  abound  with  the  names  of  places 
and  an  account  of  several  particulars  re- 
specting them.  The  first  professed  writer 
on  the  subject  of  geography  was  Scylax,  if 
the  author  of  the  Periplus  now  extant  be 
the  same  as  the  philosopher  of  that  name 
mentioned  by  Herodotus.  Herodotus  the 
historian  has  interspersed  his  work  with  a 
minute  geographical  description  of  the 
places  which  occur  in  the  course  of  hig 
narrative;  and  geographical  notices  are  also 
to  be  found  scattered  in  the  writings  of 
Thucydidesand  Xenophon.  The  conquests 
of  Alexander  doubtless  increased  the  de- 
sire to  know  more  of  the  habitable  world, 
which  that  prin^^  encouraged  by  sending 
Nearchus  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the 
Red  Sea,  a  description  of  which  is  still 
extant.  About  the  same  time  flourished 
the  geographer  Dicearchus,  of  whose 
works  some  fragments  remain. 

Eratosthenes  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  attempted  to  reduce  the  science  of  geo- 
graphy to  a  system,  by  the  application  of 
astronomical  principles.  He  introduced  a 
regular  parallel  of  latitude,  which  began 
at  the  Straits  of  Giba'tar,  and  proceeded 
through  the  isle  of  Rhodes  to  the  moun- 


174 


GEOGRAPHY. 


tains  of  India,  noting  all  the  places  it 
passed  through.  He  drew  this  parallel  not 
by  the  sameness  of  the  latitude,  but  by 
observing  where  the  longest  day  was  four- 
teen hours  and  a  half,  which  Hipparchus 
afterwards  found  to  be  thirty-six.  Eratos- 
thenes also  drew  maps  of  the  countries 
then  known,  with  as  much  accuracy  as 
his  scanty  information  would  enable  him, 
but  they  contained  little  more  than  an 
imperfect  representation  of  the  states  of 
Greece  and  the  dominions  of  Alexander's 
successors.  He  was  ignorant,  as  Strabo 
informs  us,  of  Gaul,  Spain,  Germany, 
Britain,  Italy,  and  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic, 
and  had  only  a  faint  idea  of  the  western 
parts  of  Europe.  Hipparchus  improved 
upon  the  labours  of  Eratosthenes,  and  de- 
termined both  the  latitudes  and  longitudes 
from  celestial  observations. 

Under  the  Roman  emperors  geography 
acquired  an  increasing  interest,  from  the 
perpetual  accessions  which  were  made  by 
conquest  to  the  empire.  Accordingly,  we 
find  the  number  of  geographical  writers 
to  be  greatly  increased,  and  their  writings 
to  be  more  correct  and  particular.  Besides 
Pomponius  Mela,  who,  in  his  Cosmogra- 
phia,  has  given  a  neat  and  comprehensive 
account  of  the  known  world,  and  Diony- 
sius  Perigetes,  who  has  written  a  system 
of  geography  in  verse,  Strabo  has  left  a 
work  on  this  subject  which,  in  point  of 
methodical  arrangement  and  extent  of  in- 
formation, exceeded  ariy  thing  that  had 
been  hitherto  published.  This  was  fol- 
lowed, after  the  interval  of  more  than  a 
century,  by  the  great  work  of  Ptolemy  on 
this  subject,  in  the  execution  of  which  he 
took  astronomy  to  his  aid  for  determining 
the  situation  of  places.  He  fixed  the  lati- 
tudes and  longitudes  of  all  the  principal 
places  in  the  known  world,  and  expressed 
them  In  degrees,  after  the  manner  of  Hip- 
parchus, making  his  calculations  from  the 
proportions  of  the  gnomon  to  its  shadow, 
as  observed  by  different  astronomers  at  the 
time  of  the  equinoxes  and  solstices,  and 
deduced  from  these  the  length  of  the  long- 
est days.  He  also  measured  and  computed 
the  distances  of  the  principal  roads  men- 
tioned in  the  different  surveys  and  itine- 
raries which  had  been  made  at  different 
times  by  order  of  the  emperors,  and  coin- 
pared  them  with  such  reports  as  he  could 
gather  from  travellers.  In  this  "manner  did 
Ptolemy  execute  his  system  of  geography, 
which,  as  a  work  of  science,  has  desarved- 
ly  held  the  first  rank  among  the  works  of 
tlie  ancients,  and,  considered  as  the  labour 
of  one  man,  was  never  surpassed,  and 
scarcely  ever  equalled. 


With  the  exception  of  the  Geographical 
Dictionary  of  Stephanus  Byzantinus,  in 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  and  the  scat- 
tered geographical  notices  interspersed  in 
the  works  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  the 
subject  of  geography  was  neglected  until 
the  thirteenth  century,  when  John  Sacro 
de  Bosco  published  his  treatise  on  the 
sphere,  which  contained  an  account  of  the 
earth  as  far  as  it  was  connected  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  sphere.  Nothing  farther 
was  done  towards  the  advancement  of  this 
science  until  the  discovery  of  the  New 
World,  when  geographical  knowledge  re- 
ceived continual  accessions  by  new  dis- 
coveries, and  the  spirit  of  investigation  and 
research  which  they  awakened.  Since 
that  time  the  writers  on  geography  have 
been  exceedingly  numerous.  Among  those 
who  have  treated  it  in  immediate  connex- 
ion with  astronomy  and  the  other  sciences 
may  be  reckoned  Piccioli,  in  his  Geogra- 
phia  et  Hydrographia  Reformataj  Des- 
chales,  in  his  Mundus  Mathematicus  ;  and 
Wolfius,  in  his  Elementa  Matheseos. 
Among  those  who  have  written  on  ancient 
and  modern  geography,  Cellarius,  Cluveri- 
us,  and  Baudrand  are  the  most  distinguish- 
ed :  the  most  esteemed  modern  works  on 
this  subject  are  the  systems  of  Busching, 
Salmon,  Guthrie,  Pilkington,  Playfair,  and 
Myer,  &c.  The  most  recent,  that  of  Malte 
BruH,  is  undoubtedly  the  best  system  of 
geography  that  has  ever  been  compiled. 

GEOLOGY.  The  science  which  treats 
of  the  structure  of  the  earth,  or  of  the 
different  minerals,  stones,  earths,  &c. 
which  enter  into  its  composition,  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  disposed  in  re- 
gard to  each  other.  This  science  has  of 
late  attracted  particular  notice,  and  from 
the  important  facts  which  have  thus  been 
brought  to  light,  the  subject  has  jus^y 
awakened  a  considerable  interest.  Geol- 
ogy may  be  considered  under  two  heads, 
namely,  first,  as  regards  those  bodies  which 
naturally  form  constituent  parts  of  this 
globe  ;  and,  secondly,  as  regards  those  for- 
eign bodies  which  have  been  buried  in  the 
earth  and  partly  amalgamated  with  it. 
These  are  now  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  fossil  or  organic  remains.  In  the  con- 
sideration of  these  two  branches  of  the 
science  of  geology,  it  will  appear  that  the 
earth  has  undergone  such  changes,  since 
its  original  formation,  as  nothing  but  a 
universal  deluge  could  have  produced,  and 
in  tliis  point  of  view  it  furnishes  to  the  be- 
liever a  wonderful  and  gratifyingcoufirma- 
tion  of  the  Scripture  account  of  that  great 
and  miraculous  convulsion. 

The  study  of  geology  having  been  mosl 


GEOLOGY. 


175 


effectually  pursued  by  inquiring  into  the 
structure  of  mountains,  it  has  been  on  that 
account  likewise  designated  by  the  name 
of  orychthiology.  Mountains  have  been 
found  by  geologists  to  consist,  at  a  consid- 
erable depth,  of  strata  regularly  disposed, 
which  have  been  classed  under  the  heads 
of  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate, 
primitive  limestone,  primitive  trap,  serpen- 
tine porphyry,  syenite  topaz,  quartz  rock, 
primitive  flinty  slate,  primitive  gypsum. 
These  are  altogether  denominated  primi- 
tive rocks,  which  have  no  organic  remains, 
and  appear  to  have  been  undisturbed.  But 
in  the  strata  above  these  there  are  evident 
signs  of  violent  fractures  caused  by  the 
action  of  waters.  In  this  manner  valleys 
have  been  excavated,  and  a  separation 
thus  occasioned  in  strata  that  once  evi- 
dently formed  one  continuous  range.  Such 
water-worn  fragments  have,  from  the  cause 
of  their  existence,  been  denominated  dilu- 
vium, to  distinguish  them  from  other  de- 
bris produced  by  causes  still  in  operation, 
such  as  the  alluvium  or  the  accession  to 
lands  by  inundations,  torrents,  and  tlie  like, 
as  also  the  volcanic  rocks  formed  by  the 
eruptions  of  mountains.  Besides  the  rocky 
fragments  and  insulated  hills  above  men- 
tioned, the  strata  above  these  primitive 
rocks  contain  also  organic  remains.  In 
those  immediately  above,  called  transition 
rocks,  fossil  remains  of  corals  and  shells 
are  found  in  small  quantities,  as  also  in 
the  carboniferous  limestone  that  lies  next 
to  these  rocks.  The  coal  strata,  wliich 
follow,  abound  with  vegetable  remains  of 
ferns,  flags,  reeds  of  unknown  species,  and 
large  trunks  of  succulent  plants,  which  are 
altogether  unknown  either  in  description 
or  in  nature.  Above  the  coals  are  beds 
containing  corals  and  shells,  which,  like 
those  in  the  strata  below,  are  characterized 
by  this  peculiarity,  that  in  some  places 
they  are  to  be  found  in  families,  and  that 
in  other  places  there  will  be  found  beds  of 
marine  shells  in  one  layer,  and  those  pe- 
culiar to  fresh  water  in  another  layer, 
resting  one  over  the  other  in  alternate 
succession.  In  the  highest  of  the  regular 
strata,  called  the  crag,  will  be  found  the 
shells  at  present  existing  in  the  same  coast, 
and,  lastly,  over  all  these  strata  is  a  cover- 
ing of  gravel,  which  is  remarkable  for 
containing  the  remains  of  numerous  quad- 
rupeds, as  the  bones,  horns,  teeth,  shells, 
scales,  &c.  These  animals  are  for  the  most 
part  either  foreign  to  the  climates  where 
their  remains  are  found,  or  they  are  of  a 
larger  size  than  any  now  known,  or  they 
are  altogether  different  from  any  species 
of  animal  hitherto  known  or  mentioned. 


Among  those  animals  whose  remains  have 
been  found  in  countries  far  distant  from 
the  places  which  they  inhabit  are  the  ele- 
phant and  the  rhinoceros,  nunjerous  re- 
mains of  which  have  been  found  in  Eng- 
land, France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  other 
parts  of  Europe,  but  still  more  in  Siberia, 
where,  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  that 
country,  there  is  scarcely  a  river  or  a  shore 
in  which  have  not  been  found  the  bones  of 
elephants  and  other  animals.  Near  the 
river  Willioni,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Sibe- 
ria, has  been  dug  up  a  rhinoceros  still  pos- 
sessing the  skin,  fat,  and  muscles  ;  and 
fossil  ivory  has  been  procured  in  immense 
quantities  in  the  countries  nearest  to  the 
arctic  circle.  So  numerous  are  the  remains 
that  have  already  been  dug  up,  as  to  form 
immense  collections  in  the  cabinets  of  the 
great,  particularly  in  that  of  the  Prince  of 
Hesse  Darmstadt  and  the  Elector  of  Man- 
heim.  Naturalists  have  also  been  enabled, 
in  part,  to  ascertain  the  species  of  these 
animals,  at  least  as  far  as  regards  the  rhi- 
noceros, which  is  of  the  double  horned 
kind  j  but  in  regard  to  the  elephantine  re- 
mains, although  very  numerous,  it  is  not 
so  certain  whether  they  are  of  any  known 
species  or  otherwise.  As  to  tlie  animals 
differing  in  size  from  those  of  their  own 
species  at  present,  Ireland  furnishes  speci- 
mens of  deer  that  have  been  dug  up  of  an 
extraordinary  magnitude  ;  and  in  Scotland, 
a  kind  of  oxen  has  been  found  bigger  than 
the  largest  species  existing  at  present.  Of 
animals  altogether  unknown,  both  North 
and  South  America,  and  other  parts,  fur- 
nish several  examples,  as  the  mammoth, 
the  mastodon,  and  other  nameless  animals 
of  a  prodigious  size. 

This  remarkable  fact,  of  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  animals,  did  not  escape  the  notice 
of  the  ancients,  for  Xenophanes,  above  four 
hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
is  said  to  have  discovered  the  remains  of 
some  marine  animals  imbedded  in  rocks, 
from  which  he  absurdly  inferred  the 
eternity  of  the  world.  Herodotus  also 
ascertained  the  existence  of  fossil  shells, 
from  ivhich,  with  much  greater  reason,  he 
was  led  to  conclude  that  the  sea  had  once 
occupied  those  parts.  Also  in  the  pyra- 
mids, the  stones  were  found  to  contain  the 
remains  of  animals,  of  which  there  existed 
in  his  time  no  corresponding  species. 
Strabo,  who  saw  these  fragments  of  stone 
lying  about  the  pyramids,  took  them  to  be 
petrified  lentils,  that  had  been  used  by  the 
workmen  ;  at  the  same  time  this  writer,  as 
well  as  Pliny  and  others,  attest  the  exist- 
ence of  such  animal  remains,  and  in  a  high 
state  of  perfection.    In  the  Natural  Histo- 


176 


GEOMETRY. 


ry  of  Pliny  many  fossil  remains  are  spoken 
of,  as  the  bucardia,  resembling  an  ox's 
heart ;  the  glossopetra,  having  the  form  of 
a  tongue  ;  the  horns  of  ammon,  resembling 
a  ram's  horn  ;  the  lepidptes,  like  the  scales 
of  fishes,  &c. 

GEOMETRY.  That  branch  of  mathe- 
matics which  treats  of  the  properties  of 
extension  and  figure.  Geometry  is  distin- 
guished into  the  theoretical  and  the  practi- 
cal. Theoretical  or  speculative  geometry 
treats  of  the  various  properties  and  rela- 
tions in  magnitudes,  &c.  Practical  geom- 
etry comprehends  the  construction  of  fig- 
ures, the  drawing  of  lines  in  certain  posi- 
tions, as  parallel  or  perpendicular  to  each 
other,  &c.  Speculative  geometry  is  again 
distinguished  into  elementary  geometry, 
that  treats  of  the  properties  and  proportions 
of  right  lines  and  right  lined  figures,  as  also 
of  the  circle  and  its  several  parts  ;  and  the 
sublime  or  transcendental  geometry,  that 
treats  of  the  higher  order  of  curves,  &lc. 

The  simple  principles  of  geometry  are 
explained  in  definitions  and  axioms.  The 
following  are  the  most  important  defi- 
nitions. A  point  is  that  which  has  neither 
length,  breadth,  nor  thickness  ;  a  line  has 
length  without  breadth  or  thickness  ;  a 
superficies,  or  surface,  has  length  and 
breadth  only,  the  boundaries  of  which  are 
lines;  a  solid  has  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness,  the  boundaries  of  a  solid  are 
surfaces.  Astiaight  line  lies  evenly  be- 
tween the  parts,  parallel  lines  keep  at  the 
same  distance  from  each  other  when  ex- 
tended indefinitely.  A  perpendicular  line 
is  perpendicular  to  another  line.  An  angle 
is  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  lines  in  a 
point;  it  is  a  right  angle  when  formed  by 
one  line  falling  perpendicularly  on  another 
line;  an  obtuse  angle,  when  it  is  greater 
than  a  right  angle  ;  and  an  acute  angle 
when  it  is  less.  A  figure  is  a  space  in- 
cluded within  one  or  more  boundaries, 
called  sides;  it  is  rectilinear  when  contain- 
ed by  right  lines,  and  curvilinear  when 
contained  by  curved  lines;  a  rectilinear 
figure  contained  by  three  right  lines  is  a 
triangle;  if  by  four,  quadnlar.  ral ;  if  by 
five,  a  pentagon  ;  if  by  six,  a  hexagon,  Slc.  ; 
if  by  more  than  twelve,  a  polygon. 

Triangles  are  distinguished  according  to 
the  length  of  their  sides,  into  equilateral, 
having  all  the  sides  equal ;  isoceles,  having 
two  sides  equal  ;  and  scalene,  having  all 
the  sides  unequal ;  or  according  to  their 
angles,  into  right  angled,  if  they  have  one 
right  angle;  obtuse  angled,  if  they  have  one 
obtuse  angle;  and  acute  angled,  if  they 
have  all  acute  angles.  Every  quadrilateral 
or  four-sided  figure  is  called  a  parallelogram 


when  it  has  its  sides  parallel ,  and  a  rectan  gle 
when  all  its  angles  are  right  angles.  Four- 
sided  figures  are  moreover  distinguished 
according  to  their  sides  and  angles,  into  a 
square,  which  has  all  its  sides  equal  and  its 
angles  right  ones  ;  an  oblong  square,  which 
has  its  opposite  sides  equal  and  its  angles 
right  ones  ;  a  rhombus,  having  all  the  sides 
equal,  but  the  angles  not  right  ones;  and  a 
rhomboid,  having  the  opposite  sides  equal 
and  the  angles  not  right  ones.  When  a 
quadrilateral  has  none  of  its  sides  parallel 
it  is  a  trapezium,  and  when  only  two  of  its 
sides  parallel  a  trapezoid.  The  diagonal 
is  the  right  line  which  divides  a  parallelo- 
gram into  two  equal  parts.  The  base  of  a 
figure  is  the  side  on  which  it  is  supposed 
to  stand.  The  vertex  is  the  extreme  point 
opposite  to  the  base ;  the  altitude  is  the 
perpendicular  distance  from  the  vertex  to 
the  base.  The  area  of  a  figure  is  the  quan- 
tity of  space  contained  within  its  bounda- 
ries. 

Of  curvilinear  figures  in  common  geo- 
metry is  the  circle,  which  is  a  plane  figure 
bounded  by  a  curve  line  called  the  circum- 
ference, which  is  equally  distant  from  a 
point  called  the  centre.  The  diameter  of 
a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  from  one 
side  of  the  circumference  to  the  other, 
through  the  centre,  so  as  to  divide  it  into 
two  equal  parts.  The  radius  of  a  circle  is 
a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to 
the  circumference  :  the  segment  of  a  circle 
is  a  part  cut  off  by  a  line  called  the  chord. 
The  circumference  of  every  circle  is  sup- 
posed to  be  divided  into  360  equal  parts, 
called  degrees,  every  degree  into  60  parts 
called  minutes,  and  every  minute  into  60 
parts  culled  seconds. 

Solids  are  distinguished  into  a  prism, 
the  sides  of  which  are  parallelograms,  and 
the  two  ends  or  bases  are  similar ;  poly- 
gons, parallel  to  each  other ;  the  cube,  con- 
sisting of  six  equal  square  sides  or  faces;  the 
pyramid,  having  any  plane  figure  for  its 
base  and  triangles  for  its  sides,  all  termi- 
nating in  one  common  point  or  vertex  ; 
the  cylinder,  which  is  generated  by  the 
rotation  of  a  rectangle  about  one  of  its  sides 
supposed  to  be  at  rest;' the  cone,  a  solid 
having  a  circular  base,  and  its  other  ex- 
tremity terminated  in  a  single  point  or 
vertex.  Those  curves  which  are  formed 
by  the  intersection  of  a  plane  with  a  cone 
form  the  subject  of  conic  sections,  which 
is  a  branch  of  sublime  geometry. 

Ratio  is  the  njutual  relation  of  two  mag- 
nitudes of  the  same  kind  to  one  another, 
in  respect  to  quantity,  as  2  to  1,  which  is 
double  ;  the  former  of  these  is  called  the 
antecedent  and  the  latter  the  consequent : 


GEOMETRY. 


177 


proportion  is  the  similitude  of  ratios,  as 
6  is  to  2  as  3  is  to  1,  that  Is  a  triple  ratio 
in  both  cases. 

An  axiom  is  a  plain  truth  that  wants  no 
demonstration,  as  that  the  whole  is  greater 
than  a  part.  A  postulate  is  that  which 
requires  to  be  granted  as  true  before  ano- 
ther thing  can  be  demonstrated.  A  propo- 
sition is  that  which  proposes  something  to 
be  done  or  demonstrated  ;  it  is  a  problem 
when  it  proposes  any  thing  to  be  done,  as 
to  divide  a  given  line  into  two  equal  parts, 
or  to  raise  a  perpendicular,  &c. ;  and  a 
theorem  when  it  proposes  something  to  be 
shown,  as  that  triangles  of  the  same  base 
and  altitude  are  equal  to  each  other,  or 
that  all  the  angles  in  the  same  segment  of 
an  arch  are  equal,  &e. 

GEOMETRY,  History  of.  The  origin 
of  geometry  is  ascribed  by  Herodotus  to 
the  Egyptians,  who,  in  consequence  of  the 
inundations  of  the  Nile,  which  carried 
away  all  their  landmarks,  were  under  the 
necessity  of  distinguishing  and  laying  out 
their  lands  by  the  consideration  of  their 
figure  and  quantity,  whence  the  word  geo- 
metry in  the  Greek  signifies  literally  land- 
measuring.  The  Greeks,  who  cultivated 
this  science  more  than  any  other  people, 
doubtless  learned  the  rudiments  from  the 
Egyptians  •,  for  Thales,  who  travelled  into 
Egypt  and  acquired  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  astronomy  to  calculate,  must  also  have 
first  become  acquainted  with  the  principles 
of  geometry  to  assist  him  in  his  astro- 
nomical inquiries.  Pythagoras,  the  pupil 
and  friend  of  Thales,  distinguished  himself 
by  his  discoveries  in  arithmetic,  as  well 
as  geometry.  He  invented  the  multiplica- 
tion table,  called  after  him  the  Abacus 
Pythagoricus,  and  in  geometry  he  disco- 
vered the  thirty-second  and  forty-seventh 
propositions  in  the  first  book  of  Euclid's 
Elements.  Soon  after  this  flourished  Anax- 
imander,  Anaximenes,  Anaxagoras,  Cle- 
ostratus,  ^nopides,  and  Zenodorus,  all 
celebrated  geometricians,  of  whose  works 
nothing  remains  except  of  the  last.  They 
were  succeeded  by  Hipparchus,  who  ren- 
dered himself  celebrated  by  the  quadrature 
of  the  lines  called  after  him,  as  also  by  his 
attempt  at  the  quadrature  of  the  cube, 
which  was  a  matter  of  great  interest  among 
the  ancient  mathematicians,  and  is  said  to 
have  taken  its  rise  in  an  answer  of  the  oracle 
at  Delphi,  which,  when  consulted  on  the 
occasion  of  some  public  calamity,  answered 
'  Double  the  altar,'  which  was  an  exact 
cube.  Notwithstanding  the  failure  of  Hip- 
parchus, others  renewed  the  attempt, which 
although  it  proved  unsuccessful  as  to  that 
particular  object,  nevertheless  is  said  to 


have  led  to  the  discoveries  of  other  geo- 
metrical properties,  as  the  conchoid  of 
Nicomedes,  the  cissoid  of  Diodes,  and  the 
quadratrix  of  Dinostratus.  This  latter  ge- 
ometrician was  the  follower  and  friend  of 
Plato,  whose  devotion  to  the  science  of 
geometry  was  such  that  he  caused  it  to  be 
inscribed  over  the  door  of  his  school, 
'  Let  no  one  enter  here  who  is  ignorant  of 
geometry.'  To  Plato  we  are  indebted  for 
that  branch  of  geometry  known  by  the 
name  of  conic  sections,  of  which  his  scholar 
Aristeus  is  said  to  have  composed  five 
books  that  are  highly  spoken  of  by  the 
ancients,  but  are  not  now  extant.  Eudoxus 
and  Menechemus  were  also  disciples  of 
Plato,  and  distinguished  themselves,  the 
former  in  geometry  as  well  as  astronomy, 
the  latter  by  his  application  of  conic 
sections  to  many  problems.  After  an  in- 
terval of  ninety  years  from  their  time, 
that  is,  about  three  hundred  years  before 
Christ,  flourished  Euclid, who,  by  collecting 
and  methodizing  all  the  principles  of  geo- 
metry then  known  into  a  regular  system, 
called  his  Elements  of  Geometry,  secured 
to  himself  a  celebrity  which,  in  point  of 
extent,  has  never  been  surpassed,  and  per- 
haps scarcely  ever  equalled,  his  work 
having  ever  since  been  considered  as  the 
standard  of  all  geometrical  knowledge. 
Euclid  was  quickly  followed  by  Archi- 
medes, a  mathematical  genius,  who  added 
many  discoveries  to  the  sciences  of  geome- 
try, mechanics,  optics,  and  hydrodynamics. 
In  geometry  he  discovered  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  sphere  and  the  circumscribing 
cylinder,  found  the  quadrature  of  the  para- 
bola, and  the  solidity  of  its  conoid  ;  he 
invented  the  spiral  vi'hich  bears  his  name, 
and  discovered  its  rectification,  besides  a 
variety  of  other  important  geometrical 
propositions,  many  of  which  are  extant, 
and  attest  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the 
author. 

Apollonius  of  Perga,  who,  from  his 
writings,  acquired  the  name  of  the  Great 
Geometrician,  flourished  about  thirty  years 
after  Archimedes.  His  work  on  the  Conic 
Sections,  which  is  the  principal  piece  of 
his  extant,  was  in  all  probability  the  best 
of  its  kind  in  that  day,  and  has  since  been 
the  groundwork  of  all  works  published  on 
that  subject.  Of  those  who  after  Apollo- 
nius distinguished  themselves  in  their  time 
in  the  cultivation  ofthe  geometrical  science, 
there  are  but  few  who  added  any  thing 
worthy  of  particular  notice.  Eratosthenes 
attempted  to  measure  the  circumference 
of  the  earth  ;  Ctesibius  invented  water 
pumps  ;  Hero  of  Alexandria,  clepsydra  ; 
Theodosius,  who  lived  in  the  first  century 


178 


GEO 


of  the  Christian  aera,  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  sphere,  which  was  one  of  the  first  on 
spherical  trigonometry. 

Afler  an  interval  of  three  or  four  cen- 
turies from  the  time  of  Theodosius,  we 
meet  with  the  names  of  Pappus  the  com- 
mentator of  Apollonius,  Theon,  the  com- 
mentator of  Ptolemy,  and  of  Proclus  ano- 
ther commentator  on  the  ancient  matlie- 
maticians.  The  destruction  of  the  library 
of  Alexandria  by  the  Saracens  was  very 
fatal  to  the  cultivation  of  geometry,  which 
had  flourished  there  more  than  any  where 
else ;  all  the  geometricians  from  every 
part  had  assembled  there,  and  when  driven 
away  they  were  deprived  both  of  their 
books  and  instruments.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  the  study  of  geometry  was 
for  many  centuries  almost  entirely  for- 
gotten amidst  the  troubles  which  desolated 
all  Europe  on  the  irruption  of  the  northern 
tribes.  The  Arabs,  who  by  the  ravages 
they  committed  at  Alexandria  had  done 
the  most  injury  to  the  science  of  geometry, 
were,  after  the  lapse  of  two  centuries,  the 
cultivators  of  that  which  they  had  nearly 
annihilated.  They  studied  the  works  of  the 
Greeks,  and  showed  their  proficiency  in 
the  correctness  of  their  comments  on  these 
writings. 

Whilst  the  Arabs  were  thus  promoting 
the  cause  of  science  generally,  Europe 
remained  in  a  state  of  comparative  barba- 
rism, nor  was  the  study  of  geometry  re- 
vived among  the  Europeans  before  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  when  by 
the  translations  of  the  ancient  writings,  the 
taste  for  geometry  became  very  general 
among  the  thinking  part  of  the  community. 
In  the  following  century  there  arose  mathe- 
maticians who  added'  very  materially  to 
the  stock  of  geometrical  knowledge.  Car- 
dan applied  algebra  to  the  resolution  of 
geometrical  problems;  and  Descartes,  who 
followed  at  the  distance  of  nearly  a  cen- 
tury, pursued  this  application  of  algebra  to 
geometry  still  farther.  At  the  same  period 
with  Descartes  flourished  Cavelerius  who, 
in  his  work  on  'Indivisibles,'  struck  out 
a  new  path  to  himself,  in  which  he  was 
followed  by  many  writers  of  great  celebrity, 
as  Wallis,  Pascal,  Fermat,  Roberval,  Leib- 
nitz, Newton,  and  many  others,  who  set 
forth  geometry  in  a  new  light,  and  formed 
a  new  system  of  the  science.  Among  the 
treatises  in  which  are  embodied  the  geo- 
metrical principles  of  the  moderns  and 
ancients  may  be  reckoned  the  Elements 
of  Euclid  by  Simson  and  Playfair,  the 
treatises  of  Ozanam,  Clavius,  Bonnycastle, 
Hutt«jn,  &c. 

GEORGE    St.    The    patron    saint    of 


GIN 

England,  is  said  to  have  been  a  great 
warrior  of  Cappadocia,  and  a  martyr  in 
the  Christian  cause. 

GEORGICS.  Books  treating  of  husban- 
dry, after  the  manner  of  Virgil's  poems  on 
rural  subjects,  which  are  so  called. 

GERANIUM.  A  genus  of  plants,  the 
numerous  species  of  which  are  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  either  of  their  leaves  or 
their  flowers,  or  both.  The  seeds  of  the 
flower  are  contained  in  a  husk,  which 
resembles  a  stork's  beak,  whence  it  has 
acquired  the  English  name  of  crane's  bill. 

GERMAN  (in  Law).  Whole  or  entire 
as  respects  genealogy  or  descent,  as  bro- 
thers gernian,  those  who  are  so  on  both 
father  and  mother's  side. 

GERMEN  (in  Botany).  The  germ, 
ovary,  or  seed  bud,  which  is  the  lower 
part  or  base  of  the  pistil. 

GERMINATION.  The  act  of  sprouting 
forth,  as  applied  to  the  seeds  of  vegeta- 
bles; also  the  time  when  they  vegetate. 

GIANTS  CAUSEWAY.  A  vast  collec- 
tion of  a  black  kind  of  marie,  called  ba- 
saltes,  in  the  county  of  Antrim  in  Ireland. 
The  masses  of  rock  are  there  disposed  in 
such  regular  order,  and  to  such  an  extent, 
as  to  make  this  causeway  one  of  the  great- 
est curiosities  in  nature. 

GIBBOUS  (in  Astronomy).  A  term  ap- 
plied to  the  enlightened  part  of  the  moon, 
during  her  course  from  full  to  new,  when 
the  dark  part  appears  falcated  or  horned, 
and  the  light  part  convex  or  gibbous. 

GIFT  (in  Law).  A  conveyance  which 
passeth  either  lands  or  goods;  a  transfer 
of  any  thing  without  a  valuable  conside- 
ration. 

GIG.  A  very  light  kind  of  two-wheeled 
chaise. 

GILD.  See  Guild. 

GILDING.  The  art  of  covering  the  sur- 
face of  bodies  with  gold. 

GILLIFLOWER,  or  July  Flower.  A 
smaller  kind  of  carnation  that  flowers  in 
July. 

GIMLET.  A  carpenter's  tool  for  boring 
holes. 

GIN,  or  Geneva.  A  hot  fiery  spirit,  for- 
merly drawn  from  the'  berries  of  the 
genevre  or  juniper  tree,  but  now  made 
by  the  distillers  of  the  oil  of  turpentine 
and  malt  spirits.  The  Hollands  Geneva 
is  manufactured  chiefly  at  a  village  near 
Rotterdam,  and  is  drawn  from  wheat 
and  the  juniper  berries.  The  English  gin 
is  a  destructive  drink  among  the  lower 
orders. 

GIN  (among  Sportsmen).  A  machine 
which  serves  as  a  trap  or  snare  for  catch- 
ing beasts. 


GLA 

GIN  (among  Mechanics).  A  machine 
for  driving  piles. 

GINGER.  An  Indian  root  of  a  biting 
hot  taste;  the  flower  consists  of  five  petals, 
shaped  something  like  those  of  the  iris. 

GIPSIES.  A  wandering  tribe,  who  are 
to  be  found  in  different  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, and  are  supposed  to  be  of  Egyptian 
origin.  They  are  altogether  a  distinct 
class  of  people,  both  in  their  habits,  which 
are  predatory  and  uncivilized  ;  and  in  their 
complexion,  wliich  is  sallow  and  brownish. 
But  they  are  now  beginning  to  follow  the 
occupations  of  civilized  life,  and  in  winter 
to  reside  in  towns,  where  they  occasion- 
ally send  their  children  to  school. 

GIRAFFE.    See  Camelopard. 

GIRDERS  (in  Architecture).  Soma  of 
the  largest  pieces  of  timber  in  a  floor. 

GIRT.  The  circumference  of  a  tree. 

GLACIERS.  A  name  in  Switzerland 
for  the  extensive  tracts  of  ice  and  snow 
which  occur  in  the  Alps. 

GLACIS  (in  Fortification).  A  mass  of 
earth  serving  as  a  parapet  to  the  covered 
way. 

GLADIATORS.  Persons  who  fought  in 
the  arena  at  Rome  for  the  amusement  of 
the  people.  These  were  usually  slaves, 
who  fought  until  one  was  killed.  This 
cruel  custom  was  abolished  by  Constantine 
the  Great. 

GLANDS.  A  sort  of  kernels  in  the  ani- 
mal body,  which  serve  to  secrete  the  fluids. 
They  are  composed  of  blood  vessels,  nerves, 
and  absorbents. 

GLANDERS.  A  virulent  disease  in 
horses,  which  shows  itself  by  a  discharge 
of  mucus  from  the  nostrils. 

GLASIER.  See  Glazier. 

GLASS,  An  artificial  substance  formed 
by  the  action  of  fire  on  sand,  or  siliceous 
earth  with  salts  and  metallic  oxides.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  brittleness  and  transpa- 
rency, which  latter  quality  renders  it  avail- 
able for  many  purposes  of  domestic  use- 
There  are  five  kinds  of  glass,  namely,  flint 
glass,  or  glass  of  lead;  plate  glass,  or  glass 
of  pure  soda;  crown  glass,  the  best  window 
glass;  broad  glass,  a  coarse  window  glass; 
and  bottle  glass,  a  coarse  green  glass. 

GLASS  (among  Mariners).  Sometimes 
the  telescope,  and  sometimes  the  hourglass 
or  sand  glass. 

GLASSBLOWER.  One  who  blows 
glass  in  a  glasshouse. 

GLASSHOUSE.  A  house  where  glass 
is  manufactured. 

GLAUBERS  SALTS.  The  sulphate  of 
soda;  a  purgative. 

GLAZIER.  One  who  works  with  glass, 
or  makes  glass  windows.    The  company 


GLU 


179 


of  glaziers  in  London,  were  incorporated 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

GLAZING.  The  crusting  over  earthen- 
ware with  a  vitreous  substance;  also  the 
putting  glass  into  windows,  or  making 
glass  lights  for  windows. 

GLEANING,  Picking  up  the  scattered 
ears  of  wheat  after  the  wheat  is  cut  and 
carried.  It  was  once  thought  in  England, 
that,  by  the  common  law,  the  poor  might 
claim  this  liberty  as  their  right;  but  it  has 
been  adjudged  by  a  solemn  judgment  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  that  no  such 
right  exists  by  the  common  law  of  the  land. 

GLEBE  LAND.  In  England,  a  portion  of 
land  belonging  to  a  parsonage  or  vicarage. 

GLEE  (in  Music).  A  composition  of 
three  or  more  parts;  originally  used  for 
convivial  purposes. 

GLIRES.  The  fourth  order  of  the  class 
mammalia  in  the  Linnaean  system,  includ- 
ing such  animals  as  have  two  fore  teeth,  a 
cutting  one  in  each  jaw,  no  tusks,  and  feet 
with  claws  formed  for  running,  as  the 
beaver,  the  hare,  &:c. 

GLOBE  (in  Geometry).  A  round  spheri- 
cal body,  more  commonly  called  a  sphere; 
as  the  armillary  sphere, 

GLOBE  (in  Astronomy).  An  artificial 
sphere,  or  a  round  solid  body,  on  which 
is  drawn  a  representation  of  the  earth,  as 
on  the  terrestrial  globe;  or  of  the  heavens, 
as  on  the  celestial  globe. 

GLOBULES.  Little  globes  or  round 
bodies  observable  in  fluids. 

GLOSSARY.  A  vocabulary  or  small 
dictionary,  attached  for  the  most  part  to 
any  work,  and  serving  to  explain  the  ob- 
scure words  used  therein. 

GLOVERS.  Those  who  make  gloves. 
The  company  of  glovers  in  London,  were 
incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 

GLOWWORM.  An^  insect  that  shines 
in  the  dark.  The  female  is  larger  than  the 
male,  and  emits  a  beautiful  phosphoric  light. 

GLUCINE.  An  earth  of  a  sweetish 
taste,  which  has  been  lately  discovered  by 
Vauquelin  in  analyzing  the  beryl.  It  is 
infusible  in  the  fire  and  insoluble  in  water, 
but  combines  with  acids,  making  witli 
them  soluble  salts. 

GLUE.  A^n  inspissated  jelly,  made  from 
the  parings  of  hides  and  other  otFals,  by 
boiling  them  in  water,  then  straining  off 
the  impurities,  and  boiling  them  again. 

GLUME  (in  Botany).  The  calyx  or 
corolla  of  grasses. 

GLUTEN.  An  adhesive,  tenacious,  and 
elastic  substance,  similar  to  glue,  which  is 
procured  by  the  decomposition  of  wheat 
flour,  or  other  vegetable  substances,  of 
which  it  forms  a  part. 


ISO 


GQh 


GLUTTON.  A  cunning  voracious  ani- 
mal, larger  than  a  badper,  Avliich  inhabits 
Europe,  Asia,  ami  America,  and  preys  on 
the  carcasses  of  hares,  mice,  &c. 

GNAT.  An  active  little  insect,  which 
lives  by  sucking  the  blood  of  other  ani- 
mals. 

GNEISS.  A  sort  of  rock  that  lies  imme- 
diately over  granite. 

GNOMON  (in  Dialling).  The  stile  or 
pin  of  a  dial,  the  shadow  of  which  points 
out  tlie  hours. 

GNOMON  (in  Astronomy).  An  instru- 
ment or  apparatus  for  measuring  altitudes. 

GNOMON  (in  Geometry).  A  figure 
formed  by  the  two  complements  with 
either  of  the  parallelograms  about  the 
diameter. 

GNLT.  A  particular  kind  of  antelope, 
having  horns  bent  forward  at  the  base  and 
backward  in  the  middle. 

GOAD.  A  staff  pointed  with  a  sharp 
iron  for  driving  cattle. 

GOAT.  A  quadruped  fond  of  dry,  rocky 
situations,  and  feeding  on  aromatic  vege- 
tables. The  varieties  of  the  goat  are  distin- 
guished principally  by  their  horns. 

GOAT-SUCKER.  An  American  bird, 
so  called  because  it  was  supposed  to  suck 
the  teats  of  the  goats. 

GODFATHER.  One  who  stands  sponsor 
for  a  child  in  baptism. 

GODWIT.  A  bird  resembling  the  Plo- 
ver, that  feeds  on  worms  on  the  sea  shore. 

GOLD.  The  richest  find  heaviest  metal 
except  platina,  being  tlie  most  solid  and 
the  least  porous.  The  ductility  and  malle- 
ability of  gold  is  such,  that  one  grain  of  it 
will  cover  upwards  of  fifty  square  inches, 
and  an  ounce  is  capable  of  being  extended 
in  the  form  of  wire  many  hundred  miles. 
Gold  is  found  in  beds  of  quartz,  sand 
stone,  &c.  and  also  in  many  rivers,  par- 
ticularly in  Peru,  in  minute  and  irregular 
grains,  which  are  known  by  the  name  of 
gold  dust. 

GOLDBEATERS  SKIN.  The  skin  or 
membrane  of  any  animal,  which  is  used 
by  the  goldbeaters  in  preparing  gold  leaf 

GOLDEN  NUMBER.  A  number  be- 
ginning with  one  and  increasing  one  every 
year  till  it  comes  to  nineteen,  when  it 
begins  with  one  aga'n,  and  is  used  to  show 
what  year  in  the  lunar  cycle  any  given 
year  is. 

GOLDEN  ROD.  A  plant  which  is  for 
the  most  part  a  native  of  North  America. 
Two  species  only  are  found  in  Europe. 

GOLDEN  RULE.  A  name  given  to  the 
Rule  of  Three. 

GOLDFINCH.  A  beautiful  European 
bird  with  a  fine  yellow  mark  in  its  black 


GOT 

quill  feathers.  It  sings  very  charmingly, 
and  is  very  docile.     See  Yellow  Bird. 

GOLD  FISH.  An  elegant  fish  of  a  gold 
colour,  originally  brought  from  China,  and 
now  kept  by  way  of  ornament. 

GOLD  LEAF,  or  Leaf  Gold.  Gold 
that  is  hammered  by  the  beaters,  until  it 
becomes  as  thin  and  extended  as  a  leaf. 

GOLDSMITH.  A  worker  or  seller  of 
gold  or  silver  vessels.  The  company  of 
goldsmiths  in  London,  were  incorporated 
in  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 

GONDOLA.  A  sort  of  Venetian  plea- 
sure barge. 

GONG  (in  Music).  A  Chinese  instru- 
ment, the  form  of  which  is  a  shallow  circu- 
lar concave. 

GOODS  (in  Law),  The  valuables  of 
which  a  man  is  possessed. 

GOOSANDER.  A  water  bird,  the  size 
of  a  goose. 


GOOSE.  A  well  known  domestic  fowl, 
which  exists  in  a  wild  as  well  as  a  tame 
state.  The  gray  lay  goose,  or  common 
wild  goose,  is  easily  tamed  :  from  this  sort 
has  sprung  the  domestic  breed. 

GOOSEBERRY  (in  Botany).  A  plant 
that  is  set  with  prickles,  and  yields  a  fruit 
of  an  oval  and  globular  figure,  containing 
many  small  seeds  in  a  pulpy  substance. 
It  is  a  bush  much  cultivated  in  gardens. 

GORGE  (in  Fortification).  The  entrance 
of  a  bastion,  ravelin,  or  other  outwork. 

GORGET.  A  piece  of  armour  round 
the  neck  ;  something  similar  is  now  worn 
by  officers  on  duty  by  way  of  ornament. 

GOSHAWK.  That  species  of  hawk 
which  was  formerly  much  used  in  falconry. 

GOSPEL.  The  four  bopks  in  the  New 
Testannnit  written  by  the  Evangelists, 
Pt.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St. 
John. 

GOSSAMER.  A  fine  filmy  substance, 
like  a  cobweb,  which  is  seen  in  clear  days 
in  autumn  in  stiibblH  fields,  and  is  proba- 
bly worked  by  spiders  for  catching  flies. 

GOTHIC  STYLE.  A  style  of  architec- 
ture in  which  pointed  aiches  of  greater 
height  than  breadth,  and  a  profusion  of 
ornaments,   in   imitation    of  leaves   and 


GRA 

flowers,  are  the  principal  cliaracteristics. 
GOTHIC  ARCH.  An  arcli  callel  by  tlie 
Italians  arciie  de  terzo  el  di  quarto  acuto, 
i.  e.  of  the  third  and  fourth  point,  consisting 
of  two  arcs  of  a  circle  meeting  in  an  angle 
at  the  top. 


GRA 


181 


GOVERNMENT.  The  power  in  a  state 
by  which  the  whole  is  governed ;  if  this 
power  be  in  the  hands  of  one  it  is  a  Mo- 
narchy ;  if  in  the  iiands  of  the  nobility,  an 
Aristocracy  ;  and  if  in  the  hands  of  the 
people,  or  those  chosen  by  tliem,  a  De- 
mocracy. The  executive  government  is 
the  power  of  administering  public  affairs, 
the  Legislative  (Government  that  of  making 
the  laws.  In  England,  the  Executive  Go- 
vernment is  in  tiie  king  and  his  ministers  ; 
but  the  Legislative  Government  is  in  the 
Parliament,  that  is,  the  King,  Lords,  and 
Commons ;  whence  the  constitution  of 
England  is  denominated  a  Mixed  Govern- 
ment. 

GOUGE.  An  instrument  for  boring  holes. 

GOURD.  A  plant  nearly  allied  to  the 
cucumber,  and  still  nearer  to  the  melon. 
The  fruit  of  some  species  are  long,  and 
others  round  or  bottle-shaped. 

GOURDWORM.  A  worm  which  infests 
the  intestines  of  animals. 

GOUT.  A  painful  periodical  disease, 
which  may  affect  any  menihraiieous  part, 
but  commonly  those  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance from  the  heart  and  the  brain,  as  the 
feet  or  hands. 

GOUTWEED.  A  perennial,  so  called 
from  its  supposed  efficacy  in  curing  the 
gout. 

GRACE,  Act  of.  In  England,  an  act 
of  parliament  for  the  relief  of  insolvent 
debtors. 

GRACE,  Days  of  (in  Commercial  Law). 
Three  days  allowed  for  the  payment  of  a 
bill  after  it  has  become  due. 

GRACE  (in  Heraldry).  The  style  used 
in  speaking  of,  or  to,  a  duke  oi-  dutchess,  as 
your  Grace,  his  or  her  Grace. 

GRADATIOJSr  (in  Chymistryj.  A  pro- 
cess by  which  metals  are  gradually  raised 
to  a  still  higher  degree  of  purity. 

GRADUATE.  One  who  has  taken  a  de- 
gree in  a  university. 
16 


GRADUATION.  Dividing  any  tiling 
into  e(inal  parts  or  degrees. 

GRAFTING  (in  Horticulture).  The  pro- 
cess of  inserting  a  branch  of  one  tree,  into 
the  stock  of  another,  so  that  it  may  receive 
nourishment  from  it,  while  at  the  same 
tiuie  it  produces  r  new  tree,  like  the  old 
one  whence  the  graft  was  taken. 

GRAFTING-TOOL.  A  kind  of  curved 
spade  fit  for  cutting  trenches. 

GRAIN.  A  general  name  for  all  kinds 
of  seed  corn. 

GRAIN  (in  Commerce),  A  small  weight, 
the  twentieth  part  of  a  scruple  in  Apothe- 
caries weight,  and  twenty-fourth  in  Troy 
v\"€ight. 

GRAIN  fui  Mineralogy).  The  veins  of 
wood,  or  the  component  particles  of  stone 
and  metals  as  they  are  disposed  in  the 
mass,  &c. 

GRAINS  OF  PARADISE.  The  seeds 
of  the  ammonitim,  which  have  a  pungent 
taste  like  pepper. 

GRAIN  TREE.  The  cochineal  tree. 

GRAKLE.  A  bird  not  inhabiting  Eu- 
rope, having  a  thick  bill  and  sharp  hooked 
claws. 

GRALLiE.  An  order  of  birds  in  the 
Linmean  system,  with  obtuse  bills  and  long 
legs,  as  the  crane,  snipe,  stork,  and  ostrich. 

GRAMINA.  Grasses;  the  fifth  family 
in  the  Linntean  system,  comprehending 
among  the  species  the  ray  grass,  clover, 
tref()il,sanfoin,lucern,&c.  which  are  called 
artificial  grasses,  as  distinguished  from  the 
meadow  gras& 

GRAMMAR,  The  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  truly,  according  to  the  rules  estab- 
lished by  custom  and  the  authority  of 
good  writers.  Universal  Grammar  is  that 
which  treats  of  the  first  principles  or  ele- 
ments of  language,  which  are  founded  on 
logic  5  Particvilar  Grammar  is  the  gi-ammar 
of  each  language,  containing  not  only  the 
general  principles  of  grammar,  but  also 
the  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  each 
language. 

Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts, 
namely,  1.  Orthography,  or  the  right  mode 
of  writing  and  spelling,  which  treats  of 
letters,  their  powers,  different  offices,  and 
divisions  into  vowels,  consonants,  diph- 
thongs, mutes,  liquids,  syllable3,words,&c. 
together  with  punctuation,  or  the  right 
mode  of  distinguishing  words,  &c.  by  points 
or  accents,  &c.  2.  Etymology,  whidi  treats 
of  the  formation  or  derivation  of  worda 
from  one  another,  and  their  distribution 
into  the  several  parts  of  speech,  accoi'ding 
to  their  several  offices,  into  nouns,  adjec- 
tives, pronouns,  Verbs,  adverbs,  preposi- 
tionSjConjunctions,  and  interjections.  Ety- 


182 


GRA 


mology  also  treats  of  the  several  inflections 
to  express  number,  gender,  case,  mood, 
tense,  person,  &:c.  Sometimes  etymology 
treats  of  the  derivation  of  words  of  one 
language  from  those  of  another,  which  is 
called  remote  etymology.  3.  Syntax  treats 
of  words  as  they  are  connected  with  or 
dependant  on  each  other,  giving  rules  for 
the  right  construction  and  disposition  of 
words  in  a  sentence.  4.  Prosody  treats  of 
the  quantities  and  accents  of  syllables  as 
parts  of  a  verse,  and  the  right  rules  of 
versification. 

GRAMMAR,   History    of.    Grammar, 
as  a  practical  art,  must  have  existed  long 
before  it  was  considered  as  a  science,  and 
the  rules  of   grammar  must    have    been 
formed  after  language  had  assumed  a  settled 
shape   by   the   practice  of   good    writers. 
The  works  of  Homer  contained  a  practical 
illustration  of  all  the  rules  of  the  Greek 
grammar  long  before  the  subject  of  gram- 
mar excited  any  attention.     It  is  likewise 
clear  that  as  there  is  a  close  connexion 
between  correctness  of  thinking  and  cor- 
rectness of  speaking,  the  study  of  logic 
preceded  that  of  grammar;  hence  we  find 
that  Aristotle  makes  a  logical  distinction 
between  words  denoting  time  and  words 
not  denoting  time,  the  former  of  which 
he  denominates  by  a  word  answering  to 
the  verb  in  grammar,  and  the  latter  by  a 
word  answering  to  the  noun.    But  although 
the  Greeks,  particularly  the  Athenians,  cul- 
tivated their  language  for  purposes  of  ora- 
tory, yet  there  appears  to  have  been  no 
particular  advances  made  towards  bring- 
ing  it   under   grammatical    rules.     They 
seem  to  have  studied  their  language  by 
the  ear,  which   was  so  universally  nice 
that  a  herb  woman  at  Athens  is  said  to 
have  distinguished  Theophrastus  to  be  a 
stranger  from  the  affectation  of  a  single 
word  in  expressing  himself;  and  for  the 
same  reason  the  orators  were  careful  not 
to  let  a  single  injudicious  expression  escape 
them  which  might  offend   the  audience. 
We  are  likewise  informed  that  it  was  a 
common  thing  for  the  young  people  to  get 
the  tragedies  of  their  favourite  authors  by 
heart,  which  they  would  recite  on  various 
occasi^ons.  AVhen  the  Athenians,  aftertheir 
defeat  at  Syracuse,  were  made  slaves,  they 
softened    their    slavery   by  reciting    the 
works  of  Euripides  to  their  masters,  who 
treated  them  the  better  on   that  account. 
In  this  manner  the  Grecian   youth   were 
taught  their  lansuage  at  school,  where  a 
Homer  was  looked  upon  as  indispensable. 
To  a  light  minded  people,  like  the  Athe- 
nians, this  mode  of  learning  a  language 


GRA 

would  be  far  more  agreeable  than  the  dry 
method  of  studying  grammar;  but  as  this 
former  course  was  not  so  practicable  in 
the  acquiring  a  foreign  language,  this  is 
probably  the  reason  why  grammar  seems 
first  to  have  been  cultivated  among  the 
Romans,  who,  being  studious  of  the  Greek, 
were  naturally  led  to  a  comparison  of  lan- 
guages, and  to  a  logical  and  abstract  con- 
sideration of  language  in  general.  Certain 
it  is,  that  the  study  of  grammar  com- 
menced with  the  Romans,  and  that  the 
names  of  all  the  parts  of  speech  are  Latin, 
and  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  authors 
subsequent  to  the  age  of  Varro  and  Cicero, 
as  iElius  Dionysius,  Julius  Pollux,  Vale- 
rius Probus,  Herodian,  Suetonius,  Chari- 
sius,  Macrobins,  Diomedes,  Augustin,  Pris- 
cian,  ^lius  Donatus,  &c. 

GRAMMARIAN.  One  who  is  skilled 
in  grammar  learning. 

GRAMMAR   SCHOOL.    A    school    in 
which  the   learned  languages  are  gram- 
matically taught. 
GRAMME.  A  small  French  weight 
GRANARY.   A  storehouse  for  threshed 
corn. 

GRAND  JURY  (in  Law).  The  jury 
which  find  bills  of  indictment  against 
offenders,  who  are  afterwards  tried  before 
a  petty  jury,  in  case  the  former  find  a  true 
bill  against  the  party  accused. 

GRAND  SEIGNIOR.  The  title  of  the 
Turkisli  sultan. 

GRANITE.  A  compound  rock,  consist- 
ing of  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica,  crystal- 
lized and  cohering  without  cement.  Granite 
is  hard,  and  admits  of  an  elegant  polish, 

GRANT  (in  Law).  A  gift  in  writing, 
of  such  things  as  cannot  conveniently  be 
passed,  or  conveyed  by  word  of  mouth. 

GRANULATION  (in  Chymistry).  Pour- 
ing melted  metals  into  cold  water,  that 
they  may  divide  themselves  into  grains. 

GRAPE.  The  fruit  of  the  vine,  growing 
in  clusters,  from  which  wine  is  expressed. 
Grapes  are  found  by  a  chymical  analysis 
to  contain  supertartrate  of  potash,  tartaric 
acid,  citric  and  malic  acids,  abundance  of 
sugar,  a  portion  of  mucilage  jelly,  some 
albumen,  and  also,  as  is  said,  some 
gluten. 

GRAPESHOT  (in  Artillery).   A  combi- 
nation of  small  shot,  put  into  a  thick  canvass 
bag,  and  corded  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
cylinder. 
GRASSES.  See  Gramina. 
GRASSHOPPER.   An  insect  that  hops 
in  the  summer  grass :  it  is  allied  to  the 
locust  in  its  make,  but  is  very  harmless, 
GRAVEL.  A  kind  of  loamy  sand  mixed 


GRE 

with  pebbles,  which  adhere  so  as  to  form 
a  solid  handsome  path. 
GRAVER.  A  tool  used  in  engraving. 


GRO 


183 


GRAVE  SOUND.  A  low  deep  note. 

GRAVIMETER.     An     instrument    for 

measuring  the  specific  gravities  ol  bodies. 

GRAVITATION.  The  pressure  that  a 

body,  by  the  force  of  its  gravity,  exerts  on 

another  body  under  it. 

GRAVITY.  The  force  by  which  bodies 
are  carried  or  tend  towards  the  centre  of 
the  earth. 

GREEK  FIRE.  An  artificial  five  in- 
vented by  the  Greeks  in  the  middle  ages, 
during  their  wars  witli  the  Arabs  and 
Turks.  It  consists  of  naphtha,  bitumen, 
Bulphur,  gum,  &c. 

GREEN.  One  of  the  seven  original 
colours  excited  by  the  rays  of  light,  wliich 
is  the  most  grateful  to  the  eye  and  most 
favourable  to  the  sight. 

GREEN  CLOTH,  Board  of.  In  Eng- 
land, a  court  of  justice  held  in  the  counting 
house  of  the  king's  household. 

GREENFINCH.  A  yellowish  green 
bird,  an  inhabitant  of  Europe,  which  lays 
green  eggs, 

GREENHOUSE.  A  place  of  shelter  for 
exotics  and  tender  plants. 
GREENSHANK.  A  sort  of  snipe. 
GREGORIAN  STYLE,  or  the  New 
Style  (in  Chronology).  Anew  account  of 
time,  according  to  the  improved  Calendar 
made  by  order  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 

GRENADE.  A  hollow  globe  of  iron, 
filled  with  combustibles,  and  thrown  out 
of  a  mortar. 

GRENADIERS.  Foot  soldiers,  selected 
for  their    stature,  being   the   tallest  and 
stoutest  men  in  the  army. 
GREYHOUND.   A  slender  dog,  fitted 


for  running  with  great  swiftness,  who  is 
employed  mostly  in  coursing  hares. 


GREYSaUIRREL.  A  beautiful  squirrel 
common  in  America. 


GREYWACKE.  A  mountain  forma- 
tion, consisting  mostly  of  a  sort  of  slate. 

GRIDIRON.  A  utensil  for  broiling 
meat. 

GRINDERS.  The  large  teeth  which 
serve  best  for  grinding  the  food. 

GRIST.  Corn  ground. 

GRIT.  The  smallest  particles  of  sand; 
also  the  coarser  parts  of  meal. 

GROAT.  In  England,  a  silver  coin,  first 
struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  It  has 
since  been  used  as  a  money  of  account 
equal  to  four  pence. 

GROCER.  One  who  sells  tea,  sugar, 
plums,  spices,  &:c.  The  company  of  gro- 
cers in  London,  were  incorporated  in  1344. 

GROOM.    A  servant  who  looks  after 


GROOM  OF  THE  STOLE.  In  Eng- 
land an  ofiicer  of  the  court,  who  has  the 
charge  of  the  king's  wardrobe. 

GROOVE.  A  hollow  channel  cut  with 
a  tool. 

GROSS-BEAK.  A  bird  with  a  stout 
bill,  and  of  a  fiery  red  colour,  except  round 
the  bill  and  on  the  throat,  which  is  black. 
It  is  to  be  met  with  in  North  America, 
and  is  called  the  Virginia  nightingale,  on 
account  of  the  fineness  of  its  song. 


GROSS  WEIGHT.  The  weight  of 
goods  together  with  the  cask  or  vessel. 

GROT,  or  GROTTO.  A  hollow  under 
ground;  also  an  artificial  hollow  made  in 
a  garden. 

GROTESQUE  (in  Painting  and  Sculp- 


184 


GUA 


ture).  A  work  or  composition  in  the  gro- 
tesque or  wild  taste. 

GROVE.  A  small  wood  or  place  set 
with  trees. 

GROUND  (in  Hushandry).  Any  piece 
of  land  in  cultivation,  or  set  apart  for  cul- 
tivation. 

GROUND  (in  Architecture).  The  ground 
plot,  or  piece  of  ground  selected  for  a 
building. 

GROUND  (in  Military  Tactics).  The 
field  or  place  for  action. 

GROUND  (in  Painting).  The  surface  on 
which  the  figures  and  objects  are  raised 
and  represented. 

GROUND  (ia  Music).  The  phiin  song 
or  tune  in  vv'hich  the  descents  are  raised. 

GROUND  (among  Mariners).  The  place 
where  the  anchor  is  fixed. 

GROUNDASH.  A  sapling  of  ash  taken 
from  the  ground,  in  distinction  from  a 
branch  cut  from  a  tree.. 

GROUND  IVY.  A  herb,  the  shoots  of 
which  trail  upon  the  ground,  and  take  root 
at  their  different  joints. 

GROUNDLING.  A  fish,  so  called  be- 
cause it  keeps  under  stones  in  small  brooks. 

GROUND-PINE.  A  plant,  the  smell  of 
which  resembles  resin.  It  grows  on  dry 
and  barren  hills-,  and.on  the  ditchbanks  by 
the  roadside. 

GROUNDSILL.  The  lowest  horizontal 
timber  on  which  the  exterior  wall  is 
erected.^ 

GROUND-SaUIRREL.  See  Cmp- 
Squirrel. 

GROUP  (in  Painting).  An  assemblage 
of  figures,  appearing  to  have  a  connexion 
with  each  other. 

GROUPING  (among  Painters).  Putting 
figures  together  in  groups. 

GP^OUSE.  A  bird  larger  than  a  partridge, 
living,  in  the  mou-ntainous  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  American  partridge  is  pro- 
perly the  ruffed  Grouse. 

GRUB.  The  worm  or  maggot  produced 
from  the  beetle,  which  afterwards  becomes 
a  winged  insect. 

GRUINALES.  One  of  Linnajus's  natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  containing  the  gera^ 
niums,  flax,  lignum  vitse,  &c. 

GRUS.     One  of  the  new  constellations. 

GUIACUM.  A  resinous  substance  pro- 
cured from  a  tree  of  the  same  name  in  the 
West  Indies. 

GUARANTEE  (in  Diplomacy).  A 
prince  or  power  appointed  by  the  stipu- 
lating powers,  to  see  that  the  articles  of 
any  treaty  or  agreement  are  performed  on 
each  side. 

GUARD.  The  duty  of  guarding  or  de- 
fending any  post  or  person  from  an  attack 


GUI 

or  surprise;  also  the  soldiers  who  do  this 
duty. 

GUARD  (in  Fencing).  A  posture  or 
action  proper  to  defend  the  body. 

GUARDBOAT  (in  Naval  Tactics).  A 
boat  appointed  to  row  among  ships  of  war, 
to  see  that  the  officers  keep  a  good  look 
out. 

GUARDIAN.  One  who  has  the  charge 
of  a  person  comraitted  to  him  ;  as  the 
guardian  of  an  infant,  who  sees  to  his 
education  and  manages  his  affairs,  &c. 

GUARDSHIP.  A  vessel  appointed  to 
superintend  the  marine  affairs  iii  a  liarbour 
or  river. 

GUDGEON.  A  fresh  water  fish,  of  the 
carp  kind,  the  flesh  of  which  is  very  deli- 
cate. 

GUIDE  (among  Travellers)..  One  who 
accompanies  another  in  order  to  show  him 
the  way. 

GUIDE  (in  Music).  The  leading  note 
in  a  figure.. 

GUILD  (in  England).  A  company  or 
incorporated  society. 

GUILDHALL  (in  London).  The  com- 
mon hall  of  the  guilds  or  companies,  which 
was  built  in  1411,  by  Thomas  Knolls,  then 
mayor. 

GUILLOTINE,,  A  machine  for  behead- 
ing, first  invented  by  a  Scotchman  and 
now  used  in  France.  It  was  introduced 
durin;f  the  revolution. 

GUINEA  HEN  or-  PINTANO.  An  Afri- 


can bird  domesticated  in  Europe,  which 
makes  a  harsh  unpleasant  cry. 
GUINEA  PIG.    An  animal  betwixt  a 


rabbit  and  a  mouse,  an  inhabitant  of  Bra- 
zil. 
GUIxNTEA.     An  English  gold  coin,  first 


GUN 

coined  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  and  till 
lately  current  for  21s.  It  was  so  called 
because  it  was  made  from  the  gold  that 
was  brought  from  Guinea,  on  the  coast  of 
Africa. 

GUITAR.  A  musical  stringed  instru- 
ment, rather  larger  than  a  violin,  and 
played  with  the  fingers. 

GULES.  A  tincture  in  heraldry,  marked 
in  engraving  by  straight  lines. 


GYP 


185 


GULF.  A  part  of  the  sea  running  in 
land,  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

GULL.  A  species  of  sea  bird,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties. 

GUM.  A  concreted  vegetable  juice, 
which  exudes  through  the  bark  of  trees, 
A  gum,  properly  speaking.  Is  that  only 
among  chymists  which  is  soluble  in  water; 
that  which  is  insoluble  in  water  is  a  gum 
resin.  The  gum  arabic  flows  from  the 
acacia,  in  Africa  and  Arabia;  gum  lac  is  the 
juice  of  the  croton  lacifera;  gum  ammoni- 
ac was  first  drawn  from  ammonia. 

GUMS.  The  vascular  and  elastic  sub- 
stance that  covers  the  arches  of  the  upper 
and  under  jaws,  embracing  the  roots  of 
the  teeth. 

GUN.  Any  sort  of  offensive  weapon  from 
which  shot,  huUetSi  &c.  are  discharged. 


GUNBOAT.  A  boat  with  a  flat  bottom, 
serving  as  a  floating  battery. 

GUNNER.  One  who  manages  the  artil- 
lery. 

GUNNERY.  The  art  of  determining 
the  course  and  directing  the  motions  of 
bodies  shot  from  the  artillery. 

GUNPOWDER.  A  composition  of  salt- 
petre, sulphur,  and  charcoal,  duly  mixed 
81* 


together,  and  pounded  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  water. 

GUNPOWDER-PLOT  (in  England.) 
The  plot  or  conspiracy  in  which  Guy  Faux 
was  the  principal  agent,  to  blow  up  the 
parliament  house,  by  means  of  gunpowder 
placed  underneath,  which  was  to  have 
been  set  fire  to  when  King  James  I.  was 
assembled  with  his  parliament;  also  the 
anniversary  of  that  day,  namely ,  the  fifth  of 
November,  when  this  plot  was  discovered. 

GUNSHOT.  The  reach  or  range  of  a  gun. 

GUNSTOCK.  The  wood  to  which  the 
barrel  of  a  gun  is  fixed. 

GUNTER'S  CHAIN.  The  chain  com- 
monly used  in  measuring  or  surveying 
land,  so  called  from  Mr.  Gunter,  the  in- 
ventor. TJie  chain  is  66  feet  in  length, 
and  is  divided  into  100  links  of  7.92  inches 
each,  consequently  an  acre  of  land  is  equal 
to  10  square  chains. 

GUNTER'S  LINE.  A  logarithmic  line, 
usually  graduated  upon  scales,  sectors,  &c. 

GUNWALE  or  GUNNEL.  The  upper- 
most wale  of  a  ship. 

GUST  (among  Mariners).  A  sudden  and 
violent  squall  of  wind. 

GUTT A  SERENA.  A  disease  in  the  eye, 
which  deprives  the  patient  of  his  sight. 

GUTT  URAL  LETTERS.  Letters  which 
are  pronounced  with  the  throat. 

GYMNASIUM.  A  place  among  the 
ancients  where  the  youth  were  trained  in 
gymnastic  exercises;  also  a  public  school 
of  learning,  in  which  latter  sense,  it  is  now 
frequently  employed. 

GYMNASTICS.  Athletic  exercises,  such 
as  wrestling,  leaping,  running,  and  throw- 
ing the  dart  or  quoit,  which  were  much  in 
use  among  the  Greeks,  from  whom  the 
word  is  derived. 

GYMNOSOPHISTS.  A  sect  of  Indian 
philosophers,  v>'ho  always  went  naked, 
and  lived  a  solitary  life. 

GYNANDRIA.  One  of  the  classes  in 
the  Linnaean  system,  consisting  of  plants 
with  hermaphrodite  flowers,  in  which  the 
stamina  are  placed  on  the  style. 


GYPSUM.  A  sort  of  calcareous  earth, 
consisting  of  sulphate  of  lime.  Whea 
highly  burnt  it  falls  into  powder,  frors 
which  plaster  of  Paris  is  made. 


18Q. 


HAX 


HAxN 


y. 


H,  the  eighth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  for- 
merly stood  as  a  numeral  for  200,  with  a 
dash  over  it  for  20,000;  in  Heraldry,  it 
stands  for  the  middle  base,  a  point  in  the 
escutcheon  ;  as  an  abbreviation,  for  hour. 

HAARTE  BESTE.  A  variety  of  the  Af- 
rican Antelope. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.  In  England,  a 
writ  which  may  be  made  use  of  by  the 
courts  at  Westminster  for  removing  pris- 
oners to  answer  any  cause,  as  a  Habeas 
Corpus  ad  respondendum,  ad,  satisfacien- 
dum, ifcc;  but  the  most  celebrated;  writ  of 
this  kind  is  that  of  Habeas  Corpus  ad  sub- 
jiciendum, which  a  man  who  is,  or  supr- 
poses  himself  to  be  aggrieved  by  an  unlaw- 
ful imprisonment,  may  have  out  of  the 
King's  Bench,  directed  to  the  person  de- 
taining him,  and  commanding  him  to  pro- 
duce the  body  of  the  prisoner,  to  submit  to 
or  receive  whatever  the  court  shall  consider 
in  that  behalf.  This  writ  was  founded  on 
the  common  law,  and  secured  by  many 
statutes,  particularly  that  of  the '31  Chas. 
II.  which  is  by  distinction  called  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act.  The  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus 
in  the  United  States  is  that,  by  which  a 
ma.n  in  prison  may  claim  an  immediate 
trial,  or  examination. 

HABERDASHER.  A  dealer  in  small 
wares,  as  tape,  thread,  pins,  needles,  &c. 
The  company  of  haberdashei-s  in  London 
was  incorporated  in  1447. 

HADDOCK.  A  fish  of  the  cod  kind, 
which  inhabits  the  northern, coast, 

HADLEY'S  aUADRANT..  A  quadrant 
that  is  particularly  used  for  taking  altitudes 
at  sea. 

HEMORRHAGE.  A,  fl.ux  of  blood  from 
any  part  of  the  body. 

HAIL.  Ameteor,  which  consistsoffrozen 
rain,  or  drops  of  rain  agglutinated  together 
by  the  frost,  so  as  to  form  little  pieces  of 
ice,  called  hailstones. 

HAILING  (among  Mariners).  Saluting 
or  accosting  a  ship  at  a  distance. 

HAIR.  Small  filaments  issuing  out  of 
the  pores  of  the  skin  of  animals,  and  serv- 
ing for  the  most  p&^t  as  a-  covering..  The 
principal  constituent  parts  of  hair  are  ani- 
mal matter,  oil,  siiex,  sulphur,  carboyate  of 
lime,  &c. 

HAIR  (in  Botany).  The  down,  or  hair- 
like threads  on  the  surface  of  plants.. 

HAIR-GRASS.  A  plant,  some  species 
of  which  are  perennials  and  some  annuals. 


HAIR'S  BREADTH.  A  measure  of 
length,  equal  to  the  forty-eighth  part  of  an 
inch., 

HALBERT.  A  weapon  something  like 
a  spear,  formerly  carried  by  the  Serjeants 
of  foot  and  artillery. 

HALCYON.  A  name  for  the  kingfisher. 

HALF-BLOOD  (in  Law).  Relationship 
by  the  father's  or  the  mother's  side  only. 

HALF-MOON  (in  Fortification).  An 
outwork  having  two  faces. 

HALFPENNY.  An  English  copper  coin, 
the  half  of  a  penny. 

HALL.  A  public  edifice,  a  court  of  jus- 
tice. 

HALL  (in  Architecture).  A  large  room 
at  the  entrance  of  a  fine  house. 

HALLELUJAH.  A  part  of  church  music 
in  which  these  words  are  repeated. 

HALLIARDS.  Ropes  for  hoisting  up 
the  yards. 

HALLOO.  A  hunter's  cry  after  the  dogs. 

HALLUCINATION.  An  affection  either 
in  the  senses  or  the  imagination,  which 
causes  a  person  to  feel,  see,  or  hear  what 
does  not  exist. 

HALM.  In  England,  the  stalk  of  corn 
which  is  left  on  the  ground  when  it  is  cut. 

HALO.  A  meteor,  in  the  form  of  alumi- 
nous ring  or  circle,  appearing  round  the 
bodies.of  thesun,  moon,  orstars. 

HAMMOCK  (among  Mariners).  A  piece 
of  hempen  cloth,  six  feet  long  and  three 
feet  wide. 

HAMSTER.  An  animal  of  the  mouse 
tribe,  entirely  black,  except  at  the  tip  of 
the  nose,  edges  of  the  ears,  feet,  and  some- 
times the  tail,  which  are  white. 


HANAPER  OFFICE.  In  England,  an 
office  in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  out  of 
which  issue  all  original  writs. 

HAND  (in  the  Manege).  The  fist  clenched 
or  a  measure  of  three  inches,  by  which  the 
height  of  a  horse  is  computed  ;  also  the 
p;irts  of  a  horse,  as  the  forehand,  for  the 
liead,  neck,  and  fore  quarters ;  the  hind- 
hand,  which  includes  the  rest;  and  also 
the  horseman's  hand,  as  the  spur  hand, 


II  A  R 

which  is  his  right  Ijand  ;  and  the  bridle 
hand,  whicli  is  iiis  left  lirdul. 

HAND.  An  important  member  of  the 
body,  which  consists  of  the  carpus,  or  wrist; 
the  metacarpus,  or  the  four  bones,  within 
the  pahn  and  the  fingers. 


IIAR 


1S7 


HAND  (among  Watchmakers).  The  in- 
dex of  a  clock  or  watch, 

HAND-BARROW.  A  barrow  without 
wheels. 

HANDCUFFS.  Two  circular  pieces  of 
iron  locked  over  the  wrists  of  a  prisoner 
to  prevent  him  using  his  hands. 

HANDSPIKES.  Wooden  levers  used 
at  sea. 

HANGINGS.  Tapestiy  hungor  fastened 
against  the  wall. 

HANSE  TOWNS.  Port  towns  of  Ger- 
many, which  were  incorporated  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  their  trade.  The 
three  principal  of  these  towns  were  Ham- 
burgh, Bremen,  and  Lubec,  which  still 
retain  the  name. 

HARBOUR.  A  place  where  ships  may 
ride  in  safety. 

HARDxNESS  (in  Physiology).  The  re- 
sistance opposed  by  a  body  to  the  separa- 
tion of  its  parts. 

HARE.  A  timid  animal  of  exquisite 
sight  and  hearing,  with  a  short  tail.  It  is 
in  Europe  a  beast  of  chase,  and  is  some- 
times pursued  by  greyhounds  in  open 
ground,  which  is  called  coursing;  and 
sometimes  by  harriers,  or  liare  hounds, 
which  is  called  hare  hunting.  Shooting 
of  hares  is  not  lawful  in  England.  A  spe- 
cies of  hare  common  in  America,  passes 
under  the  name  of  rabbit. 


HARELIP.  A  lip  cloven  or  parted  like 
that  of  a  hare. 

HARMATTUN.  A  wind  which  blows 
periodically  from  the  interior  parts  of  Africa 


towards  the  Atlantic.  This  wind  is  remark- 
able for  its  dry  and  parching  character. 

HARMONICA.  A  musical  instrument 
constructed  with  drinking  glasses. 

HARMONICS.  That  branch  of  music 
which  considers  the  differences  and  pro- 
portions of  sounds. 

HARMOxVY  (in  Music).  The  agreeable 
result  or  union  of  several  musical  sounds 
lieard  at  one  and  the  same  time.  Melody 
is  produced  by  a  succession  of  musical 
souiuls,  as  harmony  is  produced  by  their 
combination. 

HARMONY  OF  THE  SPHERES.  A 
kind  of  music,  supposed  by  the  ancients  to 
be  produced  by  the  accordant  motions  of 
the  stars  and  planets. 

HARP.  A  musical  stringed  instrument 
of  great  antiquity,  of  a  triangular  form, 
and  played  with  tlie  fingers. 


HARPER.  One  who  plays  upon  the  harp. 

HARPINS  (among  Mariners).  The 
breadth  of  a  ship  at  the  bow. 

HARPOONS,  or  Harping  Irons.  Irons 
formed  at  one  end  like  a  barbed  arrow, 
and  having  a  rope  at  the  other,  for  the 
purpose  of  spearing  the  whale. 

HARPSICHORD.  A  stringed  and  keyed 
instrument  in  a  mahogany  case. 

HARROW.  A  drag  with  iron  teeth,  to 
break  the  clods  after  ploughing. 


HARPY.  A  fabulous  monster,  with  the 
head  of  a  woman,  the  wings  of  a  bird,  and 
the  tail  of  a  beast. 


188 


HAW 


HARRIER.  A  hunting  dog  who  pursues 
hares. 

HART.  A  stag  or  male  deer  of  the 
forest,  which  if  hunted  by  the  king  or 
queen,  and  he  escape  alive,  is  styled  a 
Hart  Royal. 

HARTSHORN.  A  volatile  alkali,  origi- 
nally dravi'n  from  the  horn  of  the  stag  ;  it 
is  now  known  by  chymists  under  the 
name  of  the  subcarbonate  of  ammonia. 

HARVEST  MOON.  The  moon  which, 
in  the  season  of  harvest,  rises  several  nights 
successively  soon  after  sunset. 

HATCHING.  The  act  of  maturing  fecun- 
dated eggs,  so  that  they  should  produce 
young  birds.  This  is  commonly  done  by 
the  incubation  of  the  mother ;  but  some- 
times by  means  of  artificial  heat  in  ovens, 
as  is  practised  in  Egypt. 

HATCHMENT.     See     Achievement. 

HATCHWAY  (among  Mariners).  An 
opening  in  the  deck,  to  serve  as  a  passage 
from  one  deck  to  another. 

HATTER.  A  manufacturer  and  seller 
of  hats.  The  company  of  hatters,  or  hat- 
makers  in  London,  is  very  ancient. 

HAVERSACK.  A  kind  of  bag  of  strong 
coarse  linen,  to  carry  bread  and  provisions 
on  a  march. 

HAUL,  or  YAUL  (among  Ropemakers). 
A  yarn  of  four  hundred  threads. 

HAUNCH.  The  hind  part  of  a  stag,  or 
of  a  horse,  &c. 

HAUNT.  The  walk  of  a  deer. 

HAUTBOY.  A  musical  wind  instru- 
ment, shaped  much  like  the  flute,  only 
that  it  spreads  and  widens  at  the  bottom, 
and  is  sounded  through  a  reed  at  one 
end. 

HAWFINCH.  A  sort  of  finch,  so  called 
because  it  feeds  on  haws  and  cherries. 

HAWK.  A  bird  of  prey  of  the  eagle  and 
falcon  tribe,  the  two  principal  species  of 
which  are  the  sparrovvhawk  and  the  gos- 
hawk, both  used  formerly  in  falconry. 

HAWKERS.  In  England,  itinerant  petty 
chapmen,  who  go  m  ith  their  goods  from 
town  to  town  and  from  house  to  house. 
They  are  obliged  by  law  to  have  a  license. 

HAWKING.  The  ancient  sport  of  fowl- 
ing with  hawks. 

HAWKING  (in  Trade).  The  going  about 
with  commodities  to  sell,  after  the  manner 
of  a  hawker. 

HAWK'S  BELL.  The  bell  put  about 
the  feet  of  a  bawk. 

HAWKWEED.  A  plant  which  bears  a 
flower  in  the  form  of  a  marigold.  The 
whole  plant  lias  a  milky  juice. 

HAWSE.  A  sea  term,  for  the  situation 
of  the  cables  before  the  ship's  stern,  when 


HEA 

she  is  moored  v.ith  two  anchors  out  from 
the  bows,  as  '  a  clear  or  open  liawse,'  '  a 
foul  hawse,'  &c. 

HAWSER.  A  small  cable. 

HAZARD.  A  game  of  chance,  played 
much  by  gamesters  and  gamblers. 

HAZLE  NUT.  A  shrub  having  male 
flowers  growing  at  remote  distances  from 
the  fruit  on  the  same  tree.  The  nuts 
grow  in  clusters,  and  are  of  three  kinds, 
the  common  hazel  nut,  the  cob  nut,  and 
the  filbert,  which  latter  are  the  most  es- 
teemed. 

HEAD  (in  Anatomy).  The  superior  part 
of  the  body,  placed  on  the  neck,  and  con- 
sisting externally  of  the  face  and  the  hairy 
scalp;  internally,  of  the  brain  and  the 
medulla  oblongata. 

HEAD  (among  Mechanics).  The  upper 
and  more  solid  part  of  inanimate  bodies, 
as  the  head  of  a  nail,  the  head  of  a  gate, 
the  head  of  a  hammer. 

HEAD  (in  Painting).  The  representation 
of  the  head  of  a  person. 

HEAD  (in  Architecture).  An  ornament 
of  sculpture  or  carved  work. 

HEAD  (in  Gunnery).  The  fore  part  of 
the  cheeks  of  a  gun. 

HEAD  (in  Printing).  In  England,  the 
top  of  a  page. 

HEADBOROUGH.  Formerly  the  chief 
of  a  borough,  or  frankpledge ;  now  a  sort  of 
petty  constable. 

HEADER  (in  Masonry).  A  name  for 
the  bricks  which  are  inserted  lengthwise 
in  the  thickness  of  a  wall. 

HEADLAND,  A  point  of  land  lying 
farther  out  at  sea  than  the  rest. 

HEADSTALL.  That  part  of  a  bridle 
that  goes  about  the  head ;  also  a  kind  of 
halter. 

HEALING  (in  Surgery).  ,  Curing  a 
wound. 

HEALING  (among  Bricklayers).  The 
covering  a  roof  with  any  thing,  as  lead, 
slates,  &;c. 

HEARING.  One  of  the  five  senses,  of 
which  the  ear  is  the  organ,  with  the  help 
of  the  auditory  nerves  and  membrane. 

HEARSE.  A  close  carriage  for  convey- 
ing dead  bodies. 

HEART.  The  seat  of  life  in  the  animal 
body,  is  situated  in  the  thorax,  and  divided 
externally  into  the  base,  which  is  the  broad 
part ;  the  superior  and  inferior  surface ; 
and  the  anterior  and  posterior  margin. 
Internally,  it  is  divided  into  two  ventri- 
cles, right  and  left. 

HEARTBURN.  A  burning  pain  in  the 
stomach. 

HEARTSEASE.  A  plant  cultivated  La 


HED 

gardens,  that  yields  a  variegated,  sweet- 
smelling  flower. 

HEARTH.  The  paveraerit  oi  a  fire- 
place. 

HEAT  (in  Phj'siology).  See  Calokic. 

HEAT  (among  Geographers).  The  heat 
of  different  climates,  which  arises  from  the 
different  angles  under  which  the  sun's  rays 
strike  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  added 
to  which,  the  heat  of  different  places  is: 
either  increased  or  dim-inished  by  the  acci- 
dents of  situation,  with  regard  to  moun- 
tains and  valleys,  proximity  to  the  sea, 
and  the  like. 

HEAT  (among  Smiths).  The  degree  of 
heat  requisite  for  iron  work,  namely,  the 
blood-red  heat,  the  smallest  degree ;  the 
flame,  or  white  heat,  the  second  degree  ; 
and  the  sparkling,  or  welding  heat,  which 
is  the  strongest  degree. 

HEAT  (among  Sportsmen).  A  certain 
prescribed  distance  which  a  horse  runs  on 
the  course.. 

HEATH..  A  wide  open  place,  generally 
overgrown  with  heath. 

HEATH  (in  Botany).  A  shrub,  which 
either  grows  wild,  or  is  cultivated  with 
great  care  in  hothouses.  The  cultivated 
sorts  are  remarkahle  for  their  variety  and 
beauty. 

HEAVEN  (in  Astronomy).  That  im- 
mense region  wherein  the  planets,  stars, 
and  comets  are  disposed,  and  perform  their 
motions ;  among  the  ancients,  a  heaven 
denoted  an  orb  or  circular  region  of  the 
ethereal  heaven.  Astronomers  therefore 
assumed  as  many  different  h.eaveus  as  they 
observed  different  celestial  motions  ;  thus 
they  had  seven  heavens  for  the  seven 
planets,  the  Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  the 
Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  The 
eighth  was  the  fixed  stars,  which  was  par- 
ticularly denominated  the  firmament.  Pto- 
lemy added  a  ninth  heaven,  which  he  calls 
the  Primum  Mobile  ;  Alphonsus  afterwards 
added  two  crystalline  heavens,  to  account 
for  some  irregularities  in  the  motions  of 
the  other  heavens,  Otiier  ancient  astrono- 
mers admitted  more  heavens,  according  to 
their  different  hypotheses. 

HEB.  An  abbreviation  for  Hebrews. 

HECATOMB.  The  sacrifice  of  a  hundred 
oxen. 

HECTIC  FEVER.  An,  habitusa  fever, 
or  one  which  is  slow  and  continued,  endr 
ing  in  a  consumption. 

HEDGE.  A  fence  of  thorns  or  shrubs  to 
part  off  land, 

HEDGEHOG.  A  quadruped  defended 
all  over  with  sharp  prickles,  which  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  and  found  also  in  Mada- 
gascar.    It  lives  in  thickets,  and  swims 


HEL 


189 


easily.  When  frightened,  it  rolls  itself  up 
in  its  spiry  skin,  and  presents  nothing  but 
a  ball  of  prickles. 


HEDGESPARROW.  A  kind  of  spar- 
row that  lives  in  the  fields  and  about  the 
hedges. 

HEEL.  The  back  of  the  foot  protuberat- 
ing  behind. 

HEEL  (among.  Mariners).  The  heel  of 
a  mast,  that  part  at  the  foot  of  a  ship's 
mast  that  is  pared  away  slanting. 

HEELPIECE.  A  piece  of  leather  put 
upon  the  heel  of  a  shoe. 

HEGIRA  (in  Chronology).  An  tera 
which  takes  its  date  from  Mahomet's  flight 
from  Mecca,  a.  d.  C22. 

HEIR  (in  Law),,  One  who  succeeds  by 
descent  to  lands  and  tenements. 

HEIRLOOM.  Household  goods  and  fur- 
niture which  have  for  several  descents 
belonged  to  a  house,  and  necessarily  come 
to  clie  heir  wit-li  the  house. 

HELIACAL  (in  Astronomy).  A  term 
applied  to  the  stars  or  planets  when  they 
rise  and  set  with  or  at  the  same  time  as 
the  sun. 

HELIOCENTRIC.  An  epithet  for  what 
relates  to  the  centre  of  the  sun. 

HELIOMETER.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  dian3,efcer  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  This  instrument  is  a  kind  of  tele- 
scope, consisting  of  two  object  glasses  of 
equal  focal  distance,  placed  one  by  the 
side  of  the  otiier,  so  that  the  same  eyeglass 
serves  for  both. 

HELIOTROPE,  or  TrRN'soLE.  A  plant 
which  is  said  always  to  follow  the  course 
of  the  sun. 

HELLEBORE.  A  plant,  the  flower  of 
which  expands  in  the  form  of  a  rose.  The 
seed  is  oblong,  like  a  grain  of  wheat.  It 
is  very  doubtful  whether  the  plant  now  so 
named  be  the  true  hellebore  so  famous  for 
its  poisonous  quality  among  the  ancients. 

HELM  (in  Naval  Architecture).  A  long 
flat  piece  of  timber  suspended  at  the  hind 
part  of  a  ship's  sternpost,  which  serves  to 
direct  the  course  of  the  ship.  It  is  com- 
posed of  three  parts,  namely,  the  rudder, 
which  turns  upon   its  hinges ;  the  tiller, 


190 


HER 


which  serves  to  direct  the  rudder;  and  the 
wheel,  round  which  the  tiller  rope  is  wound 
in  large  vessels. 

HELMET.  A  headpiece,  or  armour  for 
the  head,  which  was  formerly  the  noblest 
piece  of  coat  armour. 

HELMINTHOLOGY.  The  science  of 
worms. 

HELVE.     The  handle  of  an  axe. 

HEM.    The  edge  part  of  cloth. 

HEMIPTERA.  The  second  order  of  in- 
sects in  the  Linnisan  system,  including 
those  which  have  their  upper  wings  semi- 
crustaceous,  as  the  cock-roach,  mantis  or 
walking  leaf,  locust,  cricket,  grasshopper, 
lanthorn-fly,  boat-fly,  water  scorpion, 
aphis  or  plant  louse,  and  the  coccus  or 
cochineal. 

HEMISPHERE.  One  half  of  the  mun- 
dane sphere. 

HEMLOCK ,  A  narcotic  plant,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  cut  into  many  minute  seg- 
ments, like  parsley.  It  is  doubtful  wheth- 
er this  be  the  true  hemlock  of  the  ancients. 

HEMP.  A  fibrous  plant,  of  which  linen 
and  ropes  are  made. 

HEN.  A  female  bird  of  any  species,  par- 
ticularly the  domestic  fowl. 

HENBANE.  A  poisonous  plant  that 
grows  in  hedges. 

HENDECAGON.  A  figure  of  eleven 
Bides. 

HEPTAGON.  A  figure  of  seven  sides 
and  seven  angles. 


HEPTANDRIA.  One  of  the  Linnrean 
classes,  including  those  plants  which  have 
seven  stamens  to  the  flower,  as  the  horse- 
chestnut,  chickweed,  lizard's  tail,  &;e. 


HEPTARCHY.  The  seven  kingdoms 
formed  by  the  Saxons  on  their  first  settle- 
ment in  England.  They  were  all  united 
into  one  kingdom  by  Egbert. 

HERALD      (in  England).    An  officer 


HER 

whose  business  it  is  to  proclaim  war  and 
peace,  to  marshal  processions,  and  regulate 
armorial  ensigns,  &c.  The  heralds  are  six 
in  number,  and  are  distinguished  by  the 
names  of  Richmond,  Lancaster,  Chester, 
Windsor,  Somerset,  and  York.  They  are 
all  equal  in  degree,  and  have  precedence 
only  according  to  the  seniority  of  their 
creation. 

HERALDRY.  An  ancient  art  which 
professed  to  teach  the  true  use  of  arms;  as 
how  to  blazon  or  describe  them  in  proper 
terms,  and  how  to  marshal  or  dispose  the 
difi"erent  arms  in  an  escutcheon  or  shield. 

HERALDRY,  History  of.  Although 
the  science  of  heraldry,  as  far  as  regarda 
the  distinctions  of  families  by  means  of 
coat  armour,  is  comparatively  of  modern 
date,  yet  the  Romans  were  not  without 
their  marks  of  honour,  which,  being  here- 
ditary, served  as  a  proof  of  nobility,  and 
a  title  to  a  certain  rank.  This  was  known 
among  them  by  the  name  of  jus  imaginum, 
which  was  the  right  of  having  the  statues 
or  images  of  their  ancestors;  that  belonged 
to  those  only  who  were  either  of  patrician 
rank  or  had  risen  to  distinction  in  the  state. 
He  who  had  the  privilege  of  using  the 
statues  or  images  of  his  ancestors  was 
termed  'nobilis;'  he  who  could  only  use 
his  own  was  a  '  novushomo,'  or  an  upstart, 
like  one  who  first  procures  a  coat  of  arms; 
and  he  who  had  neither  his  own  statues 
nor  those  of  his  ancestors  was  termed  'ig- 
nobilis.'  These  images  or  statues  were 
made  of  wood,  brass,  marble,  and  some- 
times in  waxwork,  and  were  painted,  ac- 
cording to  the  life,  with  the  several  em- 
blems of  military  honour  which  belonged 
to  the  individual.  Thus  the  collar  or 
chain  on  the  statue  of  Torquatus,  and  the 
tuft  of  hair  on  that  of  Cincinnatus,  were 
the  trophies  of  which  these  brave  warriors 
had  despoiled  their  enemies. 

These  statues  commonly  stood  in  their 
courts  in  a  cabinet  of  wood,  whence  pro- 
bably originated  our  cabinets  of  arms, 
where  the  helmet,  crest,  gauntlet,  spurs, 
banner,  &c.  were  kept;  and  as,  upon  par- 
ticular occasions,  these  cabinets  were  set 
open,  and  the  statues  were  exposed  to 
public  view  before  the  porch  or  gate  of 
their  houses,  so  our  nobility  and  gentry 
have  their  coats  of  arms  cut  in  stone,  and 
painted  in  escutcheons  over  their  gates. 
At  their  funerals  those  statues  were  borne 
before  such  as  had  the  jus  imaginum, 
whence  in  after  times  it  became  the  prac- 
tice, at  the  funerals  of  great  men,  to  carry 
their  ensigns  of  nobility,  and  the  arms  of 
those  from  whom  they  were  descended, 
which,  being  all  painted,  are  placed  under 


HER 

the  name  of  an  achievement  on  the  house 
of  the  person  deceased.  As  a  farther  proof 
that  our  heraldic  distinctions  take  their 
rise  from  the  jus  iraaginum  of  the  Romans, 
it  appears  that  the  law  of  arms  among  the 
Europeans  in  the  middle  ages  was  regu- 
lated by  the  civil  law. 

The  introduction  of  armorial  bearings, 
in  place  of  the  images  and  statues  of  the 
Romans,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  northern 
tribes  who  overran  Europe  on  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  empire.  The  Goths,  Van- 
dals, and  other  such  people,  were  in  the 
practice,  like  their  ancestors  the  Celts  and 
Scythians,  of  painting  on  their  shields  the 
figures  of  animals,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  themselves  formidable,  or  more 
probably  by  way  of  distinction;  and  al- 
though, from  their  martial  character,  their 
ensigns  of  honour  were  at  first  purely  mili- 
tary, yet,  by  being  transmitted  to  their 
posterity,  they  became  badges  of  civil  rank 
and  honour;  ;ind,  in  process  of  time,  other 
circumstances  gave  rise  to  bearings  which 
were  not  purely  military.  Thus,  on  the 
establishment  of  the  feudal  system,  the 
tenants  of  the  king,  or  the  great  lords,  re- 
presented on  their  shields  the  services  they 
owed  to  their  superiors  by  way  of  an  ac- 
knowledgement of  their  fidelity,  whence 
originated  roses,  cinque-foils,  spurrowels, 
bows  and  arrows,  hunting-horns,  ships,&c. 
which  are  to  be  found  so  frequently  in 
coats  of  arms.  So,  in  like  manner,  the 
crusades  gave  rise  to  the  figures  of  the 
cross,  which  is  borne  in  a  diversity  of 
forms;  and  tournaments,  which  were  intro- 
duced by  Henry  the  Fowler  in  the  tenifi 
century,  are  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to 
the  fesse,  pale,  bend,  and  other  ordinaries 
which  represented  the  fillets  or  lists  of 
different  kinds  which  were  worn  by  the 
combatants  and  those  who  attended.  From 
the  practice  and  ceremony  of  the  herald's 
recording  the  n'^mes,  arms,  and  proofs  of 
the  nobility  of  the  knights  at  tournaments, 
the  science  of  heraldry  took  its  name;  and 
as  this  ceremony  was  preceded  by  the  blow- 
ing of  a  horn,  blazon,  which  comes  from 
the  German  '  blason,'  to  blow,  is  now  used 
for  a  scientific  description  of  coats  of  arms. 

HERB  (in  Botany).  That  part  of  the 
vegetable  which  rises  from  the  root,  and 
comprehends  the  stem  and  leaves,  &;c. 

HERBiE,  Herbs;  the  fourth  tribe  into 
which  Linnaeus  divided  the  vegetable 
kingdom. 

HERBAL.  A  book  giving  an  account 
of  the  names,  natures,  and  uses  of  plants. 

HERCULANEUM.  An  ancient  city  of 
Naples,  overwhelmed  by  an  eruption  of 
Mount  Vesuvius  in  the  reign  of  Titus;  it 


HER 


191 


was  discovered  in  the  year  1689,  since 
which  time  many  manuscripts,  paintings, 
statues,  and  other  relics  of  antiquity,  have 
been  discovered  by  digging. 

HERCULES.  A  celebrated  hero  of  an- 
tiquity, the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena, 
who  travelled  as  far  as  the  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar, and  is  said  to  have  erected  two 
pillars,  one  at  Cadiz  in  Spain,  and  the 
other  at  Ceuta  in  Africa.  His  exploits  are 
celebrated  by  the  poets  and  historians  of 
antiquity. 


HEREDITAMENTS  (in  I  aw).  Im- 
moveables,  which  a  man  may  have  to  him 
and  his  heirs. 

HERESY.  An  error  in  some  fundamen- 
tal doctrine  of  the  Christian  faith,  or  a 
private  opinion  different  from  that  of  the 
orthodox  church. 

HERETIC.   One  tainted  with  heresy. 

HERIOT  (in  England.)  The  best  beast 
that  the  tenant  died  possessed  of,  which 
was  due  to  the  lord  of  the  manor. 

HERON.  A  bird  similar  in  form  to  the 
crane  and  stork,  but  much  larger,  being 
seven  feet  in  standmg. 


HERISON.  A  barrier  made  of  beams 
stuck  with  spikes,  to  block  up  a  passage. 

HERMETICAL  SEAL  (among  Chyni- 
ists).  A  method  of  stopping  glass  vessels 
so  closely  that  the  subtlest  spirit  cannot 
escape. 

HERNIA.  Every  kind  of  rupture,  va- 
ried according  to  the  part  affected. 


192 


HIC 


HEROIC  POEM.  A  poem  setting  forth 
the  exploits  of  some  hero. 

HEROIC  VERSE.  Hexameter  verse, 
so  called  because  it  is  used  by  poets  in 
their  heroic  poems. 

HERRING.  A  small  seafish  of  a  green 
colour,  which  inhabits  the  North  seas,  and 
migrates  southerly  in  immense  shoals,  par- 
ticularly in  the  month  of  June.  Their 
progress  is  marked  by  the  number  of  birds 
which  follow  them  to  prey  upon  them. 
Tiiose  which  flock  to  tlie  British  coasts 
are  to  be  found  in  the  greatest  number 
off  Yarmouth,  the  mart  for  herrings. 

HERSE  (in  Fortification).  An  engine 
like  a  harrow,  stuck  full  of  spikes. 

HESPERID^  (in  Botany).  A  natural 
order  of  plants,  including  the  myrtle  tribe. 

HETEROSCII  (in  Geography).  Those 
inhabitants  of  the  e:vrth  which  have  their 
shadows  failing  but  one  way,  as  those  liv- 
ing between  the  tropic  and  polar  circles. 

HEXAEDRON  (in  Geometry).  A  solid 
figure  of  six  equal  sides. 

HEXAGON  (in  Geometry)  A  figure  of 
six  sides  and  six  angles. 


HEXAGYNIA  (in  Botany).  An  order  of 
plants,  which  have  six  styles  in  the  flowers, 

HEXAMETER  (in  Poetry).  A  verse 
consisting  of  six  feet. 

HEXANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linnffian  classes,  comprehending  those 
plants  which  have  six  stamens  in  each 
flower,  as  the  pineapp'e,  bamboo,  spider- 
wort,  lily  of  the  valley,  arrow  grass,  &,c. 


HHD.  An  abbreviation  for  hogshead. 

HIATUS.  A  gap  or  chasm  in  verses; 
also  any  deficiency  in  a  manuscript  which 
destroys  the  connexion. 

HICCOUGH,  or  HICCUP.  A  convul- 
eive  motion  of  the  stomach. 


HIP 

HIDE  (in  Law).  A  portion  of  land, 
from   100  to  120  acres. 

HIDE  (among  Tanners).  The  skins  of 
beasts  after  they  are  taken  off. 

HIDEBOUND  (in  Farriery).  A  disease 
in  horses  and  cattle  when  the  skin  cleaves 
to  the  sides, 

HIDEBOUND  (in  Botany).  A  disease 
in  trees  when  the  bark  cleaves  to  the 
wood. 

HIERARCHY,  Church  government,  or 
the  subordination  of  rank  among  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  clergy. 

HIEROGLYPHICS.  Certain  charac- 
ters, figures,  or  signs,  made  use  of  by  the 
Egyptians  instead  of  letters,  to  express  the 
conceptions  of  men,  particularly  the  mys- 
teries of  their  religion.  In  ageneral  sense, 
an  hieroglyphic  is  any  symbol  or  figure 
which  may  serve  to  represent  an  object; 
thus  the  astronomical  characters  are  many 
of  them  of  this  nature,  as  the  character 
for  Mercury,  $  ,  which  is  the  figure  of  his 
caduceus;  that  of  Mars,  ^  ,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  represtint  his  shield  and  spear; 
that  of  Saturn,  1^  ,  which  represents  his 
sickle,  &c, 

HIGHNESS.  In  Europe,  a  title  of  hon- 
our given  to  a  prince. 

HIlJH-WATER.  When  the  tide  is  at 
its  highest  point, 

HIGHWAY  (in  Law).  A  public  or  free 
passage  for  the  people. 

HIGHWAYMEN.  Robbers  on  the  high- 
ways. 

HiGLER.  In  England  one  who  buys 
poultry  in  the  country,  and  carries  them 
up  to  town. 

HIND.     The  female  of  the  stag. 

HINGE.  The  iron  work  on  which  a 
door  is  made  to  turn. 

HIP.  The  upper  part  of  the  thigh. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS,  or  The  River 
Horse.  An  amphibious  creature  found  in 
the  rivers  of  Africa. 


HIP-ROOF  (in  Architecture).  A  parti- 
cular kind  of  roof,  which  has  neither  gable 
heads,  shred  heads,  nor  jerkin  heads. 

HIPS  (in  Botany).  The  ripe  fruit  of 
the  dog-rose,  which  is  principally  made 
into  a  sweetmeat. 


HOM 

HISTORY.  In  its  most  general  sense, 
an:  account  or  description  of  events  and 
things  in  an  orderly  series,  compreliendiug 
Civil  or  Political  History,  Sacred  History, 
Ecclesiastical  History,  and  Natural  Histo- 
ry; in  a  particular  sense,  a  narrative  of 
political  events  in  the  order  of  time. 

HISTORY  (in  Painting).  Ji  picture 
composed  of  diverse  figures  or  persons, 
representing  some  transaction, 

HITCH  (among  Mariners).  A  sort  of 
knot  or  noose  for  fastening  a  rope  to  any 
thing. 

HIVE.  A  basket  or  box,  which  serves 
as  a  receptacle  for  bees. 

H.  M.  S.  In  England,  an  abbreviation 
for  His  Majesty's  Ship. 

HOBSON'S  CHOICE.  A  by-word,  sig- 
nifying that  or  none,  taken  from  one  Ilob- 
son,  a  livery-stable  keeper  at  Cambridge 
England,  who  obliged  his  customers  eith- 
er to  take  the  horse  that  stood  next  the 
stable  door,  or  to  go  without, 
HODMAN.  A  bricklayer's  labourer. 
HOB,  A  husbandman's  tool  for  cutting 
up  weeds, 

HOEING  (in  Husbandry),  The  process 
of  clearing  the  weeds   with  a  hoe,  and 
breaking  up  the  earth  on  planted  ground, 
HOG,  A  domestic  quadruped,  very  vo- 
racious and  very  prolific. 

HOGSHEAD  (in  Commerce).  A  mea- 
sure of  capacity,  containing  63  gallons. 

HOLD.  The  whole  interior  cavity  or 
belly  of  the  ship,  where,  in  merchantmen, 
the  goods  are  commonly  stowed. 

HOLDFAST.  An  iron  hook  for  fixing 
any  thing  to  a  wall. 

HOLERACE/E.  One  of  LinntEus's  na- 
tural orders  of  plants,  including  shrubs 
and  perennials,  as  rhubarb,  &c. 

HOLLOW  (in  Architecture).  A  con- 
cave moulding. 

HOLLY.  A  prickly  shrub,  which  forms 
an  impenetrable  hedge.  The  variegated 
hollies  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  ; 
some  bear  yellow  berries,  and  others  white. 
HOLM-OAK.  The  evergreen  oak. 
HOLY  GHOST.  The  third  person  of 
the  Holy  Trinity. 

HOMAGE.  In  England,  the  oath  of  sub- 
mission and  loyalty,  which  the  tenant, 
under  the  feudal  system,  used  to  take  to 
his  lord  when  first  admitted  to  his  land. 

HOME.  A  sea  phrase  for  the  situation 
which  belongs  properly  to  the  tackling  or 
parts  of  the  vessel,  as  the  anchor  comes 
home  when  it  is  drawn  out  of  the  ground. 
HOMICIDE  (in  Law).  The  causing  the 
death  of  a  human  creature,  which  is  justi- 
fiable, if  justified  by  unavoidable  necessity; 
17 


HON 


193 


excusable  if  it  happens  by  misadventure  ; 
and  felonious  if  done  without  excuse. 

HOMILY.  A  plain  discoui-se  made  to 
the  people,  instructing  them  in  matters  of 
religion. 

HOxMOGENEAL  (in  Physiology).  Of 
the  same  nature  and  properties  as  homo- 
geneal  particles. 

HONE.  A  fine  kind  of  whetstone  used 
for  setting  razors. 

HONEY,  A  thick,  viscid  fluid  substance, 
collected  by  the  bees  from  vegetables  and 
flowers.  It  is  distinguished  into  three 
kinds,  namely,  first,  the  virgin  honey, 
which  is  the  first  produce  of  the  swarm, 
obtained  by  draining  from  the  combs 
without  pressing;  the  second  sort  is  thicker 
than  the  first,  and  is  procured  by  pressure  ; 
the  third  is  the  vvorst  sort, which  is  extracted 
by  heating  the  combs  over  the  fire,  and 
then  pressing  them.  In  the  flowers  of  plants, 
near  the  basis  of  the  petals,  are  certain 
glands  containing  a  sweet  juice,  which  the 
bees  suck  up  by  means  of  their  proboscis 
or  trunk,  and,  flying  with  it  to  their  hives, 
discharge  it  again  from  the  stomach  through 
the  mouth  into  some  of  the  cells  of  the 
comb.  This  lioney  is  destined  for  the  food 
of  the  young,  but,  in  hard  seasons,  the  bees 
are  sometimes  reduced  to  the  necessity  of 
feeding  on  it  themselves,  and  die  of  hunger 
after  they  have  eaten  it  all  up.  In  France, 
a  good  sv\'arm  of  bees  will  yield,  in  two 
years,  nearly  thirty  pounds  of  honey  ;  but 
honey  is  most  abundant  in  the  islands  of 
the  Archipelago,  and  other  countries  which 
abound  with  flowers  throughout  the  year. 
From  honey  i£  made  the  strong  liquor 
called  mead. 

HONEY-BAG.  The  stomach  of  the  bee, 
which  is  the  reservoir  of  the  honey. 

HONEY-COMB  (in  Husbandry).  The 
repository  which  the  bees  make  in  the  hive 
for  saving  their  honey  in. 

HONEY-COMB  (in  Gunnery).  A  flaw 
in  the  metal  of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  when 
it  is  badly  cast. 

HONEY-DEW.  A  sort  of  mildew  of  a 
sweet  taste,  found  early  in  the  morning  on 
plants,  flowers,  &c. 

HONEY-FLOWER  (in  Botany).  A 
plant  having  the  appearance  of  a  shrub, 
and  bearing  spikes  of  chocolate-coloured 
flowers  in  May,  in  each  of  which  a  quan- 
tity of  black  sweet  liquor  is  found. 

HONEY-SUCKLE  (in  Botany).  A  shrub 
with  a  climbing  stalk,  the  flowers  of  which 
form  a  tube  in  the  shape  of  a  huntsman's 
horn.  They  are  produced  in  clusters,  and 
are  very  sweet. 
HONI  SOIT  aUI  MAL    Y    PENSE. 


194 


HOP 


In  England,  the  motto  of  the  order  of  the 
Garter,  signifying,  Evil  be  to  him  that 
evil  thinks. 

HONOUR.  In  England,  the  most  noble 
part  of  seignories. 

HONOUR  (in  Military  Affairs).  External 
marks  of  honour  paid  to  superior  officers. 

HONOUR  COURTS.  In  England,  courts 
held  within  the  bounds  of  an  honour. 

HONOUR,  Maids  of  (in  Court  Eti- 
quette). In  England,  ladies  in  the  queen's 
household,  who  attend  the  queen  when 
she  goes  out. 

HONOURS  OF  WAR.  HoBOurabJe 
terms  granted  to  a  vanquished  enemy, 
when  he  Is  permitted  to  march  out  of  a 
town  v/ith  all  the  iiisignia  of  military 
etiquette. 

IIOOD.  An  upper  covering  for  the  head 
of  a  woman. 

HOOD  (at  the  University).  In  England, 
an  ornamental  fold  that  hangs  down  the 
back  of  a  graduate,  to  mark  his  degree. 

HOOF.  The  horny  part  of  the  foot  of  a 
horse  or  other  cattle. 

HOOK.  A  bended  iron  to  hang  things 
upon  ;  also  a  bent  piece  of  iron  or  wire 
attached  to  a  fishing-rod  for  catching  fish. 

HOOP,  or  HOOPOE.  A  bird  inhabit- 
ing Europe,  Asia,  and  Afric^ij  wMch  is 
solitary  and  migratoiy. 


HOP.  A  plant  with  a  creeping  root, 
the  stalks  of  which  climb  and  twist  about 
whatever  is  near  them  ;  wherefore,  in  hop 
grounds,  poles  are  fixed  near  to  the  plant 
for  them  to  rise  upon.  Hops  are  said  to 
liave  been  introduced  into  England  from 
the  Netherlands  iii  the  sixteenth  century : 
they  are  principally  used  to  boil  up  with 
beer,  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  turning 
sour,  and  to  give  it  a  strengthening  quality. 
Hops  require  to  be  planted  in  open  situa- 
tions, and  in  a  rich  strong  ground.  The 
two  best  sorts  are  the  wliite  and  the  gray 
bind.  These  should  be  planted  in  hills 
about  eiglit  or  nine  feet  asunder.  About 
the  beginning  of  July  hops  begin  to  blow, 


HOR 

and  are  ready  to  gather  about  the  latter 
end  of  August  J  when,  by  their  strong  scent, 
their  hardness,  and  the  brown  colour  of  the 
seed,  they  may  be  known  to  be  fit.  The 
best  method  of  drying  hops  is  on  a  kiln 
over  a  charcoal  fire  ;  when  the  stalks  are 
brittle,  and  the  top  leaves  easily  fall  off, 
they  are  properly  dried.  When  taken  from 
the  kiln,  tliey  should  be  laid  to  cool  for 
three  weeks  or  a  month  before  they  are 
bagged. 

HORIZON  (in  Astronomy).  A  great 
circle  of  the  sphere,  which  divides  it  into 
upper  and  lower  hemispheres.  The  appa- 
rent or  sensible  horizon  is  that  circle  of 
the  heavens  which  bounds  the  view  of  the 
observer,  in  distinction  from  the  rational 
or  real  horizon,  which  is  a  circle  encom- 
passing the  earth  exactly  in  the  middle. 
It  is  represented  in  the  globes  by  the 
wooden  frame  which  contains  the  globe. 

HORN  (in  Natural  History).  The  hard, 
pointed  bodies  which  grow  on  the  heads 
of  some  granivorous  animals,  and  serve 
either  for  defence  or  ornament ;  also  the 
slender  bodies  on  the  heads  of  insects,  &c. 

HORN  (in  Chymistry).  Is  mostly  com- 
posed of  albumen,  gelatin,  and  phosphate 
of  lime,  but  the  horns  of  the  buck  and 
stag  are  of  an  intermediate  nature  between 
horn  and  bone. 

HORN  (in  Music).  A  wind  instrument, 
chiefly  used  in  hunting  and  in  the  chase. 

HORNBEAM.  A  tree  that  has  leaves 
like  the  elm  or  beech  tree  ;  it  was  formerly 
used  in  hedgerows.  The  timber  is  very 
tough  and  inflexible. 

HORNBLENDE  (in  Mineralogy).  A 
sort  of  slaty  stoae,  of  a  green  and  blackish 
green  colour.  It  is  a,  very  abundant  min- 
eral. 

HORN-BOOK.  The  first  book  for  chil- 
dren, containing  the  alphabet,  which  was 
formerly  covered  with  transparent  horn. 

HORNET.  A  large,  strong,  and  stinging 
insect,  of  the  wasp  kind. 

HORN-ORE  (in  Mineralogy).  One  of 
the  species  of  silver  ore. 

HORNPIPE.  An  animated  sort  of 
dance. 

HORN-STONE.  A  species  of  flint. 

HORNWORK  (in  Fortification).  An 
outwork  which  advances  towards  the  field. 

HOROLOGY.  The  science  which  treats 
on  the  measuring  of  portions  of  time.  The 
principal  instruments  used  in  the  measur- 
ing of  time  are  dials,  clepsydree  or  water- 
clocks,  clocks,  watches,  and  in  some  cases 
also  hour-glasses. 

The  dial  was  doubtless  one  of  the  first 
instruments  contrived  for  the  measuringof 
time  by  means  of  the  sun.    The  first  on 


HOR 

record  is  the  dial  of  Ahaz  mentioned  in 
Isaiah.  TJiis  king  began  to  reign  400 
years  before  Alexander,  and  within  12 
years  of  the  building  of  Rome.  The  Chal- 
dee  historian  Berosus  is  said  to  have  con- 
structed a  dial  on  a  reclining  plane  almost 
parallel  to  the  equator.  Aristarchus  the 
Samean,  Thales,  and  others  are  also  men- 
tioned as  the  makers  of  dials.  The  first 
sun-dial  at  Rome  was  set  up  by  Papirius 
Cursor  in  the  460th  year  of  tlie  building 
of  the  city.  The  subject  of  dialling,  or  of 
making  dials,  has  particularly  occupied 
the  attention  of  matheuiaticia«s  Vvithin 
the  last  three  centuries.  Clavius  is  tlie  first 
professed  writer  on  the  subject.  Descliales 
and  Ozanam  in  their  Courses,  and  WoUius 
in  his  Elements,havesimplified  the  science. 
M.  Picard  gave  a  new  metliod  of  making 
large  dials  by  calculating  the  hour  lines, 
and  De  la  Hire,  in  his  Dialling,  gave  a 
geometrical  method  of  drawing  hour  lines 
from  certain  points  determined  by  obser- 
vation. The  method  of  drawing  primary 
dials  on  easy  principles  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Dialling  of  Everhard  Walper,  and  the 
Rudimenta  Mathematica  of  Sebastian  jMuu- 
ster.  Among  the  more  modern  treatises  on 
this  subject  may  be  reckoned  that  of  Wells 
in  his  Art  of  Shadows,  Ferguson  in  his 
Lectures  on  Mechanics,  Emerson  in  his 
Dialling,  Leadbetter  in  his  Mechanic  Dial- 
ling, Mr.  W.  Jones  in  his  Instrumental 
Dialling,  and  Bishop  Horsley  in  his  Mathe- 
matical Tracts. 

Scipio  Nasica  Was  the  lirst  who  con- 
structed the  clepsydra,  although  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  invented  by  the  Egyp- 
tians under  the  Ptolemies  about  150  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  They  serve  for 
measuring  time  in  the  winter,  as  tlie  sun- 
dials do  in  the  summer ;  but  they  had  two 
great  defects  :  the  one,  that  the  water  ran 
out  with  greater  or  less  facility,  as  the  air 
was  more  or  less  dense  ;  and  the  other, 
that  the  water  ran  more  readily  at  the 
beginning  than  towards  the  conclusion. 
The  Egyptians,  by  this  machine,  measured 
the  course  of  the  sun  ;  and  Tycho  Brahe, 
in  modern  times,  made  use  of  it  to  mea- 
sure the  motion  of  the  stars,  &:c.  Dudley 
also  used  the  same  contrivance  in  making 
all  his  maritime  observations. 

The  invention  of  clocks  has  been  ascribed 
to  different  authors  ;  namely,  to  Boetius  in 
the  sixth  century,  to  Paciticus,  Archdeacon 
of  Verona,  and  to  Silvester  in  the  tentli 
century. 

HOROMETRY.  The  art  of  measuring 
hours. 

HOROPTER  (in  Optics).  A  right  line 
drawn  through  the  point  where  the  two 


HOR 


195 


optic  axes  meet,  jjarallel  to  that  which 
joins  the  two  pupils, 

HOROSCOPE  (in  the  exploded  Science 
of  Astrology)  The  degree  or  point  of  the 
horizon  rising  above  tlie  eastern  point  of 
the  horizon  at  any  given  time,  when  a 
prediction  was  to  be  made  of  a  future 
event ;  also  a  scheme  or  figure  of  the 
twelve  houses. 

HORSE.  A  domestic  animal,  that  excels 
all  others  in  beauty  and  usefulness.  The 
most  esteemed  breeds  of  horses  are,  the 
Barbary  or  Arabian  horses,  remarkable 
for  their  fleetness  ;  the  English  racehorse 
and  hunter,  ^vhich  combines  beauty  with 
swiftne3s;  and  the  English  draught-horses, 
which  are  distinguished  for  their  size  and 
strength,  &c.  There  is  no  creature  so 
valuable  as  the  horse,  and  none  that  often- 
times fares  worse.  The  age  of  a  horse 
under  eight  years  old  is  mostly  to  be  known 
by  his  teeth.  The  horse  has  twenty-four 
grinders  ;  four  tushes,  or  single  teeth  ;  and 
twelve  front  teeth,  or  gatherers.  Mares  in 
general  have  no  tushes.  The  black  mark 
or  cavities  denoting  the  age,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  corner  front  teeth,  adjoining 
the  tushes.  At  four  years  and  a  half  old, 
the  mark  teeth  are  just  visible  above  the 
gum,  and  the  cavity  is  distinctly  to  be  seen. 
At  five,  the  remaining  colt's  teeth  are  shed, 
and  the  tushes  appear.  At  six,  the  tushes 
are  up,  and  appear  white,  small,  and  sharp, 
with  a  small  circle  of  flesh  growing  near 
themj  the  horse's  mouth  is  then  completed, 
the  corner  teeth  being  filled  up.  At  eight, 
the  black  marks  disappear. 


HORSE  (in  Military  AfTairs).  A  body 
of  horsemen. 

HORSE  (among  Carpenters).  A  frame 
or  trestle  on  which  boards  or  planks  are 
laid  to  be  cut  and  otherwise  worked. 

HORSE  (among  Printers).  A  stage  on 
which  pressmen  set  their  heaps  of  paper 
for  printing, 

HORSE,    A  sea  term  for  a  rope  made 


196 


HOR 


fast  to  one  of  the  shrouds,  having  a  dead 
man's  eye  at  the  end. 

HORSE-BEAN.  A  small  bean  usually 
given  to  horses. 

HORSE-BREAKER.  One  who  breaks 
in  young  horses,  and  fits  them  for  use. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT.  A  tree,  which 
yields  a  prickly  nut. 

HORSEDE  ALER.  One  who  buys  horses 
to  sell  them  again. 

HORSE-DOCTOR.  One  who  undertakes 
to  cure  the  diseases  of  horses. 

HORSE-LEECH..  A  large  sort  of  leech 
that  fastens  on  horses. 

HORSEMAN.  One  skilled  in  riding. 

HORSEMANSHIP.  The  art  of  riding 
and  managing  horses. 

HORSERACE.  A  match  of  horses  in 
running. 

HORSESHOE  (in  Smithery).  A  circu- 
lar piece  of  iron  fitted  to  the  foot  of  a  horse. 
This  shoe  is  sometimes  turned  up  in  the 
winter  season,  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
slip)ping :  this  is  called  rough-shoeing.  As 
an  improvement  upon  this  sort  of  shoeing, 
the  clips  have  been  made  removeable  at 
pleasure  by  means  of  a  screw. 


HORSESHOE  (in  Fortification).  A 
work,  sometimes  of  an  oval  figure,  raised 
in  marshy  grounds. 

HORSESHOEING.  The  fitting  and 
nailing  a  shoe  to  a  horse's  foot. 

HORTICULTURE,  The  art  of  culti- 
vating a  garden,  and  rearing  the  finest 
kinds  of  plants.. 

HORTUS  SICCUS.  Literally,  a  dry 
garden ;  an  appellation  given  to  a  collection 
of  specimens  of  plants  carefully  dried  and 
preserved.  Various  methods  have  been 
adopted  by  botanists  for  obtaining  a  hortus 
siccus  5  but  that  of  pressing  the  plants,  that 
are  to  be  dried,  in  a  box  of  sand  or  with 
a  hot  smoothing  iron,  has  been  recom- 
mended. If  pressure  be  employed,  that  is 
best  effected  by  means  of  a  botanical  press 
made  for  the  purpose,  in  which  the  plants 
are  put,  with  sheets  of  dry  paper  between. 
At  first  they  ought  to  be  pressed  gently, 
and  occasionally  taken  out  in  order  to  see 
that  none  of  the  leaves  are  rumpled  or 
folded.  As  they  continue  to  dry,  the  pres- 
sure may  be  increased.  When  they  are 
sufficiently  dried,  they  may  be  taken  out 


HOU 

and  laid  on  dry  paper.  Plants  that  are 
succulent  require  a  longer  and  harder  pres- 
sure, but  for  the  most  part  three  days' 
pressure  is  sufficient. 

HOS  ANNA.  A  solemn  acclamation  used 
by  the  Jews  in  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

HOSE  (among  Mariners).  A  leathern 
tube  for  conveying  water  from  the  main 
decks  into  the  casks. 

HOSIERY.  Stockings,  and  other  goods 
in  a  shop  that  are  spun  or  wove. 

HOSPITAL.  A  house,  erected  out  of 
charity,  for  the  support  and  relief  of  the 
sick  and  poor. 

HOSPITALLERS.  An  order  of  knights 
who  built  an  hospital  at  Jerusalem  for  the 
entertainment  of  pilgrims. 

HOST.  The  consecrated  wafers  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  communion. 

HOSTAGE.  A  person  left  as  a  surety  for 
the  performance  of  the  articles  of  a  treaty 

HOTBED.  A  bed  made  in  a  wooden 
frame  with  horse-dung,  and  covered  with 
glasses,  for  raising  early  plants. 

HOTCH-POT.  Properly,  flesh  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  stewed  with  herbs  and 
roots;  in  Law,  in  England,  the  putting 
lands  together,  that  belong  to  coparceners, 
for  the  purpose  of  distributing  them  equally. 

HOTHOUSE.  A  building,  constructed 
in  a  garden,  for  the  rearing  of  exotics  and 
tender  plants  that  require  heat, 

HOUND.  A  kind  of  sporting  dog.  having 
pendulous  ears,  and  very  strong  scent. 


HOUND'S  TONGUE.  A  plant  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  bearing  a  pink  flower. 

HOUR.  The  twenty-fourth  part  of  a 
natural  day;  the  space  of  sixty  minutes. 

HOUR-GLASS.  A  glass  for  measuring 
the  hours  by  the  running  of  the  sand  from 
one  part  of  the  vessel  to  another. 

HOUSE.  A  building,  constructed  with 
all  conveniences  for  habitation. 

HOUSE  (among  Genealogists).  A  noble 
family,  or  an  illustrious  race  descended 
from  the  same  stock. 

HOUSE  (in  Astrology).  The  twelfth 
part  of  the  heavens. 

HOUSEHOLD.  The  whole  of  a  family. 


HUR 

including  the  mistress,  children,  and  ser- 
vants. To  his  majesty's  household  in 
England,  belong  several  officers,  as  the  lord 
steward,  the  lord  chamberlain,  &c. 

HOUSEHOLDER.  An  occupier  or 
master  of  a  house. 

HOUSELEEK.  A  plant  with  a  perennial 
root,  that  grows  on  the  roofs  of  houses  or 
the  tops  of  walls. 

HOWITZER.  A  kind  of  mortar,  mount- 
ed upon  a  carriage  like  a  gun. 

HOY.  A  small  vessel  for  carrj'ing  pas- 
sengers from  one  place  to  another. 

HUE  AND  CRY  (in  Law).  The  com- 
mon law  process  of  pursuing  a  felon. 

HUGUENOTS.  The  Protestants  of 
France,  so  called  by  way  of  contempt  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

HULK.  Any  old  vessel.-  that  is  laid  by, 
unfit  for  further  service. 

HULKS.  Old  vessels,  stationed  in  the 
river  Thames,  in  England,  wherein  con- 
victs are  kept  to  hard  labour. 

HULL.  The  main  body  of  a  ship. 

HUMMING-BIRD-  The  smallest  of  all 
birds,  which  extracts  the  nectar  from  the 
flowers  with  a  humming  noise  like  tliat  of 
a  bee. 


HYD 


197 


HUMOURS  OF  THE  EYE.  Are  three ; 
namely,  the  aqueous  or  wateiy  humour, 
which  lies  in  the  fore  part  of  the  globe ; 
the  crystalline,  or  icy,  next  to  the  aqueous  ; 
and  the  vitreous  or  glassy  humour,  which 
is  larger  than  the  rest,  and  fills  the  back- 
ward cavity  of  the  eye. 

HUNDRED.  A  number  consisting  of 
ten  multiplied  by  ten. 

HUNDRED  (in  Law).  A  part  of  a  shire 
or  county,  which  formerly  consisted  often 
tithings,  or  ten  times  ten  households. 

HUNDRED-WEIGHT.  A  measure  of 
weight,  equal  to  112  lbs.  5  commonly  de- 
noted by  the  abbreviation  cict. 

HURDLES.  Frames  of  split  wood  or 
willows  wattled  together,  serving  for 
sheepfolds  or  fences. 

HURDLES  (in  Fortification).  Frames 
of  osier  twigs  laden  with  earth,  for  making 
batteries. 

!  HURRICANE.  A  storm  of  wind,  fre- 
quent in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  which 
arises  from  the  conflict  of  opposite  winds. 


HUSBANDRY.  The  practical  part  of 
agriculture. 

HUSH-MONEY  (in  Law).  A  bribe 
given  to  a  person  not  to  reveal  something 
to  which  he  is  privy. 

HUSSARS.  Hungarian  horsemen,  said 
to  be  so  called  from  the  huzza  or  shout 
which  they  gave  at  the  onset  in  battle. 

HYACINTH  (in  Botany).  A  bulbous 
plant,  the  leaves  of  which  are  long  and  nar- 
row, the  stalk  upright  and  naked,  and  the 
flower  growing  on  the  upper  part  of  a  spike. 

HYACINTH  (in  Mineralogy).  A  sort 
of  pellucid  gem  of  a  red  colour  with  a 
mixture  of  yellow. 

HYADES.  A  cluster  of  five  stars  in  tlie 
face  of  the  constellation  Taurus. 

HY/ENA.  A  ferocious  beast,  nearly  al- 
lied to  the  wolf  and  dog.  It  infests  burying 
grounds,  and  seizes  whatever  comes  in  its 
way. 

HYBRID.  An  epithet  for  any  animal 
whose  sire  is  of  one  kind,  and  dam  of 
another  kind. 

HYDATID.  An  animal  substance,  in 
shape  like  a  bladder,  and  distended  with 
an  aqueous  fluid,  which  grows  in  the  vis- 
cera of  the  human  body. 

HYDRA.  A  fabulous  monster  with  many 
heads,  that  is  said  to  have  infested  the  lake 
Leonoea. 

HYDRA  (in  Asttonomy).  A  southern 
constellation. 

HYDRANGEA.  A  greenhouse  plant, 
bearing  a  flower  with  a  large  head. 

HYDRATE  (in  Modern  Chymistry). 
The  combination  of  water  with  other 
bodies  in  a  solid  state,  as  slacked  lime, 
which,  being  a  combination  of  lime  and 
water,  is  a  hydrate  of  lime. 

HYDRAULICON,  or  Water-Orgait  (in 
Music).  An  instrument  acted  upon  by  wa- 
ter. 

HYDRAULICS.  That  part  of  statics 
which  treats  of  the  motions  of  fluids,  par- 
ticularly of  water  issuing  from  orifices  in 
reservoirs,  or  moving  pipes,  tubes,  canals, 
rivers,  &c.  Among  the  machines  which 
serve  for  the  display  of  the  phenomena  of 
hydraulics,  are  the  syphon,  the  pump,  and 
the  fire-engine.  Among  the  moderns,  the 
terms  Hydraulics  and  Hydrodynamics  are 
employed  indifferently  to  denote  this  sci- 
ence.    See  HyDRODTNAMics. 

HYDRODYNAMICS.  Is  properly  that 
science  which  treats  of  the  power  or  force 
of  water,  whether  it  acts  by  impulse  or 
pressure  ;  but  in  an  extended  sense,  it  is 
that  branch  of  mechanics  which  treats  of 
the  motion  of  liquids  or  nonelastic  fluids, 
and  the  forces  with  which  they  act  on 
other  bodies. 


198 


HYD 


HYDRODYNAMICS,  History  of.  Al- 
though the  doctrine  of  fluids  and  their 
motion  is  but  partially  treated  by  the  an- 
cients, yet,  as  respects  the  action  of  water 
in  rivers,  fountains,  and  aqueducts,  it  is 
certain  that  they  must  have  had  a  consi- 
derable portion  of  practical  knowledge. 
Aristotle  treats  on  the  nature  of  subterra- 
neous waters,  as  also  of  those  which  are 
above.  Hero  of  Alexandria  made  an  arti- 
ficial fountain,  which  bears  his  name.  The 
Romans  displayed  their  acquaintance  with 
the  art  of  carrying  waters,  in  their  famous 
aqueducts;  and  Frontinus,  an  engineer, 
who  wrote  on  this  subject,  has  given  some 
few  rules  and  hints  on  the  motion  of  fluids. 
It  is,  however,  only  within  the  three  last 
centuries,  that  this  subject  has  attracted 
any  particular  notice.  Benedict  Castelli 
was  the  first  who,  in  his  treatise  Dell' 
Amesura  dell' Acque  Current!, investigated 
the  measure  of  the  flux  of  waters,  which 
lie  found  to  depend  upon  the  area  of  the 
section  and  the  velocity  of  the  water  con- 
jointly .  Since  his  time,  many  discoveries 
and  theorems  have  been  made  on  the  mo- 
tions of  fluids  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  his 
Principia;  Daniel  Bernouilli,  in  his  Hy- 
drodynamique ;  D'  Alembert,  in  his.  Traite 
des  Flu  ides  5  M.  Bossut,  in  his  Hydrody- 
namique;  M.  Buat,  in  his  Principes  d?Hy,- 
draulique;  and  M,  Ey  telwein,  in  his  Hand- 
buch  der  Mechanik  und  der  Hydraulik. 

HYDROGEN  GAS.  A  constituent  of 
water  and  the  lightest  species  of  ponder- 
able matter  hitherto  known,  which  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  Cavendish  in  1766.  It 
is  an  inflammable  air,  or  an  invisible  aeri- 
form fluid,  which  burns  rapidly  when  kin- 
dled, in  contact  with  atmospheric  air,  and 
forms  what  are  now  termed  gas-lights. 
When  combined  with  oxygen,  it  produces 
water.  It  is  unfit  for  respiration,  so  that 
animals,  when  obliged  to  breathe  it,  die 
almost  immediately. 

HYDROGRAPHY.  A  description  of 
rivers,  bays,  lakes,,  and  other  pieces  of 
water.  I 

HYDROLOGY.  That  part  of  natural 
history  which  treats  of  and  explains  the 
nature  and  properties  of  waters  in  general. 
HYDROMETER..  An-  instrument-  for 
measuring  the  density  and  gravity,  &c.  of 
water  and  other  liquids.  That  which  is 
designed  simply  for  ascertaining  the  specif- 
ic gravity  of  different  waters  ismore  conir 
monly  called  an  aerometer  or  watcrpoise, 
the  term  hydrometer  being  more  commonly 
used  to  denote  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  specific  gravity  of  spirits,  though  some- 
times used  indifferently  for  either.  Dr. 
Desaguliers  contrived  an  hydrometer  for 


HYD 

determining  the  specific  gravities  of  differ- 
ent waters  to  such  a  nicety,  that  it  would 
show  when  one  kind  of  water  was  but  the 
40,000th  part  heavier  than  another. 

HYDROMETRY.  The  mensuration  of 
fluids,  as  to  their  density,  gravity,  &c. 

HYDROPHOBIA,  i.  e.  A  Dread  of 
Ys^ATER.  A  distemper  arising  from  the  bite 
of  a  mad  dog,  which  is  always  accompanied 
with  a  horror  of  water  and  other  liquids, 

HYDROSCOPE.  An  instrument  an- 
ciently used  for  the  measuring  of  time. 

HYDROSTATICAL  BALANCE.  A 
kind  of  balance  contrived  for  the  finding 
the  specific  gravities  of  bodies  solid  as 
well  as  fluid. 


HYDROSTATICAL  BELLOWS.  A 
machine  for  showing  the  upward  pressure 
of  fluids,  and  the  hydrostatical  paradox. 


HYDROSTATICAL  PARADOX.  A 
principle  in  hydrostatics,  so  called  because 
it  has  a  paradoxical  appearance  at  first 
view;  it  is  this,  that  any  quantity  of  water 
or  other  fluid,  how  small  soever,  may  be 
made  to  balance  and  support  any  quantity 
or  any  weight,  however  great  it  may  be. 

HYDROSTATICS.  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  laws  regulating  the  motions, 
pressure,  gravitation,  and  equilibrium  of 
fluid  bodies,  particularly  water,  and  also 


lAM 

of  solid  bodies  immerged  therein.  This 
science  is  divided  into  three  branches, 
namely,  hydrostatics,  properly  so  called, 
which  treats  of  fluids  in  an  equilibrium, 
their  density,  gravity,  &c.;  hydraulics, 
which  treats  of  fluids  in  a  state  of  motion; 
and  pneumatics,  which  treats  of  elastic 
fluids.  These  two  last  branches  will  be 
found  explained  in  their  respective  places. 
The  first  branch  of  hj^drostatics  engaged 
the  attention  of  Archimedes,  who  appears 
to  have  first  attempted  to  determine  the 
specific  gravity  of  bodies,  in  consequence 
of  the  following  circumstance.  Hiero, 
king  of  Syracuse,  having  reason  to  suspect 
that  a  goldsmith,  whom  he  employed  to 
make  him  a  crown  ofgold,  had  adulterated 
it  with  a  quantity  of  silver,  he  requested 
Archimedes  to  detect  the  cheat.  Accord- 
ingly this  philosopher  procured  two  masses 
of  gold  and  silver  of  equal  weight  with 
the  crown,  which  he  immersed  in  a  vessel 
full  of  water,  at  the  same  time  carefully 
noticing  the  quantity  of  water  which  each 
displaced;  after  which  he  immersed  the 
crown  of  gold  also  in  the  same  vessel,  and, 
by  comparing  the  quantity  of  water  which 
flowed  over  each  time,  he  was  enabled  to 
ascertain  the  proportions  ofgold  and  silver 
in  the  crown.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
led  to  this  idea  by  observing  on  one  occa- 
sion, whilst  he  was  bathing,  that  as  he 
immerged  his  body,  the  water  ran  over 
the  bath,  whence  he  concluded  that  the 
water  which  ran  out  when  his  whole  body 
was  immerged  was  equal  in  bulk  to  his 
body;  and  on  the  same  principle  he  con- 
sidered that  if  the  crown  were  altogether 
of  gold,  the  ball  of  gold,  being  of  the 
same  bulk  as  the  crown,  would,  when 
immersed,  raise  the  water  just  as  high  as 
the  crown  immersed,  but  if  it  were  wholly 
of  silver,  the  ball  of  silver  being  immersed 
would  raise  the  water  no  higher  than  the 
crown  immersed;  and  if  the  crown  was  of 
gold  and  silver  mixed  in  a  certain  propor- 
tion, this  proportion  would  be  discovered 


ICH 


199 


by  the  height  to  which  the  crown  would 
raise  the  water  higher  than  the  gold  and 
lower  than  the  silver.  The  authors  who 
have  treated  further  on  this  subject  may  be 
found  under  the  article  Hydrodynamics. 

HYGROMETER.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  degree  of  moisture  and  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere. 

HYMEiV.     The  god  of  marriage. 

HYMENOPTERA.  An  order  of  insects 
in  the  Linntean  system,  having  membra- 
naceous wings,  as  the  gall-fly,  the  saw-fly, 
the  bee,  the  wasp,  the  ichneumon,  &.c. 

HYPERBOLA.  One  of  the  curves 
formed  by  cutting  a  cone  obliquely  to  its 
axis;  and  if  the  plane  be  produced  so  as 
to  cut  the  opposite  cone,  another  hyper- 
bola will  be  formed,  which  is  called  the 
opposite  hyperbola  to  the  former. 


HYPERBOLE.  An  exaggerated  repre- 
sentation of  any  thing. 

HYPOCHONDRIAC.  One  troubled 
with  the  spleen  or  melancholy. 

HYPOTHENUSE.  The  longest  side  of 
a  right-angled  triangle. 

HYPOTHESIS.  A  principle  taken  for 
granted,  in  order  to  draw  conclusions 
therefrom  for  the  proof  of  a  point  in 
question. 

HYSSOP.  A  plant  with  long  narrow 
leaves,  bearing  a  crest  of  flowers.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  this  be  the  hyssop  men- 
tioned in  Scriiiture. 

HYSTERICS.  Spasmodic,  convulsive 
affections  of  the  nerves,  to  which  women 
are  particularly  subject. 


I,  the  ninth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  used  as 
a  numeral  signifies  one,  and  stands  for 
any  numbers  of  units  as  often  as  it  is  re- 
peated, as  II,  two,  III,  three,  &c.  When 
placed  before  a  higher  numeral,  it  dimi- 
nishes it  by  one,  as  IV,  four,  IX,  nine; 
and  when  after,  it  increases  it  by  one,  as 
XI,  eleven,  XII,  twelve,  XIII,  thirteen, 
&c. 
IAMBIC  VERSE.    Verses  composed  of 


iambic  feet,  that  is,  a  short  and  a  long  foot 
alternately. 

IBIS.  A  bird  like  a  stork,  which  was 
worshipped  in  Egypt. 

ICEHOUSE.  A  house  in  which  ice  is 
deposited  against  the  warm  months. 

ICH  DIEN,  i.  e.  I  serve.  The  motto  on 
the  arms  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  Eng- 
land, first  taken  by  Edward  the  Black 
Prince. 


200 


ICH 


IB.  IBID,  or  IBIDEM.    The  same. 
IBEX.     An  European  variety  of  the 
goat  with  very  long  horns. 


ICHNEUMON.  An  Egyptian  animal 
of  the  weasel  kind  that  feeds  upon  the  eggs 
of  the  crocodile. 


ICHNEUMON  (in  Entomology).  A 
sort  of  fly,  which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
bodies  of  other  insects. 

ICHNOGRAPHY  (in  Architecture). 
The  ground  plan  of  a  building. 

ICHNOGRAPHY  (in  Fortification).  A 
draught  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
works  raised  about  a  place. 

ICHTHYOLOGY.  That  branch  of  gene- 
ral zoology  which  treats  of  fishes.  These 
animals  are  divided  into  five  orders,  name- 
ly, into  apodal,  or  those  which  have  no 
ventral  fins;  jugular,  which  have  the  ven- 
tral fins  placed  more  forward  than  the 
pectoral;  abdominal,  or  those  which  have 
the  ventral  fins  situated  behind;  thoracic, 
or  those  which  have  their  ventral  fins  situ- 
ated immediately  under  the  pectoral;  and 
the  cartilaginous  fishes,  which  have  a  car- 
tilaginous instead  of  a  bony  skeleton. 

ICHTHYOLOGY,  History  of.  The 
subject  of  fishes  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  naturalists  from  the  time  of  Aristotle  to 
the  present  period.  Aristotle,  probably  the 
first  writer  on  the  subject,  divided  fishes 
into  cetaceous,  spinose,  and  cartilaginous; 
he  was,  after  a  long  interval,  followed  by 
several  others,  who  treated  of  the  fishes  of 
particular  places,  as  Ovid,  v/ho  treats  of 


IHS 

the  fishes  of  the  Euxine,  Appian  of  those 
of  the  Adriatic,  and  Ausonius  of  those  of 
the  Moselle,  &c.;  among  the  moderns  there 
are  also  some  who  have  treated  this  subject 
partially,  as  Paul  Jovius,  who  described 
the  fishes  of  the  Mediterranean,  Schwenk- 
felt  those  of  Silesia,  Schonefelt  those  of 
Hamburgh,  Marcgrave  the  fishes  of  Brazil, 
Russell  and  Francis  Valentine  those  of 
Amboyna.  Pliny  was  a  general  writer 
on  the  subject,  and  pursued  no  method; 
iElian  and  Athenceus  have  only  scattered 
notices  of  some  few  fishes.  Among  the 
moderns,  Bellonius,  Rondeletius,  Gesner, 
Willughby,  Ray,  Artedi,  and  LinnBeus 
have  done  most  towards  reducing  this 
science  to  a  systematic  order. 

ICOSANDRIA  (in  Botany).  The  twelfth 
class  in  the  Linneean  system,  including 
plants  with  twenty  stamens  or  more  to 
their  flowers,  as  the  melon,  Indian  fig, 
pomegranate,  plum,  &o. 


IDIOM.  A  manner  of  expression  pecn- 
liar  to  any  language. 

IDIOSYNCRACY.  A  peculiarity  of 
constitution. 

IDOL.  Properly  an  image;  but  particu- 
larly the  image  of  any  false  god. 

IDOLATRY.  The  worshipping  of  idols. 

IDYLL.  A  little  pastoral  poem,  treating 
of  shepherds  and  shepherdesses,  such  aa 
the  Idylls  of  Theocritus,  Gesner,  &c. 

I.  E.  ID  EST.    That  is. 

IGNIS  FATUU9.  See  Jack  with  the 
Lantern. 

IGNITION  (in  Chymistry.)  The  appli- 
cation of  fire  to  metals,  till  they  become 
red  hot  without  melting. 

IGNORAMUS.  An  ignorant  fellow,  a 
pretender  to  knowledge. 

IGNORAMUS  (in  Law).  The  term  used 
by  the  Grand  Jury  when  they  ignore  or 
throw  out  a  bill  of  indictment.  It  denotes 
'  We  know  nothing  about  it,  or  have  not 
sufficient  evidence  respecting  it.' 

IGNORING  A  BILL  (in  Law).  The 
throwing  out  a  bill  of  indictment  by  a 
grand  jury,  who  indorse  it  with  the  word 
'  ignoramus,' 

I.  11,  S.  An  abbreviation  for  Jesus  Ho- 
minum  Salvator,  i.  e.  Jesus  the  Saviour  of 
Mankind. 


IMP 

ILEX.  The  name  formerly  for  the  holm 
oak, but  now  the  generic  name  for  the  holly, 

ILIAC  PASSION.     A  nervous  colic. 

ILLUMINATING.  The  art  of  laying 
colours  on  initial  capitals  in  books,  or 
otherwise  embellishing  manuscript  books, 
as  was  formerly  done  by  artists  called 
illuminators. 

IMAGE  (in  Optics).  The  appearance  of 
an  object  made  either  by  reflection  or  re- 
fraction. 

IMMEMORIAL  (in  Law).  An  epithet 
for  any  custom  that  has  existed  time  out 
of  mind,  or  beyond  the  memory  of  man. 

IMMERSION  (in  Physiology),  The  act 
of  plunging  any  thing  into  water,  or  any 
other  fluid. 

IMMERSION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
term  is  applied  to  a  planet  when  it  comes 
so  near  the  sun  that  we  cannot  see  it; 
also  the  beginning  of  the  eclipse  of  the 
moon,  or  that  moment  when  she  begins  to 
be  darkened. 

IMMOVEABLE  (in  Law).  Things  not 
liable  to  be  carried  away,  real  property, 
as  land,  &g. 

IMMOVEABLE  FEASTS.  Such  as  are 
constantly  on  the  same  day  of  the  month, 
a§  Christmas,  Sec. 

IMPACT.  The  single  or  simple  act  of 
one  body  upon  another,  so  as  to  put  it  in 
motion. 

IMPARLANCE  (in  Law).  A  petition 
in  court  for  a  day  to  consider  or  advise, 
what  answer  the  defendant  shall  make  to 
the  plaintiff's  declaration. 

IMPEACHMENT  (in  Law).  The  accu- 
sation of  a  person  for  treason  or  other 
crimes  and  misdemeanors.  In  England, 
an  impeachment  by  the  commons  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  presentment  to  the  house  of 
lords,  the  supreme  court  of  criminal  juris- 
diction. The  articles  of  impeachment 
found  by  the  commons  are  tlie  same  as  a 
bill  of  indictment,  which  is  to  be  tried  by 
the  lords.  In  the  case  of  Warren  Hastings, 
it  was  determined  that  an  mipeachment 
does  not  abate  by  the  dissolution  of  parlia- 
ment. 

IMPERATIVE  (in  Grammar).  One  of 
the  moods  of  a  verb,  used  when  we  would 
command,  entreat,  or  advise. 

IMPERSONAL  VERB  (in  Grammar). 
A  verb  used  only  in  the  third  person. 

IMPLEMENTS.  All  things  necessary 
for  following  any  mechanical  business,  as 
tools,  furniture,  &c. 

IMPORTATION.  The  bringing  goods 
into  a  country. 

IMPOSTS  (in  Architecture).  The  capi- 
tals of  pillars  which  support  arches. 

IMPRESSING  (in  England).  A  compul- 


INC 


201 


scry  mode  of  obtaining  men  for  the  king's 
service  in  the  navy. 

IMPRESSION  (among  Printers).  The 
number  of  copies  of  any  book  printed  off 
at  one  time. 

IMPRIMATUR,  i.  e.  Let  it  be  printed. 
The  form  of  a  license  for  printing  a  book, 
which  was  formerly  required  in  England. 

IMPRIMIS.    In  the  first  place. 

IMPROMPTU,  i.  e.  off  hand,  without 
preparation,  applied  particularly  to  poetic 
efl'usions  of  the  moment. 

IMPROPRIATION  (in  England).  The 
act  of  impropriating  or  employing  the  reve- 
nues of  a  church  living  to  one's  own  use. 
Lay  impropriation  is  an  ecclesiastical  living 
in  the  hands  of  a  layman. 

IMPROVISATORE.  One  who  repeats 
or  recites  verses  extemporaneously,  as  is 
the  practice  in  Italy.  This  gift  of  reciting 
extemporaneous  verses  has  been  carried  to 
a  high  pitch,  it  being  no  uncommon  thing 
to  see  two  masks  meeting  during  the  car- 
nival, and  challenging  each  other  in  verse, 
and  answering  stanza  for  stanza  in  a  sur- 
prising manner.  j 

IMPULSE,  or  Impetus  (in  Mechanics). 
The  single  or  momentary  force  with  which 
one  body  strikes  or  impels  another. 

IN.    An  abbreviation  for  inch. 

INACCESSIBLE  HEIGHT.  A  dis- 
tance which  cannot  be  measured  by  reason 
of  some  obstacle  in  the  way,  as  a  river,  a 
ditch,  &.C. 

INARCHING.  A  method  of  ingrafting 
called  grafting  by  approach,  where  the 
stock  and  tree  are  properly  joined. 

INAUGURATION  (in  England).  The 
ceremony  performed  at  the  coronation  of 
a  king,  or  making  a  knight  of  the  garter. 

INCA.  The  prince  of  the  ancient  Pe- 
ruvians. 

INCARNATION.  The  act  of  assuming 
body,  or  taking  flesh,  as  the  Incarnation 
of  our  blessed  Saviour. 

INCENDIARY  (in  Law).  He  who  seta 
fire  to  houses  maliciously. 

INCH.  A  measure  of  length,  being  the 
twelfth  part  of  a  foot. 

INCIDENCE,  or  Line  of  Incidence 
(in  Mechanics).  The  direction  or  inclina- 
tion, in  which  one  body  acts  or  strikes  on 
another. 

INCIDENCE  (in  Optics).  The  place 
where  two  rays  meet. 

INCLINATION.  The  mutual  tendency 
of  two  bodies  or  planes  to  each  other. 

INCOME.  Revenue,  profit,  or  produce 
from  any  thing. 

INCOME  TAX  (in  England).  A  tax 
imposed,  during  the  late  war,  on  the  an- 
nual gains  of  every  person. 


202 


INC 


INCOGNITO,  or  INCOG  (in  Europe). 
Literally,  unknown,  not  to  be  recognised; 
a  mode  of  travelling  without  any  mark  of 
distinction,  which  is  sometimes  adopted 
by  princes  and  great  people  who  do  not 
wish  to  be  recognised. 

INCLINED  PLANE  (in  Mechanics). 
A  plane  inclined  to  the  horizon,  or  making 
an  angle  with  it,  which  is  one  of  the  me- 
chal^icaJ  powers. 


INCOMBUSTIBLE.  A  body  that  is 
incapable  of  undergoing  combustion. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE  CLOTH.  A  sort  of 
cloth  made  from  a  stone  in  the  form  of  a 
talc;  which  stone  is  called  lapis  amianthus, 
and  asbestos. 

INCOMMENSURABLE  (in  Geometry). 
A  term  applied  to  two  lines  or  quantities 
which  have  no  common  measure  by  which 
they  can  be  divided. 

INCORPORATION  (in  Law).  The 
formation  of  a  body  politic. 

INCORPORATION  (in  Chymistry). 
The  mingling  the  particles  of  different 
bodies  together  into  one  mass,  in  such 
manner  that  the  different  ingredients  can- 
not be  distinguished. 

INCREMENT  (in  Fluxions).  The  small 
increase  of  a  variable  body.  Dr.  Brook 
Taylor,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the 
doctrine  of  increments  or  finite  differences, 
denoted  his  increments  by  a  dot  under  the 
variable  quantity,  thus  the  increment  of  a; 
was  denoted  by  x;  others  have  employed  a 
Bmall  accent,  thus  z',  or  thus  ,x.  M.  Nicole 
uses  another  letter  to  denote  the  increment 
of  X,  or  any  variable,  as  by  n;  but  Euler 
employs  the  character  A,  thus  Az  the  in- 
crement of  X,  and  Ay  the  increment  of  y. 
Pr.  Brook  Taylor  first  published  his  Me- 
thodus  Incrementorumin  1715,  which  was 
afterwards  illustrated  by  M.  Nicole  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
for  the  years  1717,  1723,  and  1724.  In 
1723,  Emerson  published  his  method  of 
Increments;  but  the  writer  who  contri- 
buted most  to  the  elucidation  of  this  sub- 
ject was  Euler,  who,  in  his  Institutiones 
Calculi  Differentialis,  gave  a  new  and  ex- 
tended form  to  this  branch  of  analysis. 
Various  other  writers  have  since  treated 
on  this  subject,  among  whom  Lacroix,  in 
his  Traites  des  Differences,  &c.  is  thought 
to  have  been  the  most  happy. 

INCUBATION.  The  process  of  a  bird 
sitting  on  eggs  and  hatching  its  youngj 


IND 

the  time  required  for  this  varies  in  differ- 
ent birds,  domestic  fowls  sit  three  weeka 
ducks,  geese,  and  turkeys  a  month,  pigeons 
eighteen  days,  &c. 

INCUBUS,  or  Night  Mare.  A  disease 
which  consists  in  an  obstructed  respira- 
tion, that  produces  the  sensation  in  sleep, 
of  a  vi^eight  pressing  on  the  breast. 

INCUMBENT.  One  in  present  posses- 
sion of  a  benefice. 

INDECLINABLE.  Not  varied  by  ter- 
minations, as  an  indeclinable  noun. 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.  Words 
that  are  loose  and  undetermined  in  their 
meaning,  as  whatsoever,  any,  every,  &c. 

INDEMNITY  (in  Law).  The  saving 
harmless;  or  a  writing  to  secure  one  from 
all  damage  and  danger  that  may  ensue 
from  any  act. 

INDEMNITY,  Act  of  (in  England). 
An  act  passed  every  session  of  parliament, 
for  the  relief  of  those  who  have  neglected 
to  take  the  necessary  oaths,  &:,c. 

INDENTURE  (in  Law).  An  agreement 
or  contract  made  between  two  or  more 
persons,  so  called,  because  it  was  indented 
or  cut  scollop  wise,  so  as  to  correspond 
with  another  writing  containing  the  same 
words. 

INDEPENDENTS.  A  sect  of  Protest- 
ants in  England  and  Holland,  who  govern 
themselves  in  their  own  congregations, 
without  acknowledging  any  dependance 
u^pon,  or  connexion  with  any  other  church. 

INDEX  (in  Arithmetic  and  Algebra). 
The  number  that  shows  to  what  power  the 
quantity  is  to  be  raised,  as  in  10^,  the 
figure  3  is  the  exponent  or  index. 

INDEX  (in  Watchmaking).  The  little 
stile  or  hand  fitted  either  to  a  clock  oj 
watch,  &c. 

INDEX  (in  Literature).  An  alphabetical 
table  of  the  Contents  of  a  book. 

INDIAN  ARROW  ROOT.  The  root  of 
a  plant  growing  in  the  West  Indies,  where 
it  was  formerly  used  as  an  antidote  against 
poisons. 

INDIAN  FIG.  Ficus  Indica  in  the  Lin- 
ntean  system;  another  name  for  the  Banian 
tree. 

INDIAN  RUBBER,  or  Caout-chouc. 
An  elastic  gum,  a  substance  procured  from 
a  tree  in  South  America,  called  the  sypho- 
nia  elastica.  It  is  mostly  brought  into 
Europe  in  the  shape  of  bottles,  which  are 
formed  by  spreading  the  gum  over  a  mould 
of  clay. 

INDIAN  WHEAT.    See  Maize. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD  (in  Grammar). 
That  mood  of  a  verb  which  simply  affirms 
or  denies. 

INDICTED  (in  Law).  That  is,  accused 


INF 

of  some  offence  by  bill  preferred  to  jurors. 

INDICTION,  or  Cycle  of  Indiction 
(in  Chronology).  A  mode  of  computing 
time  by  the  space  of  fifteen  years,  instituted 
by  Constantine  the  Great.  The  popes,  since 
the  time  of  Charlemagne,  have  dated  their 
acts  by  the  year  of  the  indiction,  which 
was  fixed  on  the  first  of  January.  At  the 
time  of  the  reformation  of  the  calendar  the 
year  1582  was  reckoned  the  tenth  year  of 
the  indiction.  Now  this  date  when  divided 
by  fifteen  leaves  a  remainder  seven,  that  is 
three  less  than  the  indiction,  and  the  same 
must  necessarily  be  the  case  in  all  subse- 
quent cases,  so  that  in  order  to  find  the 
indiction  for  any  year  divide  the  date  by 
fifteen  and  add  three  to  the  remainder. 

INDICTMENT.  A  bill  or  accusation 
drawn  up  in  form  of  law,  and  exhibiting 
some  offence,  which  is  preferred  to  a 
grand  jury  preparatory  to  the  trial  in 
open  court. 

INDIGENOUS.  Native,  as  applied  to 
animals  and  plants. 

INDIGO.  A  beautiful  blue  colour  or 
dye  procured  from  a  plant  called  by  the 
Americans,  anil;  in  the  Linnaean  system, 
Indigofera.  The  indigo  used  by  the  diers 
is  a  ffficula  procured  from  the  leaves  of 
the  plant,  which  are  laid  in  vats  full  of 
water,  and  left  to  ferment.  The  liquor  is 
then  drawn  off  into  another  vat,  and  after 
having  been  well  stirred  up,  it  is  drawn 
off,  and  what  remains  at  tJie  bottom  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry, 
when  it  is  fit  for  use.  The  principal  con- 
stituent parts  of  indigo  are  mucilaginous, 
resinous,  and  earthy  matter,  with  some 
oxide  of  iron. 

INDORSING.    See  Endorsing. 

INDUCTION  (in  England).  Putting  a 
clerk  in  possession  of  his  living. 

INDUCTION  (in  Logic).  A  mode  of 
argumentation  or  reasoning,  wben  the 
species  is  gathered  ont  of  the  individuals, 
and  the  genus  out  of  tbe  species,  <tc.:  as, 
if  it  be  true  that  all  planets  borrow  their 
light  from  the  sun,  then,  by  induction,  it 
is  true  that  Jupiter,  Wars,  and  each  indi- 
vidual planet  does  the  same. 

INDULGENCES  (in  the  Romish 
Church).  Pardons  for  sin,  granted  by  the 
pope  to  such  as  profess  to  be  penitents. 

INERTIA,  or  Vis  Inertias  (in  Physi- 
ology). A  passive  principle,  supposed  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  to  reside  in  bodies,  by 
which  they  persist  in  their  motion  or  rest, 
and  receive  motion  according  to  the  force 
impressed  upon  them,  and  resist  as  much 
as  they  are  resisted. 

INFANT  (in  Law).  Any  person  under 
the  age  of  twenty-one. 


ING 


203 


INFANTA.  The  title  given  to  the  eldest 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Spain  or  Portugal. 

INFANTE.  The  title  given  to  the  eldest 
son  of  the  king  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

INFANTRY.  The  body  of  foot  soldiers. 

INFECTION.  The  communication  of 
a  disease  by  certain  effluvia  which  fly  off 
from  distempered  bodies,  or  from  goods 
that  are  infected. 

INFINITESIMALS.  Indefinitely  small 
parts. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD.  The  mood  of  a 
verb,  so  named  because  it  is  not  limited 
by  number  or  person. 

INFIRMARY.  A  place  where  the  sick 
poor  are  received,  or  can  get  advice  and 
medicines  gratis. 

INFLECTION  (in  Optics).  A  multiplex 
refraction  of  the  rays  of  light,  caused  by 
the  unequal  thickness  of  any  medium. 

INFLECTION  (in  Grammar).  The 
change  which  a  word  undergoes  in  its 
ending,  to  express  case,  number,  gender, 
mood,  tense,  &c. 

INFLECTION,  Point  of  (in  Geome- 
try). A  point  where  a  curve  begins  to 
bend  a  contrary  way. 

INFLORESCENCE.  The  manner  in 
which  plants  flower,  or  in  which  flowers 
are  fastened  to  the  stem  by  means  of  the 
peduncle. 

INFLUENZA.  A  sort  of  catarrh  or 
disease  from  cold, so  called,  because  it  was 
supposed  to  be  produced  by  the  peculiar 
influence  of  the  stars. 

IN  FORMA  PAUPERIS.    See  Forma. 

INFORMATION  (in  Law).  An  accu- 
sation or  complaint  exhibited  against  a 
person,  for  some  criminal  offence.  An 
information  difters  from  an  indictment, 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  is  exhibited  on  the 
oath  of  twelve  men,  but  the  information 
is  only  the  allegation  of  the  officer  or  in- 
dividual who  exhibits  it. 

INFORMER  (in  Law.)  One  who  gives 
information,  particularly  private  informa- 
tion, to  a  magistrate. 

INFUSIBLE.  Not  to  be  fused,  or  made 
fluid. 

INFUSION.  A  method  of  obtaining  the 
virtues  of  plants,  roots,  &c.  by  steeping 
them  in  a  hot  or  cold  liquid. 

INFUSORIA.  One  of  the  Linntean 
orders  of  animals,  of  the  class  vermes,  in- 
cluding such  as  are  simple,  microscopic 
animalculas  found  in  stagnant  water. 

INGOT.    A  wedge  or  bar  of  gold. 

INGREDIENT.  Any  simple  that  enters 
into  the  composition  of  a  compound  medi- 
cine. 

INGRESS  (in  Astronomy).  The  sun's 
entering  into  the  first  scruple  of  Aries,  &c. 


204 


INO 


INGROSS.    See  Engross. 

INHERITANCE  (in  Law).  An  estate 
to  a  man  and  his  heirs. 

INJECTION  (in  Anatomy).  The  filling 
the  vessels  of  a  dead  subject  with  any 
coloured  matter  to  show  their  ramifications. 

INJECTION  (in  Surgery).  The  forcing 
any  liquid  into  the  body  by  means  of  a 
clyster. 

INITIALS.  Letters  placed  at  the  be- 
ginnings of  words  or  sentences. 

INJUNCTION.  A  kind  of  prohibition 
granted  by  courts  of  equity,  principally 
with  a  view  of  preserving  property  pend- 
ing a  suit. 

INK.  A  black  liquor  for  writing;  it  is 
sometimes  red,  when  it  is  called  red  ink. 
Black  ink  is  of  three  kinds:  namely,  In- 
dian ink,  made  in  China  of  lamp-black 
and  size;  printer's  ink,  composed  of  oil 
and  lamp-black  for  the  black  ink,  or  of 
vermilion  for  the  red  ink;  writing  ink, 
composed  of  an  infusion  of  nutgalls,  sul- 
phate of  iron  or  copper  dissolved  in  water, 
logwood,  and  gum  arable.  The  red  ink  is 
composed  of  Brazil  wood,  gum,  and  alum. 

INK,  Sympathetic.  See  Sympathetic 
Ink. 

INLAND.  That  place  which  is  situated 
in  the  interior  of  a  country,  far  from  the 
seacoast. 

INLAND  BILLS  (in  Commerce).  Bills 
payable  in  the  country  where  they  are 
drawn. 

INLAND  TRADE.  Trade  carried  on 
within  the  country;  home  trade,  as  oppo- 
sed to  foreign  commerce. 

INLAYING  (among  Mechanics),  Work- 
ing in  wood  or  metal  with  several  pieces 
of  different  colours,  curiously  put  together. 

IN  LIMINE.  In  the  outset;  before 
any  thing  is  said  or  done. 

INN.  A  house  of  entertainment  for 
travellers. 

INNS  OF  COURT  (in  London).  Houses 
or  colleges  for  the  entertainment  of  stu- 
dents in  the  law;  the  principal  of  these 
societies  at  present  are  Lincoln's  Inn,  the 
Inner  Temple,  and  the  Middle  Temple. 

INNUENDO  (in  Law).  A  hint,  a  doubt- 
ful or  obscure  expression. 

INOCULATION  (in  Surgery).  The 
operation  of  giving  the  small-pox  to  per- 
sons by  incision.  When  a  person  is  inocu- 
lated with  the  cow-pox,  it  is  called  vacci- 
nation. 

INOCULATION  (in  Gardening).  A  kind 
of  grafting  in  the  bud;  as  when  the  bud  of 
the  fruit  tree  is  set  in  the  stock  or  branch 
of  another,  so  as  to  make  several  sorts  of 
fruit  grow  on  the  same  tree. 


INS 

INOSCULATION  (in  Anatomy).  The 
joining  the  mouths  of  the  capillary  veins 
and  arteries. 

IN  PROPRIA  PERSONA.  In  one's 
own  person  or  character. 

INQUEST  (in  Law).  An  inquisition  by 
jurors,  the  most  usual  mode  of  trial  in 
cases  both  civil  and  criminal  in  this 
country. 

INQUISITION  (in  Ecclesiastical  Af- 
fairs), A  tribunal  in  some  Roman  Catholic 
countries  for  the  suppression  of  heresies. 

INQUISITOR  (in  England).  Any  oflicer, 
as  the  sheriff  and  the  coroner,  having 
power  to  inquire  into  certain  matters;  in 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Grand  Inquisitor  is 
the  name  of  the  judges  of  the  Inquisition. 

INROLLMENT  (in  England).  The 
registering  or  entering  in  the  rolls  of  the 
Chancery  and  King's  Bench,  <Stc.  any 
lawful  act,  as  recognizances,  &c. 

INSCRIBED  (in  Geometry).  An  epi- 
thet for  a  figure  inscribed  in  another,  so 
that  all  its  angles  touch  the  sides  or  planes 
of  the  other  figure. 

INSECTA.  The  fifth  class  of  animals  in 
the  Linnasan  system,  comprehending  all 
insects  except  worms,  which  Linnfeus  has 
formed  into  a  distinct  class  called  vermes. 
The  insecta  are  divided  into  seven  orders, 
namely,  the  coleoptera,lepidoptera,hemip- 
tera,  neuroptera,  diptera,  and  aptera.  See 
Entomology, 

INSECTS.  Small  animals  that  either 
creep  or  fly,  having  many  feet,  and  bodies 
composed  of  joints  and  segments,  in  some 
cases  they  have  the  head  distinct  from  the 
body,  as  tlies,  bees,  &c.  Those  that  are 
capable  of  being  parted  without  destroying 
life  were  also  included  under  this  head, 
but  LinuBBUs  has  classed  them  under  the 
head  of  vermes,  worms. 

INSIGNIA.     Ensigns. 

INSOLUBLE  (in  Chymistry).  An  epi- 
thet for  any  body  which  is  not  to  be  dis- 
solved or  separated. 

INSOLVENCY  (in  Law).  The  state  of 
not  being  able  to  pay  one's  debts. 

INSOLVENT.  In  a  state  of  insolvency. 

INSOLVENT  ACTS.  Acts  passed  for 
the  purpose  of  releasing  from  prison,  and 
sometimes  from  their  debts,  persons  who 
cannot  take  the  benefit  of  the  bankrupt 
laws. 

INSPECTION  (in  Law),  A  mode  of 
trial,  when  the  judges  decide  a  point  of 
dispute,  upon  the  testimony  of  their  own 
senses. 

INSPECTOR,  A  military  officer  whose 
duty  it  is  to  inspect  regiments,  &c. 

INSPIRATION    (in    Anatomy).    The 


INS 

act  of  breathing  or  taking  in  the  air,  by 
the  alternate  contraction  and  dilatation  of 
the  chest. 

INSPIRATION  (in  Theology).  The  con- 
veying certain  extraordinary  notices  or  mo- 
tions into  the  mindj  or,  in  general,  any  su- 
pernatural influence  on  the  human  mind. 
INSTALLATION  (in  England).,  The 
ceremony  of  installing,  or  putting  into  any 
office  or  dignity,  as  placing  a  dean  or  pre- 
bendary in  his  stall  or  seat,  or  a  knight 
into  his  order. 

INSTALMENT.  The  payment  of  a 
certain  portion  of  a  gross  sum,  which  is  to 
be  paid  at  different  times,  or,  as  the  phrase 
is,  by  instalments. 

INSTANCE  (in  Civil  Law).  The  pro- 
eecution  of  a  suit. 

INSTANT.  The  smallest  perceptible 
portion  of  time;  that  wherein  we  perceive 
no  succession. 
INSTANTER.  Instantly. 
IN  STATU  aUO  (in  Diplomacy).  A 
term  signifying  that  condition  in  which 
things  were  left  at  a  certain  period,  as 
when  belligerent  parties  agree  that  their 
mutual  relations  should  be  in  statu  quo,  or 
as  they  were  before  the  commencement 
of  a  war,  and  the  like. 

INSTINCT.  The  sagacity  or  natural 
aptitude  of  brutes,  which  supplies  the 
place  of  reason. 

INSTITUTE.  Any  society  instituted  or 
established  according  to  certain  laws,  or 
regulation  for  the  furtherance  of  some 
particular  object,  such  as  colleges,  or  aca- 
demies, as  they  are  sometimes  called,  Lite- 
rary Institutes,  Mechanics'  Institutes,  and 
the  like. 

INSTITUTES.  A  book  so  entitled,  con- 
taining the  elements  of  the  Roman  or  Civil 
Law.  The  Institutes  are  divided  into  four 
books,  and  contain  an  abridgement  of  the 
whole  body  of  the  Civil  Law. 

INSTITUTION  (in  England).  The 
putting  a  clerk-into  possession  of  a  spiritu- 
al benefice,  previous  to  which  the  oath 
against  simony,  and  the  oaths  of  allegi- 
ance and  supremacy,  are  to  be  taken;  be- 
sides which  the  party  must  subscribe  the 
thirty-nine  articles,  the  articles  concerning 
the  king's  supremacy,  and  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer. 

INSTRUMENT.  A  tool  to  do  any 
thing  with. 

INSTRUMENT  (in  Law).  A  deed  or 
writing  drawn  up  between  two  parties, 
and  containing  several  covenants  agreed 
between  them. 

INSTRUMENT  (in  Music).  Any  frame, 
structure,  or  contrivance,  by  which  har- 
monious sounds  may  be  produced. 
18 


..  r 


205 


INSTRUMENTAL  (in  Music).  An  epi- 
thet for  the  music  of  instruments,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  vocal  music,  or  that 
of  the  human  voice. 

INSULA'l'E.  Properly,  standing  alone; 
as,  in  Architecture,  an  insulate  column, 
that  which  stands  alone. 

INSULATED  (in  Chymistry).  A  term 
for  bodies  that  are  supported  by  electrics 
or  nonconductors,  so  that  their  communi- 
cation with  the  earth,  by  conducting  sub- 
stances, is  interrupted. 

INSURANCE,  or  ASSURANCE  (in 
Law).  A  contract  or  agreement  by  which 
one  or  more  persons,  called  insurers  or 
assurers,  engage,  for  a  certain  premium 
paid,  to  make  good  the  loss  of  any  house, 
ship,  or  goods,  by  fire,  shipwreck,  or  other- 
wise. 

INSURANCE  COMPANIES.  Com- 
panies of  persons  who  form  a  fund  or 
capital,  which  they  dispose  of,  in  insuring 
the  property  of  others  against  casualties 
by  fire,  &c. 

INSURANCE  OFFICE.  The  place 
where  insurance  companies  conduct  their 
business,  of  which  there  are  many  in  Lon- 
don and  in  all  the  capitals  of  Europe,  and 
America. 

INTAGLIOS.  Precious  stones,  having 
the  heads  of  great  men  or  inscriptions, 
&c.  engraven  on  them,  such  as  are  to  be 
seen  on  ancient  rings,  seals,  &c. 

INTEGER  (in  Arithmetic).  A  whole 
number,  as  distinguished  from  a  fraction; 
as  one  pound,  one  yard,  &c. 

INTEGRAL  PARTS.  Parts  which 
make  up  a  whole. 

INTEGUMENTS  (in  Anatomy).  The 
coverings  of  any  part  of  the  body,  as  the 
cuticle,  cutis,  &c.  The  common  integu- 
ments are  the  skin,  with  the  fat  and  cellu- 
lar membrane  adhering  to  it,  also  particu- 
lar membranes,  which  invest  certain  parts 
of  the  body,  are  called  integuments,  as  the 
tunics  or  coats  of  the  eye. 

INTENDANT.  A  military  officer,  who 
has  the  inspection  and  management  of 
certain  affiiirs. 

INTENSITY.  The  state  of  beingaffected 
to  a  high  degree;  the  power  or  energy  of 
any  quality  raised  to  its  highest  pitch. 

INTERCALATION  (in  Chronology). 
An  inserting  or  putting  ia  a  day  in  the 
month  of  February  every  fourth  year. 

INTERDICT.  A  papal  censure,  prohi- 
biting divine  offices  to  be  performed  within 
any  parish  or  town,  &;c.;  which  was  put 
in  force  in  England  in  the  reign  of  King 
John,  and  in  Germany  several  times  at 
different  periods. 
INTEREST    (in    Commerce).    Money 


206 


INT 


paid  for  the  use  or  loan  of  money.  The 
sum  lent  is  called  the  principal ;  the  sum 
paid  by  the  borrower,  the  interest ;  and 
when  the  two  are  incorporated,  the  interest 
paid  upon  that  is  called  compound  interest, 
or  interest  upon  interest. 

INTEREST  (in  Arithmetic).  A  rule  by 
which  the  interest  of  money  is  computed, 
which  is  either  simple  or  compound. 

INTERJECTION.  An  indeclinable  part 
of  speech,  serving  to  express  the  emotions 
of  the  mind. 

INTERLOCUTORY  ORDER  (in  Law). 
An  order  which  does  not  decide  the  cause 
itself,only  some  intervening  matter  relating 
to  it. 

INTERLOPERS  (in  Law).  Those  who, 
without  legal  authority,  intercept  or  hinder 
the  trade  of  a  company,  lawfully  established 
to  trade  in  a  particular  way  or  part. 

INTERLUDE.  An  entertainment  be- 
tween the  acts  of  a  play,  for  the  purpose 
of  allowing  the  performers  time  to  rest,  &c. 

INTERPOLATING  (among  Critics).  In- 
serting a  spurious  passage,  into  the  writings 
of  some  ancient  author. 

INTERREGNUM.  In  Europe,  the  va- 
cancy of  a  throne,  by  the  death  or  deposition 
of  a  king. 

INTERREX.  He  who  governs  while 
there  is  no  king. 

INTERROGATION.  A  question  put. 

INTERROGATION,  or  Note  of  Tn- 
TERBOGATioN  (iu  Grammar).  A  mark  thus 
(.'')  put  at  the  end  of  a  question, 

INTERROGATIVES.  Words  used  in 
asking  a  question,  as  why,  wherefore, 
&;c. 

INTERROGATIVE  SYSTEM.  A  mode 
of  teaching  by  means  of  question  and  an- 
swer. 

INTERROGATORIES  (in  Law),  aues- 
tions  in  writing  demanded  of  witnesses  in 
a  cause,  particularly  in  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cery. 

IN  TERROREM.  By  way  of  frighten- 
ing or  deterring. 

INTERSECTION  (in  Mathematics). 
The  cutting  of  one  line  or  plane  by  another. 

INTERVAL  (in  Music).  The  difference 
between  two  sounds,  as  respects  acute  and 
grave. 

INTESTATE.  One  dying  withoutawill. 

INTESTINA  (in  Zoology).  An  order 
in  the  Linnajan  system,  of  the  class  vermes, 
including  earthworms  and  leeches. 

INTESTINE  MOTION  (in  Physiology). 
That  motion  which  takes  place  in  the  cor- 
puscles or  smallest  particles  of  a  body. 

INTESTINES.  The  convoluted  mem- 
braneous tube  in  the  body  of  animals.  In 
the  human  subject,  the  intestines  are  divi- 


lON 

ded  into  large  and  small,  each  of  which 
consists  of  three  distinct  portions. 

INTOLERANCE.  The  not  tolerating 
or  allowing  of  every  man's  private  judg- 
ment, in  matters  of  doctrine  or  discipline. 

INTONATION  (in  Music).  The  act  of 
sounding  the  notes  in  the  scale  with  the 
voice,  or  any  other  given  order  of  musical 
tones. 

INTRANSITIVE  VERBS.  Verbs  that 
express  actions,  that  do  not  pass  over  to 
an  object,  as  go,  come,  &c. 

IN  TRANSITU.  During  the  passage 
from  one  place  to  another. 

INTRUSION  (in  Law).  A  violent  or 
unlawful  seizing  upon  lands  or  tenements. 

INTUITION.  The  mental  view  of  a 
matter,or  the  instantaneous  act  of  the  mind, 
in  perceiving  the  agreement  or  disagree- 
ment of  ideas. 

IN  VACUO,  i.  e.  In  empty  space,  or 
in  space  comparatively  empty. 

INVALID  (in  Military  or  Naval  Affairs). 
A  soldier  or  sailor,  wounded  or  disabled 
in  war,  and  unfit  for  service. 

INVENTION.  Any  new  mechanical 
contrivance  for  assisting  human  labour. 

INVENTORY.  A  catalogue  or  list  of 
goods. 

INVERSION  (in  Geometry).  The  chang- 
ing antecedents  into  consequents  in  the 
terms  of  proportion,  and  the  contrary. 

INUNDATE  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linnaean  natural  orders,  consisting  of  aqua- 
tic plants. 

INVOCATION  (among  Poets).  An  ad- 
dress to  their  favourite  poet. 

INVOICE.  A  bill  or  account  of  goods 
sent  by  a  merchant  to  his  correspondent 
in  a  foreign  country. 

INVOLUNTARY  HOMICIDE  (in 
Law).  The  killing  a  man  by  accident, 
which  differs  from  excusable  homicide  by 
misadventure  in  this,  that  the  latter  hap- 
pens in  the  performance  of  a  lawful  act, 
but  the  former  may  be  an  indifferent  or 
a  positively  unlawful  act,  which  is  murder 
or  manslaughter  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  case. 

INVOLUTION.  The  raising  any  quan- 
tity to  a  given  power  by  multiplying  it 
into  itself  the  required  number  of  times ; 
thus,  the  cube  of  3  is  got  by  multiplying  3, 
the  root,  into  itself  twice,  as  3X3X3=27. 

IODINE.  A  deadly  poison,  of  a  black 
colour  and  metallic  lustre,  procured  from 
kelp,  whici)  resembles  chlorine  in  its  odour, 
and  power  of  de-troying  vegetable  colours. 
Iodine  is  incombustible,  but  with  azote  it 
forms  a  curious  detonating  powder. 

IONIC  ORDER  (in  Architecture).  An 
order  so  called  from  Ionia  in  Lesser  Asia. 


IRO 

The  body  of  the  pillar  is  usually  channelled 
or  furrowed  with  twenty-four  gutters,  and 
its  length,  with  the  capital  and  base,  is 
twenty-nine  modules,  the  chapiter  being 
chiefly  composed  of  volutes  or  scrolls. 


jiUuuuo:j.'ij\j.u. 


IPECACUANHA.  A  medicinal  root, 
which  comes  from  South  America,  and  was 
introduced  into  Europe  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  it  was  much  esteemed  for 
the  cure  of  dysenteries,  but  afterwards  fell 
into  disuse. 

IPSE  DIXIT.  Literally,  he  himself 
eaid  it;  a  term  signifying  an  opinion  that 
rests  on  the  word  or  authority  of  an  indi- 
vidual only. 

IPSO  FACTO.  The  very  fact. 

IRIDIUM.  A  metallic  substance  procured 
from  platina. 

IRIS  (in  Anatomy).  A  striped,  varie- 
gated circle,  next  to  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 

IRIS  (in  Botany).  The  flower  de  luce 
or  flag-flower,  fcc;  a  plant  with  a  bulbous 
root,  which  bears  a  beautiful  blue  flower. 
There  are  many  species  of  it,  as  the  com- 
mon yellow  or  Vv^ater  iris,  the  flag  iris,  the 
dwarf  iris,  &c. 

IRIS  (among  Opticians).  The  change- 
able colours  which  appear  in  the  glasses 
of  telescopes,  &c. 

IRON.  One  of  the  most  useful  and 
abundant  metals,  which  was  one  of  the 
first  metals  that  was  known  and  worked. 
This  metal  is  easily  oxidized,  but  is  infu- 
sible except  by  an  intense  heat ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, malleable  at  a  less  degree  of  heat, 


207 

and  several  pieces  may  be  united  into  one 
mass,  by  a  process  called  welding.  Iron  is 
the  only  metal  that  is  susceptible  of  mag- 
netic attraction.  Pure  iron  is  very  rarely 
to  be  found  ;  the  principal  varieties  of  iron 
are  the  cast  or  pig  iron,  or  that  which  is  im- 
mediately extracted  from  the  ore  ;  wrought 
iron,  that  which  has  gone  through  the  pro- 
cess of  melting  in  a  furnace  ;  and  steel, 
that  which  has  been  heated  in  charcoal, 
and  hardened  by  its  combination  with 
carbon. 

IRON.  The  name  of  several  tools  made 
of  iron,  particularly  that  which  serves, 
when  heated,  to  smooth  linen  after  it  has 
been  washed. 

IRONMONGER.  A  dealer  in  iron. 
The  company  of  ironmongers  in  London, 
were  incorporated  in  1462. 

IRONMOULDS.  Spots  in  linen,  left 
after  ironing  from  stains  of  ink. 

IRONMOULDS  (among  Miners).  Yel- 
low lumps  of  iron  or  stone  found  in  chalk- 
pits. 

IRRATIONAL  (in  Mathematics).  An 
epithet  applied  to  surd  quantities. 

ISINGLASS.  A  gelatinous  matter, 
formed  of  the  dried  sounds  of  cod  and 
other  fish.  It  is  the  principal  ingredient 
in  the  blancmanger  of  the  cooks,  and  i.s 
also  used  medicinally. 

ISIS  (in  the  Mythology  of  the  Egyptians). 
The  wife  and  sister  of  Osiris. 

ISLAND.  A  country  surrounded  on  all 
sides  with  water,  as  Great  Britain,  Ire- 
land, &c. 

ISLAND  CRYSTAL.  A  transparent 
stone  of  the  nature  of  spar,  a  piece  of 
which  laid  upon  a  book,  every  letter  seen 
through  it  will  appear  double.  It  was 
originally  found  in  Iceland,  whence  it  was 
called  Iceland  or  Island  Crystal,  and  is  to 
be  met  with  in  France  and  other  parts  of 
Europe. 

ISOCHRONAL  or  ISOCHRONOUS 
VIBRATIONS.  Vibrations  of  a  pendulum 
performed  in  the  same  space  of  time. 

ISOPEREMETRICAL  FIGURES.  Fi- 
gures having  equal  perimeters  or  circum- 
ferences. 

ISOSCELES  TRIANGLE.  A  triangle 
having  two  sides  or  legs  equal  to  each 
other. 

ISSUE  (in  Law).  1.  The  children  be- 
gotten between  a  man  and  his  wife.  2.  The 
profits  arising  from  lands,  tenements,  fines, 
&;c.  3.  The  point  of  matter  at  issue  between 
contending  parties  in  a  suit,  when  a  thing 
is  affirmed  on  the  one  side,  and  denied  on 
the  other.  Issues  my  be  either  on  matters 
of  fact,  or  matters  of  law. 

ISSUE    (in    Medicine).    An   artificial 


208 


JAC 


aperture,  giving  vent  to  noxious  humours 
in  the  body. 

ISSUES  (in  Military  Affairs').  Certain 
sums  of  money  given  into  the  hands  of 
agents,  for  the  payment  of  tlie  army. 

ISSUES  (in  Fortiacation)..  Outlets  in  a 
town. 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES.  Games  formerly 
celebrated  by  the  Greeks  at  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth  every  three,  four,  or  five  years, 

ISTHMUS.  A  little  neck  of  lajid  joining 
a  peninsula  to  a  continent,  as  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth,  &c. 

ITALIC.  A  kind  of  letter  used  in  print- 
ing, by  way  of  distinction  from  the  Roman, 
as  in  this  word,  Italy. 

ITCH,  A  cutaneous  disease,  supposed  to 
be  caused  by  an  insect  of  the  acarus  tribe 
called  the  itchmite.  This  small  insect, 
which  is  white,  with  reddish  legs,  is  foujjd 


JAL 

in  the  small  pellucid  vesicles  of  the  hands 
and  joints  iufected  with  the  itch. 

ITEM.  Also ;  a  word  used  to  denote  an 
article  added  to  an  account. 

ITINERANT.  Gping  from  place  to 
place. 

ITINERANT  JUSTICES,  or  Justices 
IN  Eyke.  In  England,  justices  sent  into 
divers  counties,  to  hear  and  determine 
causes. 

ITINERARY.  A  book  pointing  out  the 
roads  and  distances  of  places,  for  the  use 
of  travellers. 

IVORY".  A  finer  sort  of  bone,  or  an 
intermediate  substance  between  bone  and 
horn,  prepared  from  the  tusk  of  the  male 
elephant. 

IVY.  A  parasitic  or  twining  plant,  that 
runs  about  trees,  walls,  &c.  by  means  of 
roots  and  fibres  from  its  branches.. 


X 


J,  the  tenth  letter  of  the- alphabet. 

JACK  (in  Mechanics).  An  instrument 
in  common  use  for  raising,  very  great 
weights  of  any  kind, 

JACK  (among  Mariners).  The  flag  which 
is  hung  out  in  the  bowsprit  end. 

JACK  (in  Natural  History).  A  kind  of 
pike  that  is  very  destructive  in  fishponds. 

JACK,  Smoke.  An  engine  placed  in 
chimneys,  and  turned  by  means  of  the 


ascending  smoke,  which  answers  the  pur- 
pose of  the  kitchen  jack. 
JACKAL.  A  beast  of  prey  nearly  allied 


to  the  dog.    It  follows  the  lion  and  feeds 
upon  the  remains  of  animals  he  has  killed. 


JACKDAWS.  A  bii-d  of  the  crow  kind, 
having  a  white  collar  about  its  neck. 

JACKS.  Small  bits  of  wood  fixed  to 
the  keys  of  virginals,  harpsichords,  and 
spinnets. 

JACK-Vi^TTH-THE-LANTERN,or 
WiLL-o'-THE-Wisp.  Vulgar  names  for  the 
ignis  fatuus  or  meteor,  which  hovers  in  the 
night  about  marshy  places,  and  seems  to 
be  mostly  occasioned,  by  the  extrication  of 
phosphorus  from  rotten  leaves,  and  other 
vegetable  matters.  It  appears  like  a  candle 
in  a  lantern,  and  has  sometimes  caused 
travellers  to  lose  their  way. 

JACOBIN.  A  partisan  of  the  French 
revolution.. 

JACOBITES.  A  name  given  to  the  ad- 
herents of  James  H.  at  and  after  the  revo- 
lution in  England*. 

JACOB'S  STAFF.  A  mathematical  in- 
strument for  taking  heights  and  distances, 

JACOBUS.  A  gold  coin  in  the  reign  of 
James- 1,  current  at  205.  23s.  and  255. 

JACTITATION  OF  MARRIAGE.  In 
England,  a  suit  in  the  ecclesiasticarcourt, 
when  one  of  the  parties  boasts  or  gives 
out  that  he  or  she  is  married,  which  the 
other  party  denying,  and  no  adequate 
proof  of  the  marriage  being  brought,  the 
offending  party  is  enjoined  silence  on  that 
head. 

JADE.  See  Nephrite. 

JAG  (in  Botany).  A  division  or  cleft  in 
a  leaf. 

JALAP.  The  root  of  a  West  Indian 
plant,  of  the  convolvulus  tribe,  of  a  black 
colour  on  the  outside,  and  reddish  within, 


JEL 

with  resinous  veins.  It  was  not  known  in 
England  until  after  the  discovery  of  Ame- 
rica, and  received  its  name  from  Xalapa,  a 
town  in  New  Spain.  The  principal  con- 
stituent parts  of  jalap  are  resin  and  starch. 
JAGUAR.  An  animal  of  the  cat  kind, 
resembling  the  panther ;  it  is  found  in  the 
northern  part  of  South  America,  and  in 
Mexico. 


JEW 


209 


JAMB  (among  Carpenters).  Any  sup- 
porter on:  either  side,  as  the  posts  of  a 
door. 

JAMB  (among  Miners).  A  thiclc  bed  of 
stone  that  obstructs  the  miners  in  their 
pursuing  the  veins  of  ores. 

JANIZARIES.  The  grand  seignior's 
guard,  or  the  soldiers  of  the  Turkish  in- 
fantry, which  have  lately  been  abolished, 
and  their  places  supplied  by  troops  trained 
after  the  European  manner. 

JANUARY.  Tlie  first  month  in  the  year, 
supposed  to  take  its  name  from  Janus,  an 
ancient  king  of  Italy. 

JAPANNING.  The  art  of  varnishing 
and  painting  figures  on  wood,  metal,  &;c. 
as  is  practised  by  the  inhabitants  of  Ja- 
pan, &c. 

JAPONIC  A.  The  Japan  rose. 

JAR.  A  measure  of  capacity,  as  a  jar  of 
oil,  containing  from  18  to  26  gallons 

JASMIN.  See  Jessamine. 

JASPER.  A  precious  stone  of  a  green 
transparent  colour,  with  red  veins.  It  is  a 
sort  of  silicious  earth,  consisting  mostly  of 
silica,  with  a  small  portion  of  alumina, 
oxide  of  iron,  magnesia,  and  potash. 

JAVELIN.  A  sort  of  half  pike  or  spear. 

JAUNDICE.  A  disease  proceedingifrom 
obstructions  in  the  glands  of  the  liver,  which 
causes  the  bile  to  overflow,  and  tiirns  the 
complexion  yellow. 

JAW.  A  bone  of  the  mouth,  in  which 
the  teeth  are  fixed. 

JAWS.  The  two  pieces  in  the  cock  of 
a  gun  between  which  the  flint  is  fixed. 

JEHOVAH.  The  proper  name  of  the 
Most  High  in  the  Hebrew. 

JELLY.  Any  liquid,  as  the  juice  of  | 
18* 


fruits,  coagulated  into  a  tremulous,  soft  sub- 
stance :  when  long  boiled  it  loses  the  pro- 
perty of  gelatinizing,  and  becomes  analo- 
gous to  mucilage . 

JERBOA.  A  lively  little  animal  shaped 
like  the  Opossum  of  the  size  of  a  rat,  and 
found  in  Egypt,  and  the  adjacent  countries. 

JAY.  A  bird  with  particoloured  plumage, 
some  varieties  of  which  may  be  taught  to 
speak.  The  blue  jay  of  America  is  remark- 
able for  its-brilliant  plumage. 


JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE.  A  sort 
of  sunflower,which  resembles  the  artichoke 
in  taste. 

JESSAMINE,  or  JASMIN.  A  plant 
bearing  fragrant  flowers,  which  is  com- 
monly trained  to  the  walls  of  houses. 

JESUITS,,  or  tlie  Order  of  Jesus.  A 
religious  order  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola 
in  1538,  and  abolished  in  1773,  on  account 
of  their  intrigues,  but  partially  restored 
since. 

JESUITS  BARK.  The  Cinchona  or 
Peruvian  Bark,  so  called  because  it  was 
first  used  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in 
Peru. 

JET  (in  Mineralogj').  A  deep  black  sort 
of  bitumen. 

JET  D'EAU.  The  pipe  of  a  fountain 
which  throws  up  the  water  in  the  air. 

JETSAM  (in  Law).   Any  thing  thrown 
out  of  aship  which  is  in  danger  of  a  wreck. 
JEU    D'ESPRIT.      A    lively,     pretty 
thought. 

JEWEL.  The  name  of  the  precious 
stones  which  are  worn  as  ornaments. 

JEWELLER.  One  who  works  or  deals 
in  jewels  and  all  kinds  of  precious  stones. 
JEWEL  OFFICE.  In  England,  an  of- 
fice where  the  king's  plate  is  fashioned, 
weighed,  and  delivered  out  by  the  war- 
rant of  the  lord  chamberlain. 

JEWS.  The  descendants  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel,  who  were  so  called  after 
their  return  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon, 
from  Judah,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob, 
whose  tribe  formed  the  most  considerable 
part  of  those  that  remained  of  the  Israelites- 
Although  the  Jews  have  lost  the  distinction 
of  their  tribes,  and  are  dispersed  throughout 


210 


JOU 


all  nations,  yet  they  remain  a  perfectly 
distinct  people,  and  adhere  to  the  religion 
of  their  forefathers.  Their  condition  has 
been  considerably  ameliorated  in  all;  Chris- 
tian countries  where  they  now  reside. 

JEWS-EAR.  A  kiftd'  of  mushroom. 

JEW'S-HARP.  A  musical  instrument 
which  is  played  between  the  teeth. 

JEWS-MALLOW.  A  plant  whose 
leaves  are  produced  alternately  at  the- 
stalks.  The  flower  expands  in  the  form  of' 
a  rose. 

JIB,  The  foremost  sail  of  a  ship. 

JOBBER.  One  who  buys  and  sells  cat- 
tle for  another. 

JOCKEY.  A  man  who  rides  horses  at 
races. 

JOHN  DOREE.  A  species  offish. 

JOINER.  A  worker  in  wood,  who  fits 
together  the  several  pieces  which  have  been 
prepared  for  each  other.  He  differs  from 
the  carpenter,  inasmuch  as  he  does  the  finer 
work,  that  requires  more  skill.  The  com- 
pany of  joiners  in  London,  was  incorpora- 
ted in  1570. 

JOINT  (in  Anatomy).  The  place  where 
any  bone  is  articulated,  or- joined  with 
another. 

JOINT  (in  Masonry).  The  separation 
between  the  stones,  which  is  filled  with 
mortar. 

JOINT  (in  Joinery).  The  parts  where 
two  pieces  of  wood  join.. 

JOINT  (in  Botany).  The  knot  in  the 
stalk  of  a  plant. 

JOINT  (among  Butchers).  The  limb 
that  is  cut  from  the  carcass  of  an  aniliral. 

JOINT  STOCK  (in  Commerce).  A 
stock  or  fund,  formed  by  the  union  of 
several  shares  from  different  persons. 

JOINT  STOCK  COMPANIES.  Com- 
mercial associations,  having  a  stock  con- 
sistingof  many  shares  :  in  such  associations 
the  shareliolders  gain  or  lose,  according  to 
the  number  of  shares  which  they  hold. 

JOINTURE  (in  Law).  A  settlement  of 
lands  and  tenements  made  over  by  the 
husband  to  the  wifCj  to  be-  enjoyed  after 
his  decease. 

JOISTS.  Timbers framedinto the  girders, 
or  sommers  of  a  building. 

JONaUIL.  A  plant  of  the  Narcissus 
kind,  the  flowers  of  which  are  either  single 
or  double,  and  are  much  esteemed'for  their 
sweet  scent. 

JOURNAL.  Any  book  in  which  is  kept 
an  account  of  what  passes  in  the  day. 

JOURNAL  (in  Merchants'  Accounts). 
A  book  wherein  every  thing  is  posted  out 
of  the  waste-book. 

JOURNAL     (among     Publishers    and 


JUD 

Booksellers).    A  periodical  work,  either 
daily,  weekly,  or  monthly,  &c. 

JOURNAL  (among  Mariners).  A  book 
wherein  is  kept  an  account  of  the  ship's 
way  at  sea. 

JOURNEY  (in  Husbandry).  A  day's 
ploughing. 

JOURNEY  (in  Coining).  Money  coined 
within  a  certain  period. 

JOURNEYMAN.  One  who  works  by 
the  day,  the-  week,  or  the  year,  &c.  for 
another. 

JUBILEE.  Every  fiftieth  year,  cele- 
brated as.  a  festival  among  the  Jews,  in 
commemoration  of  their  deliverance  out 
of  Egypt.  At  this  festival,  which  was  a 
season  of  joy,  bondservants  were  set  free. 

JUBILEE  (in  the  Romish  Church).  A 
solemnity  instituted  a.  d.  1300,  by  Pope 
Boniface,  to  be  observed  every  hundredth 
year,  or  every  twenty-fifth  year,  as  en- 
joined by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  for  the  per- 
formance of  several  ceremonies  in  order  to 
obtain  pardons,  remissions  from  sins,  in- 
dulgences, &c.  The  jubilee  lasts  a  whole 
year,  and  as  it  brings  in  great  stores  of 
wealth  to  the  popes,  it  has  been  called  the 
Golden- Year. 

JUDAISM.  The  rites,  customs,  and 
doctrines  of  the  Jews. 

JUDGE  (in  Law).  A  chief  magistrate 
appointed  to  administer  justice  in  civil 
and  criminal  causes.  In  England  there 
are  commonly  said  to  be  twelve  judges, 
namely,  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  ;  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of, 
the  Common  Pleas ;  the  Lord  Chief  Baron 
of  the  Exchequer;  the  three  Puisne  or 
inferior  Judges  of  the  two  first  courts  ;  and 
the  Puisne  Barons  of  the  latter  court.  The 
Chief  Justices  are  installed  or  placed  on 
the  bench  by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  the 
Puisne  Judges  by  the  Lord  Chancellor 
and  the  Chief  Justices. 

JUDGE  MARTIAL,  or  Judge  Advo- 
cate,, or  Advocate  General.  The  su- 
preme judge  in  courts  martial. 

JUDGMENT  (in  Law).  The  sentence 
of  the  court,  pronounced  by  the  judge  on 
the  matter  in  the  record,  either  in  cases  of 
default,  where  the  defendant  puts  in  no 
plea  ;  or  of  confession,  when  the  defendant 
acknowledges  the  action ;  or  upon  demur 
rer,  where  the  defendant  pleads  a  bad  plea 
in  bar  ;  or  upon  a  nonsuit  or  retraxit,  where 
the  plaintiff  withdraws  or  abandons  the 
prosecution.  Judgments  are  either  inter- 
locutory, that  is,  given  in  the  middle  of  a 
cause  on  some  intermediate  point,  or  final, 
so  as  to  put  an  end  to  the  action. 

JUDICIAL   (in   Law).   An  epithet  fox 


JUP 

what  appertains  to  a  court,  as  judicial 
decisions,  &c. 

JUGULARE3  (inlcthyology).  An  order 
of  fishes  in  the  Linneean  system,  including 
those  that  have  the  ventral  fins  placed  be- 
fore the  pectoral,  as  the  cod,  the  whiting, 
the  haddock,  &c. 

JUGULAR  VEINS.  Veins,  running  from, 
the  head  down  the  sides  of  the  neck. 

JULIAN  PERIOD  (in  Chronology). 
A  period  of  7980  consecutive  years,  pro- 
duced by  the  multiplication  of  the  three 
cycles  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  indiction  into 
one  another.  It  was  so  called  because  it 
consists  of  Julian  years. 

JULIAN  YEAR.  A  space  of  time  con- 
sisting of  3G5  days  and  6  hours,  so  called 
from  Julius  Caesar,  by  whom  it-  was  esta- 
blished. The  calendar,  which  contained 
an  account  of  Julian  time,  was  called  the 
Julian  Calendar ;  and  the  time  when  it 
was  first  instituted,  namely,  46  a.  c,  the 
Julian  Epocha. 

JULY.  The  seventh  montli  in  the  year, 
so  called  in  honour  of  Julius  Caesar. 

JUNIPER  TREE.  A  sort  of  tree  or 
shrub,  having  long,  narrow,  and  prickly 
leaves,  and  bearing  a  soft  pulpy  berry. 
This  shrub  is  common  on  heaths  and  bar- 
ren hills,  but  the  berries  which  are  used 
medicinally  are  brought  from  Germany. 
From  the  berries  is  made,  in  Holland,  the 
gin  called  Hollands  gin, 

JUNO  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology).  The 
wife  of  Jupiter,  whose  emblem  was  the 
peacock. 


JUS 


211 


JUNO  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
newly  discovered  planets. 

JUNTA.  A  Spanish  term  for  a  meeting 
of  men  sitting  in  council. 

JUPITER  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
largest  of  all  the  planets,  being,  according 
to  some,  upwards  of  two  thousand  times 
bigger  than  our  earth.  It  is  the  most  bril- 
liant star  after  Venus,  revolves  on  its  own 
axis  in  9  hours  and  Sfi  minutes,  and  per- 
forms its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  4322 
4ayB  14  hours  18  minutes  and  41  seconds. 


JUPITER  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology). 
The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  and  chief  of 
the  gods,  was  the  most  honoured  among 
men.  His  most  usual  attributes  are  the 
eagle,  and  thunder,  and  sometimes  a  figur* 
of  victory,  and  a  spear,  &c. 


JURISDICTION.  The  power  or  autho- 
rity invested  in  any  individual  or  court,  of 
doing  justice  in  the  causes  brought  before 
them. 

JURISPRUDENCE.  Properly,  a  know- 
ledge of  the  laws,  or  skill  in  interpretiiig 
and  applying  them  •,  also  the  laws  them- 
selves, together  with  all  that  relates  to 
their  administration.  English  jurispru- 
dence comprehends  the  common  and  stat^ 
ute  law,  together  with  such  parts  of  the 
civil  and  canon  law  as  have  been  admitted 
into  their  courts. 

JURY  (in  Law).  A  certain  number  of 
persons  sworn  to  inquire  of,  and  to  declare 
the  truth  upon  the  evidence  offered  to  them 
relating  to  the  matter  of  fact.  Juries  are 
of  different  kinds,  as  the  grand  jury,  petty 
jury,  special -jury,  common  jury,  coroner's 
jury,  (See.  The  grand  jury,  consisting  of 
twenty-four  persons,  is  chosen  to  consider 
all  bills  of  indictment  preferred  to  the  court, 
which  they  return  as  true,  by  writing  upon 
them,  'billa  vera,'  true  bill,  or  throw  out 
by  indorsing  the  word  'ignoramus.'  The 
petty  jury,  consisting  of  twelve  men,  is 
chosen  to  try  all  causes  civil  and  criminal : 
in  the  latter  causes  they  give  a  verdict  of 
Guilty,  or  Not  Guilty  ;  in  civil  causes,  they 
bring  a  verdict  either  for  the  plaintiff  or 
the  defendant ;  and  in  real  actions,  either 
for  the  demandant  or  tenant.  A  jury  is 
called  special,  when  it  is  returned  for  a 
particular  cause,  and  common  when  it  is 
returned  by  the  sheriff  in  the  same  panel, 
to  try  every  cause  at  the  same  court. 

JURYMAN,  One  who  is  sworn  on  a  jury 

JURY-MAST.  A  great  yard  used  in 
the  place  of  the  foremast  or  mainmast, 
when  it  is  broken  down  by  a  storm. 

JUSTICE   (in  Law).    In    England,    a 


212 


KAM 


person  deputed  by  the  king  to  administer 
justice  to  liis  subjects.  Justices  are  distin- 
guished into  Justices  of  the  King's  Bench, 
and  Common  Pleas,  Justices  of  Assize, 
Justices  of  the  Forest,  Justices  of  Gaol 
Delivery,  &c. 

JUSTICES  OF  THE  PEACE.  Persons 
of  interest  and  credit  appointed  by  com- 
mission, to  maintain  the  peace  within 
certain  limits. 

JUSTIFICATION  (in  Law).  The  show- 
ing good  reason  in  a  court,  why  one  has 


KEE 

done  the  thing  for  which  he  is  called  to 
answer, 

JUSTICIARY,  or  Court  of  Justicia- 
ry, in  Scotland.  A  court  of  supreme  juris- 
diction in  all  criminal  cases. 

JUSTS.  Exercises  in  former  times,  for 
the  display  of  martial  prowess  at  great 
solemnities,  as  the  marriages  of  princes, 
&c. 

JUXTAPOSITION  (with  Philosophers). 
The  state  of  being  placed  in  contiguity  or 
near  to  each  other. 


K,  the  eleventh  letter  in  the  alphabet,  stood 
as  a  numeral  for  250,  with  a  stroke  over 
it  thus,  K,  for  250,000  3  as  an  abbreviation, 
it  stands  for  Knight,  as  K.  G.  Knight  of 
the  Garter,  K.  B.  Knight  of  the  Bath. 

KxA-LE.  A  hardy  kind  of  winter  cab- 
bage, with  a  curled  leaf. 

KALEIODOSCOPE.  An  optical  in- 
strument for  exhibiting  a  diversity  of 
beautiful  figures,  invented  by  Dr.  Brews- 
ter. It  is  chiefiy  used  by  calico-printers, 
potters,  and  carpet  manufacturers,  who  are 
thus  supplied  with  an  immense  variety  of 
patterns. 

KALI  (called  in  Botany  Salsola  Kali). 
A  sort  of  marine  plants,  from  which  the 
alkali  of  commerce  is  procured  by  burning. 


KALMUCS.  A  nation  of  Tartars  inha- 
biting parts  of  Russia  in  Asia. 

KAMSIN.  A  hot  and  dry  southerly 
wind,  common  in  Egypt  and  the  deserts 
of  Africa,  \vhich  prevails  more  or  less  for 
fifty  days.  On  the  approach  of  this  %vind 
the  sky  becomes  dark  and  heavy,  the  air 
gray  and  thick,  and  filled  with  a  dust  so 
subtle  that  it  penetrates  everywhere.  It 
Is  not  remarkably  hot  at  first,  hut  increases 
in  heat  the  longer  it  continues,  during 
which  time  it  causes  a  diificulty  of  bre:ith- 


ing,  and  when  at  its  highest  pitch,  will 
cause  suffocation  and  sudden  death.  To 
prevent  this,  it  is  necessary  to  stop  the 
nose  and  mouth  with  handkerchiefs. 

KAN.  A  magistrate  in  Persia,,  answer- 
ing to  a  governor  in  Europe. 

KANGUROO.  An  animal  in  New  Hol- 
land, which,  when  full  grown,  is  as  large 
as  a  sheep.  It  leaps  and  eats  like  a  squir- 
rel. It  isfurnished,  like  the  opossum,  with 
a  pouch  in  the  abdomen,  which  is  a  recep- 
tacle for  its  young  during  the  time  of 
breeding,  and  is  resorted  to  after  the  birth 
for  the  sake  of  warmth  and  protection.  It 
is  said  to  leap  thirty  yards  at  a  single  bound. 


KAOLIN.  A  sort  of  earth  which  is 
used  as  one  of  the  two  ingredients  in  porce- 
lain. 

KECKLING  (among  Mariners).  Wind- 
ing or  twining  small  ropes  about  a  cable  or 
bolt-rope,  to  preserve  them  from  galling.  ^ 
KEDGER.  A  small  anchor, 
KEDGING  (among  Mariners).  Setting 
up  the  sails,  and  letting  a  sliip  drive  with 
the  tide,  when  the  wind  is  contrary  to  the 
tide. 

I  KEEL.  The  lowest  piece  of  timber  in 
I  a  ship,  running  her  whole  length.  Some- 
!  times  a  second  keel,  or  false  keel,  as  it  is 


KET 

called,  is  put  under  the  first.  This  name 
is  also  given  to  a  low  flat-bottomed  vessel 
used  in  the  river  Tyne,  in  England,  for 
bringing  coals  from  Newcastle. 

KEELERS  (among  Mariners).  Small 
tubs  use  in  calking  ships. 

KEEL-HAULING  (among  Mariners). 
A  punishment  of  offenders  at  sea  by  let- 
ting them  down  with  ropes,  and  drawing 
them  under  the  keel  from  one  side  to  the 
other. 

KEELSON  (in  Naval  Architecture).  A 
principal  timber  in  a  ship,  laid  withinside 
across  all  the  timbers. 

KEEP.  A  strong  tower  in  old  castles, 
where  the  besieged  retreated  in  cases  of 
extremity. 

KEEPER  (in  England).  An  officer  of 
different  descriptions,  as  the  Keeper  of  the 
Great  SeaL  a  lord  by  his  office,  and  one 
of  the  Privy  Cauncil,  through  whose  hands 
pass  all  chajters,  commissions,  and  grants 
of  the  king  under  the  Great  Seal ;  Keeper 
of  the  Privy  Seal,  through  whose  hands 
pass  all  charters,  &c.  before  they  come  to 
the  Great  Seal ;  besides  which  there  is  the 
Keeper  of  the  Forests,  the  Keeper  of  the 
Touch,  an  officer  of  the  Mint,  &c. 

KEEPING  (among  Painters).  The  ma- 
nagement of  lights  and  shades,  so  as  to 
preserve  the  proper  distances  of  objects 
according  to  the  rules  of  perspective. 
KEG.  A  barrel  for  pickled  fish. 
KELP,  The  ashes  of  the  salsola  soda 
and  otli«r  marine  plants,  which,  when 
burnt  in  pits,  and  stirred  about  for  a  length 
of  time,  form  liard  masses,  that  are  used 
in  making  soap.  In  this  manner  the  min- 
eral alkali  called  soda  is  procured. 

KENNEL  (among  Sportsmen).  A  place 
in  which  dogs  are  kept  3  also  the  hole  in 
which  a  fox  lies. 

KERMES.  A  round  body  of  the  size  of 
a  pea,  and  of  a  brownish-red  colour,  which 
contains  a  number  of  soft  granules  filled 
with  a  red  colour.  It  is  found  in  the 
southern  parts  of  Europe  adhering  to  the 
scarlet  oak,  and  was  till  lately  supposed 
to  be  a  vegetable  excrescence,  but  is  now 
known  to  be  the  extended  body  of  an 
animal  filled  with  a  numerous  offspring, 
which  are  the  little  red  granules. 

KERxMES  MINERALIS.   A  preparation 
of  antimony,  so  called  from  its  beautiful 
deep  orange  colour. 
KESTREL,    A  small  kind  of  hawk. 
KETCHUP.     The  liquor  of  mushrooms, 
which  is  much  used  as  a  sauce. 

KETTLE-DRUM.    A  drum,  the  vellum 
head  of  which  is  spread  over  a  body  of 
brass. 
KETTON  STONE.  An  opaque  compact 


KID 


213 


sort  of  marble  found  in  different  parts  of 
Britain. 

KETCH.    A  small  vessel  constructed 
for  carrying  bombs. 


KEY  (among  Smiths).  An  instrument 
for  opening  a  lock,  having  cavities  to  cor- 
respond to  the  wards  of  the  lock. 

KEY  (in  Gunnery).  The  firelocks  and 
springlocks  of  gun-carriages. 

KEY  (in  Carpentry).  The  last  board 
that  is  laid. 

KEY  (in  Music).  A  name  for  the  pieces 
of  wood  or  ivoiy  in  an  organ  or  harpsi- 
chord, which  are  struck  by  the  finger  in 
playing  an  instrument ;  also  the  fundamen- 
tal note,  otherwise  called  the  cleff  or  cliff. 
KEY  (in  Commerce).  The  same  as 
Quay. 

KEY,  or  Gold  Key  (in  Court  Eti- 
quette). In  England,  the  key  which  is 
worn  by  the  Lords  of  the  Bedchamber. 

KEYS  (in  Naked  Flooring).     Pieces  of 

timber  framed  in  between  every  two  joists. 

KEYS  (in  Joinery).    Pieces  of  timber  let 

in  transverse  to  the  fibres,  into  the  back  of 

a  board. 

KEYS  (in  England).  The  twenty-four 
commoners  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  who  are  the 
conservators  of  the  liberties  of  the  people. 
KEY-STONE  (among  Architects).  The 
name  for  those  stones  which  form  the 
sweep  of  an  arch,  particularly  the  last  or 
middle  stone  placed  on  the  top  of  the  arch 
or  vault, 

KIDNAPPING  (in  Law).  The  forcible 
taking  away  a  man,  woman,  or  child,  in 
order  to  carry  them  abroad.  This  is  an 
offence  at  common  law,  and  punishable  by 
fine,  imprisonment,  and  pillory. 

KIDNEY-BEAN.  A  garden  pulse  hav- 
ing a  papilionaceous  flower,  the  pistil  of 
which  becomes  a  long  pod,  that  is  eaten 
before  the  seeds  are  fully  formed. 

KIDNEYS.  Glands  shaped  like  a  kid- 
ney-bean, which  separate  the  urine  from 
the  blood.  There  are  two  kidneys,  one  on 
each  lumbar  region. 


214 


KIN 


KILDEER  PLOVER.  A  well  known 
bird  that  frequents  open  grounds  and  con- 
stantly cries  Kikleer. 

KILDERKIN.  A  liquid  measure  con- 
taining eighteen  gallons. 

KILN.  A  furnace  in  which  chalk  is 
burnt  for  making  lime  ;  also  a  place  where 
bricks,  tiles,  and  malt  are  burnt  or  dried. 

KILN-DRYING.  The  process  of  drying 
wetted  barley  on  a  kiln  for  the  purpose  of 
making  malt. 

KIND  (in  Law).  In  their  natural  state, 
as  lithe  in  kind,  that  is,  in  the  commodi- 
ties themselves  as  distinguished  from  their 
value  in  money  5  so,  in  Military  Affairs, 
ratios  supplied  in  kind. 

KINDRED  (in  Law).  Persons  of  the 
same  blood  or  descent. 

KING.  The  sovereign  ruler  of  a  state. 
The  law  ascribes  to  the  king  of  England, 
in  his  political  capacity,  immortality,  for 
the  king  never  dies;  and  on  his  decease, 
w  hich  is  cal  led  his  demise,  his  regal  dignity 
is  vested,  without  any  interregnum  or  in- 
terval, at  once  in  his  heir. 

KING  AT  ARMS  (in  Heraldry).  An 
otTicer  at  arms,  that  has  the  preeminence 
over  the  rest,  and  is  otherwise  called  Gar- 
ter King  at  Arms. 

KING  DIED.  An  American  variety  of 
the  fly-catcher,  sometimes  called  the  ty- 
rant fly-catcher,  from  his  constant  attacks 
upon  other  birds. 

KINGDOM  (in  Law).  Any  country 
governed  by  a  king. 

KINGDOM  (in  Natural  History).  A 
general  division  of  natural  objects,  as  the 
animal,  the  mineral,  and  the  vegetable 
kingdoms  in  the  Linnasan  system. 

KING-FISH.  A  European  fish  of  re- 
markably splendid  colours. 

KING-FISHER.    A  bird  that  feeds  on 


fish,  whose  plumage  resembles  the  purple 
colour  of  the  king's  robes. 

KING'S  BENCH,  Bancus  Regius,  or 
B.  R.  The  supreme  court  of  common  law 
in  England,  consisting  of  the  Lord  Chief 
Justice,  and  three  puisne  or  inferior  judges, 


KNE 

who  hear  and  determine,  for  the  most  part, 
all  pleas  which  concern  the  king's  crown 
and  diy;nity. 

KING-FiECE,  or  King-Post  (in  Car- 
pentry). The  chief  beam  under  the  roof. 

KING'S  BENCH  PRISON  (in  England). 
A  prison  .wherein  debtors,  and  ofl"enders 
against  the  state,  are  confined. 

KING'S  EVIL.  A  scrofulous  disease,  in 
which  the  glands  are  ulcerated,  the  gift  of 
curing  which,  was  formerly  attributed  to 
the  kings  and  queens  of  England  from  the 
time  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  The  prac- 
tice of  touching  the  king  or  queen  for  the 
evil,  is  now  abolished. 

KING'S  SILVER  (in  England).  Money 
due  to  the  king  in  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  for  a  license  there  granted  to  any 
man  for  passing  a  fine. 

KIRK.  The  Scotch  Presbyterian  church. 

KITE.  A  bird  of  prey,  of  the  falcon 
kind,  the  tail  of  which  is  forked,  and  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  all  other  birds  of  prey. 


KITE.  A  plaything  among  schoolboys, 
consisting  of  aslight  wooden  frame  covered 
with  paper,  and  constructed  so  as  to  rise 


in  the  air.   By  the  help  of  a  long  string  it 
may  be  allowed  to  fly  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  person  holding  it. 
KNEES  (in  Naval  Architecture).  Pieces 


LAB 

of  timber  bowed  like  a  knee,  which  bind 
the  beams  and  futtocks  together. 

KNAPSACK.  A  leathern  bag  in  which 
soldiers  carry  their  provisions,  &c. 

KNEE.  That  part  which  joins  the  leg 
and  thigh  together. 

KNEE-PAN.  A  little  round  bone  placed 
in  the  fore  part  of  the  knee. 

KNELL.  A  passing  bell,  anciently  rung 
at  the  time  when  a  person  was  about  to 
expire. 

KNIGHT  (in  England).  A  title  of  hon- 
our, originally  bestowed  on  every  man  of 
rank  or  honour,  that  he  might  be  qualified 
to  give  challenges,  and  to  perform  feats 
of  arms.  It  is  now  an  order  of  gentlemen 
next  to  baronets,  or  a  mere  honorary  dis- 
tinction, which  entitles  the  person  on 
whom  it  is  conferred  to  be  styled  Sir  D.  D., 
and  his  wife  Lady  D.  D.  A  knight  is  now 
made  by  the  king  touching  him  with  a 
sword  as  he  kneels,  and  saying, '  Rise  up, 
Sir  D.  D.' 

KNIGHTS  BACHELORS  (in  England). 
A  description  of  knights  inferior  to  the 
knights  bannerets. 

KNIGHTS  BANNERETS  (in  England). 
Knights  so  called,  that  were  created 
knights  on  the  field  for  some  valiant 
achievement. 

KNIGHTS  OF  THE  SHIRE  (in  Eng- 
land). Two  knights  or  gentlemen  of  es- 
tate, who  are  elected  by  the  freeholders  of 
every  county,  to  represent  them  in  Parlia- 
ment.   The  qualification  of  a  knight  of 


LAC 


215 


the  shire  is  to  be  possessed  of  600Z.  per 
annum  in  a  freehold  estate. 

KNITTING.  The  process  of  weaving 
without  a  loom,  by  the  help  of  a  needle; 
also  the  act  of  tying  together  certain  quan- 
tities of  yarn,  and  then  warping  them  into 
hanks  to  be  tarred. 

KNOT  (among  Mariners).  Any  large 
knob  formed  on  the  extremity  of  a  rope; 
also  the  division  of  the  log  line,  answering 
to  half  a  minute,  as  a  mile  does  to  an 
hour. 

KNOT  (in  Ornithology.)  A  fen-bird,  the 
flesh  of  which  is  very  delicious. 

KNOUT.  A  Russian  punishment,  which 
consists  in  barbarous  scourging,  slitting 
the  nostrils,  and  maimings  of  different 
kinds. 

KORAN.  The  book  of  the  Mahometan 
doctrine,  containing  the  revelations  of 
their  pretended  prophet. 

KOUMISS.  A  fermented  liquor  made 
by  the  Tartars,  of  mare's  milk.  Something 
similar  is  prepared  in  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Isles. 

KREMLIN.  The  palace  at  Moscow, 
standing  in  a  central  and  elevated  part  of 
the  city,  which  suffered  but  little  in  the 
conflagration  that  followed  the  entry  of 
the  French  in  1812.  It  was  built  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

KT  (in  England).  An  abbreviation  for 
Knight. 

K.  T  (in  England).  An  abbreviation 
for  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 


L,  the  twelfth  letter  in  the  alphabet,  de- 
noting, as  a  numeral,  50,  and  with  a  line 
over  it  thus  L,  50,000;  as  an  abbreviation, 
it  stands  for  libra,  pound,  and  liber,  book. 

LA  (in  Music).  The  syllable  by  which 
Guido  denoted  the  last  sound  of  each 
hexachord . 

LABEL  (among  Mechanics).  A  thin 
brass  ruler,  with  sights,  commonly  used 
•with  a  circumferentor,  to  take  heights. 

LABEL  (in  Heraldry).  A  figure  sup- 
posed to  represent  ribands,  which  in  coats 
of  arms  distinguished  the  eldest  son  of  a 
family. 


ZnxiA 


LABEL  (in  Law).  A  slip  fastened  to 
deeds  or  writings,  or  any  paper  joined  by 
way  of  addition  to  a  will. 


LABIAL  LETTERS.  Letters  requiring 
the  use  of  the  lips  in  pronunciation. 

LABORATORY.  A  chymist's  work 
shop;  also  a  workhouse  where  fireworkers 
and  bombardiers  prepare  their  stores. 

LABOURER.  One  who  does  day 
labour. 

LABYRINTH.  A  maze,  or  place  full 
of  intricate  windings.  The  labyrinth  of 
Egypt,  built  by  Psammiticus  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Nile,  contained,  within  the 
compass  of  one  continued  wall,  one  thou- 
sand houses  and  twelve  royal  palaces,  all 
covered  with  marble;  it  had  only  one  en- 
trance, but  innumerable  turnings  and 
windings,  so  that  those  who  were  in  could 
not  find  their  way  out  without  a  guide. 
This  labyrinth  was  reckoned  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

LAC.  A  substance  well  known  in  Europe 
under  the  different  names  of  stick-lac.shell- 


216 


LAD 


i 


lac,  and  seed-lac.  Stick-lac  is  the  lac  in  its 
natural  state;  seed-lac  is  the  stick-lac  sepa- 
rated from  the  twigs;  shell-lac  is  that  which 
has  undergone  the  process  of  being  purified. 
Lac  was  for  some  time  supposed  to  be  a 
gum,  but  improperly  so,  because  it  is  in- 
flammable, and  not  soluble  in  water.  It 
is  the  product  of  the  coccus  lacca,  which 
deposits  its  eggs  on  the  branches  of  a  tree 
in  Thibet,  and  elsewhere  in  India,  where 
lac  is  fashioned  into  rings,  beads,  and  other 
trinkets.  Sealing  wax,  varnishes,  and  lake 
for  painters,  are  made  from  it,  and  it  is 
also  much  used  as  a  dye. 

LACCIC  ACID  (in  Chymistry).  An  acid 
procured  from  gumlac,  the  component 
parts  of  which  are  supposed  to  be  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

LACE  (in  Commerce).  A  work  com- 
posed of  many  threads  of  gold,  silver,  or 
silk  interwoven,  and  worked  by  means  of 
spindles  on  a  pillow,  according  to  the 
pattern  designed. 

LACHRYMAL.  An  appellation  given 
to  several  parts  of  the  eye,  from  their 
serving  to  secrete  or  convey  away  the 
tears,  as  the  lachrymal  ducts,  the  lachrymal 
gland,  the  lachrymalia  puncta,  &c. 

LACING  (among  Mariners).  The  rope 
or  line  used  to  confine  the  heads  of  sails 
to  their  yards. 

LACK  (in  Commerce).  The  number  of 
100,000  rupees  in  India. 

LACKER, orLACaUER.  A  sort  of  var- 
nish applied  to  tin,  brass,  or  other  metals. 
The  basis  of  lacker  is  a  solution  of  the  re- 
sinous substance  of  seed-lac  in  spirit  of 
wine.  In  order  to  give  a  golden  colour  to 
the  solution,  two  parts  of  gamboge  are  ad- 
ded to  one  of  anotto.  When  silver  leaf  or 
tin  is  to  be  lackered  a  larg'^r  quantity  of  the 
colouring  materials  is  lequisite  than  when 
the  lacker  is  intended  to  be  laid  on  brass. 

LACTEAL  VESSELS  (in  Anatomy). 
Tender  transparent  vessels  which  convey 
the  chyle  from  the  mesentery  to  the  tho- 
racic duct. 

LACTIC  ACID.  An  acid  procured  from 
sour  milk  by  precipitating  it  with  lime- 
water  and  separating  the  lime  with  oxalic 
acid.  It  is  supposed  to  consist  of  acetic 
acid  and  muriate  of  potash,  with  a  small 
portion  of  iron  and  an  animal  matter. 

LADDER.  A  wooden  frame  made  with 
steps  for  mounting. 

LADDER,  Scaling  fin  Fortification). 
A  particular  kind  of  ladder  made  of  ropes 
or  flat  staves,  with  which  the  men  scale 
the  walls  of  a  place  that  is  to  be  taken  by 
surprise. 

LADY-BIRD.  A  small  red  insect  with 
black  spots. 


LAM 

LADY'S  SLIPPER.  A  plant  which 
grows  wild,  the  flower  of  which  is  some- 
thing in  the  shape  of  a  shoe. 

LADY'S  SMOCK.  A  plant  that  grows 
wild,  the  flower  of  which  consists  of  four 
leaves  succeeded  by  narrow  pods,  which, 
when  ripe,  roll  up  and  cast  forth  their 
seeds. 

LAIR  (among  Sportsmen).  The  place 
where  deer  harbour  by  day. 

LAIRD.  The  name  of  a  lord  of  a  manor 
in  the  highlands  of  Scotland. 

LAITY.  The  people,  as  distinguished 
from  the  clergy. 

LAKE  (in  Geograpihy).  A  collection  of 
waters  in  an  inland  place  of  great  extent 
and  depth,  as  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  &c. 

LAKE  (in  Painting).  A  fine  crimson 
colour,  between  carmine  and  vermilion. 
It  is  formed  by  precipitation  from  the 
solution  of  the  colouring  matter  with  an 
earth  or  metallic  oxide.  Precipitates  of 
different  shades  are  obtained  with  alum, 
nitre,  chalk,  &c. 

LAMA  (in  Theology),  or  the  Grand 
Lama  of  Thibet.  The  prince  and  high- 
priest  of  the  country,  who  is  supposed  to 
be  immortal,  and  on  the  dissolution  of  his 
mortal  frame  his  soul  enters  into  the  body 
of  a  new  born  child.  He  is  worshipped 
as  a  supernatural  being  by  his  subjects, 
and  is  never  to  be  seen  but  in  the  secret 
recesses  of  his  palace,  where  he  sits  cross- 
legged  on  a  cushion. 

LAMB.  The  young  of  sheep  while  under 
a  year  old. 


LAMINA.    A  thin  plate  of  any  metal. 

LAMINA  (in  Anatomy).  Are  the  two 
thin  plates  or  tables  of  the  skull. 

LAMMAS  DAY.  The  first  of  August, 
formerly  a  day  of  thanksgiving. 

LAMP.  A  light  made  of  oil  and  a  wick; 
also  the  vessel  to  receive  the  oil  and  the 
wick. 

LAMPBLACK.  A  colour  procured  from 
the  smoke  of  burning  oil  mixed  with  gum 
water. 

LAMPERS.  A  disease  in  the  palate  of 
a  horse's  mouth. 

LAMPREY.  A  sort  offish  which  ad- 
heres firmly  to  rocks  and  other  bodies  by 
the  mouth.    It  is  in  shape  like  an  eel,  and 


t 


* 


I 


LAIN 

as  slippery.  Lampreys  are  esteemed  as  a 
delicacy,  and  are  in  season  in  tlie  months 
of  March,  April,  and  May. 

LANCE.  An  offensive  weapon  formerly 
used  by  knights  in  their  tilts  and  tourna- 
ments. 

LANCERS  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
body  of  men  in  Poland  armed  with  long 
ances  and  mounted  on  swift  horses. 

Lx\NCET  (in  Surgery).  An  instrument 
used  in  bleeding,  opening  tumours,  &c. 

LAND  (in  Geography).  One  main  di- 
vision of  the  earth,  as  distinguished  from 
water;  in  Law,  land  includes  not  only 
arable  land,  meadow,  pasture,  &c.  buta'so, 
messuages  and  houses,  for  in  conveying 
the  land  the  buildings  pass  with  it. 

LAND  FALL  (among  Mariners).  The 
first  land  discovered  after  a  voyage. 

LAND  FORCES  (in  Military  Affairs). 
Troops  employed  only  on  land. 

LANDGRAVE.  The  governor  of  a 
district  in  Germany. 

LANDING.  Going  on  land  out  of  a 
boat  or  vesesl. 

LANDING  (in  Architecture).  The  first 
part  of  a  floor  at  the  head  of  a  flight  of 
stairs. 

LANDLOCKED.  A  sea  term  for  a 
vessel  when  she  is  at  anchor  in  a  place 
not  open  to  the  sea. 

LANDLORD  (in  Law).  He  of  whom 
lands  or  tenements  are  held. 

LANDMAN.  One  on  board  a  ship  who 
has  never  been  before  to  sea. 

LANDMARK  (in  Husbandry).  A  boun- 
dary set  between  the  lands  of  different 
persons. 

LANDMARK  (among  Mariners).  Any 
mountain  or  other  object  which  may  serve 
to  make  the  land  distinguishable  at  sea. 

LANDSCAPE  (in  Painting).  A  picture 
representing  any  part  of  a  country,  with 
the  various  objects  of  fields,  trees,  hedges, 
houses,  &;c. 

LAND  TAX  (in  England).  A  tax  im- 
posed on  lands  and  tenements,  in  lieu  of 
the  feudal  services  required  of  those  who 
held  of  the  king  by  knights  service. 

LANGUAGE.  Human  speech  in  gene- 
ral, or  an  assemblage  of  articulate  sounds 
forming  words  and  signs  for  the  expression 
of  the  thoughts  of  the  mind. 

LANGUAGE,  History  of.  That  all 
men  at  first  spoke  one  language  we  know 
on  the  authority  of  Scripture,  and  that 
that  language  must  have  been  the  Hebrew, 
the  Holy  Language,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
Jews,  in  which  God  was  pleased  to  reveal 
his  word  to  man,  is  clearly  dedm  ible  from 
Scripture.  In  giving  the  names  of  Adam 
and  many  of  his  posterity,  the  inspired 


LAN 


217 


penman  expressly  declares  them  to  be  of 
Hebrew  origin,  for  of  Adam  he  says  that 
he  was  expressly  so  called  from  the  He- 
brew Adam,  earth,  because  he  was  made 
out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth,  and -in  a 
similar  manner  he  explains  the  names  of 
Cain,  Abel,  Abram,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and 
others.  When  God  thought  proper  to  con- 
found the  tongues  of  men,  he  reserved  the 
Hebrew  tongue  for  his  chosen  people,  who, 
in  that  tongue,  were  to  keep  and  hand 
down  his  oracles  to  future  ages. 

Judging  from  the  deviations  which  the 
earliest  languages  underwent,  it  does  not 
appear  that  any  new  language  was  formed 
in  the  confusion  of  tongues  at  the  tower  of 
Babel,  nor  in  fact  that  any  other  change 
took  place  than  what  was  needful  to  an- 
swer the  divine  purpose  of  causing  the 
dispersion  of  mankind.  The  Chaldeans 
or  Babylonians  being  one  of  the  first  people 
formed  after  the  flood,  we  find  that  their 
language,  which  has  been  handed  down  to 
us  unchanged,  differs  the  least  of  any  from 
the  Hebrew.  The  Syriac,  which  was 
spoken  by  the  Canaanites,  Avas  in  its 
primitive  state  so  nearly  allied  to  the 
Hebrew  that  Abraham  understood  their 
speech;  and  although  the  Syriac  which  is 
now  extant,  and  which  was  spoken  by  the 
inhabitants  of  ancient  Syria,  underwent 
many  changes  by  the  intercourse  of  difter- 
ent  people,  yet  it  still  retains  many  vestiges 
of  its  origin.  In  the  time  of  Joseph,  the 
language  of  the  Egyptians,  which  is  still 
extant  under  the  name  of  Coptic,  was  so 
different  that  the  Israelites  required  an 
interpreter  in  order  to  be  understood,  but 
notwithstanding  they  retained  in  their 
letters  and  in  many  of  their  words  marks 
of  their  affinity  to  the  Hebrew.  This  great 
diversity  in  the  language  of  the  Egyptians, 
Che  descendants  of  Flam,  within  so  short  a 
period  after  the  flood,  is  not  surprising 
when  we  consider  the  peculiar  character 
of  this  people  for  invention  and  device. 

The  Arabian  is  another  language  which 
from  the  antiquity  of  the  people  was 
probably  formed  at  or  very  soon  after  the 
confusion  of  tongues.  It  is  also  very  dif- 
ferent from  all  the  other  tongues  then 
existing,  and  surpassed  them  all  in  the 
number  of  its  letters  and  the  harmony  and 
richness  of  its  expression,  but  still  it  carries 
with  it  innumerable  marks  of  its  affinity 
to  the  Hebrew.  The  J^thiopian  was  in 
all  probability  a  dialect  of  the  Egyptian, 
at  least  in  the  names  of  its  letters  it  is 
very  similar  to  that  lai;guage;  but  Ludolf 
observes  that  it  bears  a  great  affinity  to  ths 
Hebrew  and  the  Syriac,  and  a  still  greater 
to  the  Arabic,  from  which  he  supposes  it 


218 


LANGUAGE. 


to  be  derived.  In  fact,  he  maintains  that 
competent  Jinowledge  of  the  Hebrew,  or 
any  other  of  the  oriental  languages,  will 
enable  a  person  to  understand  very  much 
of  the  Ethiopic,  there  being  several  Hebrew 
roots  and  significations  of  Hebrew  words 
in  this  language  which  are  not  to  be  found 
in  any  other. 

As  the  Phoenicians,  the  descendants  of 
the  Canaanites,  inhabited  the  maritime 
parts  of  the  land  of  Canaan  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  their  language  should  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  nearly  the  same  as  the 
Hebrew.  Some  vestiges  of  this  affinity 
are  to  be  found  in  the  proper  names  of  the 
Carthaginians,  their  descendants,  who 
spoke  a  dialect  of  the  Pha3nician  called  the 
Punic  language :  this  latter  language  is 
also  said  to  have  had  a  tincture  of  the 
Chaldee  and  Syriac,  which  may  be  easily 
accounted  for  by  the  intercourse  which 
these  two  trading  nations  held  with  all 
other  people.  A  writer  in  modern  times 
has  also  shown  that  the  Maltese  contains 


a  number  of  Punic  words,  from  which  it  is 
justly  inferred  that  Malta  was  once  in  the 
possession  of  the  Carthaginians. 

The  Persian,  as  it  is  now  handed  down 
to  us,  is  confessedly  posterior  to  the  Arabic, 
to  which  it  is  nearly  allied  both  in  its 
primitive  letters  and  whole  construction, 
but  it  has  been  shown  by  writers  that  the 
Parthians  or  Persians  were  Scythians  who 
mingled  with  the  Elemites  or  original  in- 
habitants of  Persia,  and  gave  to  the  Persian 
language  that  Celtic  tincture  which  brings 
it  nearer  in  accordance  with  the  northern 
language  of  Europe.  In  the  language  of 
India  and  Armenia  there  are  strong  marks 
of  resemblance  to  the  Persian ;  but  as  to 
the  Chinese  it  was  probably  one  of  the 
earliest  tongues  formed  after  the  flood,  as 
it  bears  few  or  no  marks  of  affinity  to  any 
but  the  Hebrew. 

In  proof  of  what  has  been  advanced  on 
the  oriental  languages  the  following  alpha- 
bets are  given : — 


HEBREW  ANI 

'    SYRIAC. 

COPTIC. 

ETHIOPIC. 

ARABIC. 

ARMENIAN. 

CHALDEE. 

Olaf 

Alf 

Elif 

;l. 

Aleph 

Alpha 

Phi 

Ail 

Ue 

Beth 

Beth 

Bida  or 

Chi 

Bet 

Be 

Bien 

Tsche 

Ghimel 

Gomal 

Bila 

V 

Geml 

Gain 

Gim 

Pe 

Dhaleth 

Dolath 

Gamma 

Shei 

Dant 

Dal 

Da 

Dsche 

He 

He 

Dalda 

Fei 

Haut 

Dsal 

Jetsch 

Rra 

Vau 

Waw 

Ei 

Kher 

Waw 

He 

Sa 

Se 

Zain 

Zain 

Se 

Hori 

Zai 

Waw 

E 

Wiev 

Cheth 

Hheth 

Zido 

Jauju 

Hharm 

Gim 

Jeth 

Tuim 

Teth 

Teth 

Hida 

Shima 

Tail 

Hha 

Thue 

Re 

Jod 

Yud 

Thila 

Dhei 

Jamen 

Ta 

Je 

Tsue 

Chaph 

Cof 

Jauda 

Epsi 

Caf 

Ye 

J 

Hium 

Lamed 

Lomad 

Kappa 

Lawi 

Caf 

Luim 

Ppiur 
Khe 

Mem 

Mim 

Lauda 

Mai 

Lam 

Chile 

Nun 

Nun 

Mi 

Nahas 

Mem 

Dza 

Fe 

Samech 

Samecth 

Ni 

Saat 

Nun 

Kien 

0 

Gnain 

E 

Exi 

Ain 

Sad 

Hue 

Phe 

Pe 

0 

Af 

Ain 

Dsa 

Tsadi 

Sode 

Pi 

Tzadai 

Fe 

Ghat 

Koph 

Kof 

Ro 

Kof 

Kaf 

Tee 

Rash 

Push 

Sima 

Rees 

Ke 

Mien 

Schin 

Shin 

Tain 

Saut 

Sin 

Hi 

Thau 

Tau 

Upsilon 

Tawi 

Shin 
Te 

Nue 
Sche 

As  the  abovementioned  languages  were 
spoken  by  the  most  ancient  people,  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  that  they  retained  so 
many  marks  of  their  origin,  but  it  is 
worthy  of  observation  that  those  languages 
which  sprung  out  of  them  underwent 
greater  changes  in  their  external  form,  so 
as  to  give  them  an  air  of  originality  which 
does  not  in  reality  belong  to  them.  Thus 
it  is  that  the  Greek,  from  the  inventive 
genius  of  the  people,  acquired  a  peculiar 
structure  and  a  richness  of  expression 
which  made  it  pass  for  a  primitive  tongue, 
When  in  truth  it  is  as  much  a  derivative 
language  as  those  which  have  since  been 
formed.  That  it  was  indebted  to  the 
Egyptian  for  the  names  of  its  letters  will 
be  obvious  to  any  one  who  should  com- 
pare the  Greek  alphabet  with  the  Coptic, 


given  above ;  and  antiquarians  have  made 
it  clear  that  the  roots  of  the  Greek  are  to 
be  traced  either  to  the  Egyptian,  the 
Phoenician,  or  the  Pelasgian,  which  was 
spoken  by  the  Pelasgi,  a  Celtic  people, 
who  first  took  possession  of  Greece,  or  the 
Isles  of  Elisha  as  it  is  called  in  Scripture. 
It  has  also  been  clearly  shown  that  this 
Pelasgian  had  a  common  original  with 
the  Irish  and  Welsh,  the  primitive  lan- 
guages of  Ireland  and  Britain,  which  were 
peopled  by  two  kindred  tribes,  the  de- 
scendants of  Magog  and  Gomer,  the  sons 
of  Japhet,  who  at  a  very  early  period  pro- 
ceeded from  Scythia  to  Europe,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  all  the  modern  European 
languages.  Those  people  which  inhabited 
the  countries  of  Europe,  except  Greece, 
were  afterwards    called    by  the    Greeks 


LANGUAGE. 


219 


Keltae  or  Gallatse,  and  by  the  Komans 
Celti  or  Galli,  Celts  or  Gauls, 

The  Latin  was  not  formed  until  a 
colony  of  the  Pelasgi  or  Greeks  intruded 
themselves  upon  the  Umbri  or  Gomerii, 
the  aborigines  of  Italy,  and  so  far  prevailed 
over  their  language  that  they  modelled  the 
mixture  of  the  two  upon  the  plan  of  the 
Greek  in  the  formation  of  cases,  moods, 
and  tenses,  to  which  were  afterwards  added 
many  words  of  Egyptian  or  Phoenician 
extraction,  from  tlie  intercourse  which 
took  place  between  the  Romans,  Cartha- 
ginians, and  Egyptians.  As  to  the  Ger- 
man, Danish,  Swedish,  and  other  nortliern 
languages,  they  all  bear  evident  marks  of 
their  affinity  not  only  to  each  other,  but  to 
that  of  the  Latin,  with  which  they  had  a 
common  Celtic  original.  At  tlie  same  time 
their  ancestors  before  their  second  irrup- 
tion into  Europe  under  the  name  of  Goths, 
Vandals,  Huns,  &:c.  had  introduced  such 
changes  in  the  pronunciation  and  letters 
of  their  several  languages  as  gave  them  an 
appearance  of  originality  and  peculiarity. 
Besides,  it  appears  that  the  Hungarian, 
Sclavonic,Dalmatian,and  Russian  assumed 
a  Greek  character  by  a  mixture  of  the 
Greek  and  its  several  lialects. 

The  French  retains  many  vestiges  of  its 
Celtic  original,  but  in  consequence  of  the 
Roman  conquest  the  additions  of  the  Latin 
prevailed,  to  all  which  the  people  gave  it 
a  peculiarity  both  in  its  pronunciation, 
orthography,  and  structure.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  the  Spanish,  which  also 
underwent  some  additional  changes  from 
the  incursions  of  the  Moors,  who  ingrafted 
upon  it  many  words  of  Arabian  and  Phoe- 
nician origin.  The  Italian  is  obviously  a 
dialect  of  the  Latin,  modified  by  and 
assimilated  to  the  French  and  Spanish, 
doubtless  during  the  period  when  France, 


Spain,  and  Italy  were  governed  by  the 
emperors  of  the  west. 

The  English,  the  last  formed  language 
in  the  world,  is  also  remarkable  for  being 
compounded  of  a  greater  diversity  of  lan- 
guages than  any  other.  The  groundwork 
of  the  English  is  the  Saxon,  but  there  i3 
not  a  language  in  Europe  which  has  not 
contributed  more  or  less  to  its  formation. 
Many  words  v»'ere  retained  or  borrowed 
by  the  Saxons  from  the  language  of  the 
original  natives,  namely ,  the  Welsh,which, 
as  before  observed,  was  one  of  the  ancient 
Celtic  dialects,  of  the  same  origin  as  the 
Saxon  itself,  but  existed  long  prior  to  it. 
On  the  invasion  and  settlement  of  the 
Danes  some  changes  as  well  as  additions 
were  made  in  the  language,  which  under- 
went still  greater  changes  at  the  Norman 
conquest,  by  the  admission  of  Norman  a3 
well  as  French  words,  and  the  modelling 
of  the  language  itself  into  a  form  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  French.  From  this 
source  are  derived  a  vast  number  of  the 
Latin  words  and  some  few  words  of  Greek 
origin,  but  the  most  numerous  additions 
from  these  resources  have  since  been  made 
by  the  English  themselves,  who  have  also 
gradually  given  it  a  distinct  form  and  pro- 
nunciation that  entitle  it  as  much  to  the 
name  of  original  as  any  of  the  other  Euro- 
pean languages  that  are  of  more  ancient 
date.  To  this  diversity  in  the  origin  of  the 
English,  and  its  aptitude  to  naturalize 
every  foreign  term,  it  is  indebted  for  a 
variety  and  richness  of  expression  which 
is  not  equalled  by  any  other  language  In 
the  world. 

The  following  list  of  the  names  of  the 
ten  first  numbers  among  the  European 
nations,  taken  from  Parson's  Remains  of 
Japhet,  will  suffice  to  show  the  affinity  of 
the  languages  abovenientioned. 


IRISH. 

1.  Aon 

2.  Do 

3.  Tri 

4i  Ceathair. 

5.  Cuig 

6.  She 

7.  Sheagd 

8.  Ocht 

9.  Nyi 
10.  Deic 


WELSH. 

Un 

Duy 

Tri 

Pedwar 

Pymp 

Chuech 

Saith 

Uith 

Naw 

Deg 


GREEK.  LATIIf. 

•Ets  Unua 

Jvo)  Duo 

Tq^ig  Trea 

TiOOaQB?  Cluatuor 

HtvTs  Cluinque 


German. 

1.  Ein 

2.  Zwei     Twee 

3.  Drei 

4.  Vier 

5.  Fiinf 


Dutch.      Swedish, 
Een         En 
Twa 
Tre 
Fyra 
Faeni 


Dru 

Vier 
Vyf 


'EnTa 
^Oy.Toj 
Ervta 
Jiy.a 

Danish, 
Een 
Toe 
Tre 
Fire 
Fem 


Sex 

Septem 

Octo 

Novem 

Decern 


ITALIAN. 

Uno 

Due 

Tre 

Uuatro 

Cinque 

Sei 

Sette 

Otto 

Nove 

Dieci 


SPANISH. 

Uno 

Dos 

Tres 

Quatro 

Cineo 

Seys 

Siete 

Ocho 

Nueve 

Diez 


FRENCH. 

Un 

Deux 

Trois 

Cluatre 

Cinq 

Six 

Sept 

Huit 

Neuf 

Dix 


Saxon,      English,  Polish.  Russian  Hungarian, 

^ne,  an     One  Jeden  Yedna      Eg 

Twa,twy  Two  Dwa  Twa         Ketto 

Drie  Three  Trizi  Tree         Harum 

Feower      Four  Czterzti  Shatirz    Negy 

Fife  Five  Diecz  Pet  Et 


220 


LAR 


LAT 


German.      Dutch.      Swedish, 

6.  Seehs  Zes  Se-x 

7.  Sieben  Zeven     Sju 

8.  Acht  Acht        Aptta 

9.  Neun  Neghen  Nio 


10.  Zeiiea   Tien 


Tio 


Danish. 

Sa.TOn. 

English 

Polish.         Russian.  Hungarian. 

Sex 

Six 

Six 

Szesez        Ciiest       Hat 

Syv 

Seofen 

Seven 

Sieden        Set           Het 

Otte 

Ealit 

Eiglit 

Ism             Wossim  Niolez 

Nie 

Negen 

Nine 

Dziewiee  Devit        Kilenez 

Tie 

Tyii,  tieix 

Ten 

Dzesziec    Disset       Tiz 

LANNER.  A  sort  of  hawk,  formerly 
much  esteemed  in  falconry.  It  is  next  to 
the  buzzard  in  size. 

LANTERN  FLY.  A  remarkable  in- 
sect of  Sauth  America,  that  emits  an 
extraordinary  light  from  the  hollow  of  its 
head. 

LANYARI>S  (among  Mariners).  Short 
pieces  of  rope  fastened  to  several  parts  of 
a  ship. 

LAPIDARY  (in  Commerce).  One  who 
polishes  and  engraves  stones. 

LAPIS  INFERNALIS.  A  sort  of 
caustic  composition. 

LAPIS  LAZULI  (in  Painting).  A 
stone  of  an  azure  or  blue  colour,  of  which 
the  paint  called  ultramarine  is  made.  It 
is  a  copper  ore,  very  compact  and  hard, 
and  is  found  in  lumps  of  a  beautiful  blue 
colour,  richly  variegated  with  clouds  of 
white  and  veins,  of  shining  gold  colon:;. 

LAPSE  (in  Law).  An  omission  on  the- 
part  of  the  patron  to  present  to  a  benefice 
withhi  six  months  after  it  is  vacant,  upon 
wliich  default  the  ordinary  has  a  right  to 
collate  to  the  said  benefice. 

LAPSED  LEGACY.  Fallen  or  lost  by 
a  lapse,  as  where  the  legatee  dies  before 
the  testator,  &c. 

LAPWING.     See  Peewit. 

LARBOARD.  A  sea  term  for  the  left 
hand  side  of  a  ship,  when  looking  towards 
the  stem  or  head. 

L ARC ENY.  The  felonious  and  fraudu- 
lent taking  away  the  personal  goods  of 
another,  which  in  England,  is  petty  larceny 
if  the  thing  be  of  the  value  of  twelve  pence 
or  under,  and  grand  larceny  if  above  that 
value. 

LARCH.  A  lofty  tree  of  the  pine  kind, 
bearing  leaves  like  those  of  the  pine,  and 
a  sort  of  mushroom  for  the  fruit.  The  gum 
of  this  tree  is  called  Venice  turpentine. 
The  leaves  fall  off  in  winter.  The  timber, 
which  is  remarkably  durable,  is  used  in 
building  ships. 

LARDER.  The  room  where  meat  is 
kept  and  salted. 

LARES.  The  domestic  or  household 
gods  among  the  Romans,  placed  in  soma 
private  part  of  the  house,  which  the  family 
honoured  as  their  protector. 

LARGE  (in  Music).  The  greatest  mea- 
.<3ure  of  musical  quantities  ;  one  large  con- 
taining two  longs. 


LARGE,  A  sea  phrase  for  the  wind, 
when  it  crosses  the  line  of  a  ship's  course 
in  a  favourable  direction. 

LARGESS  (in  Husbandry).  A  gift  to 
the  labourers  in  the  harvest  season. 

LARGO  (in  Music).  A  slow  move- 
ment. 

LARK.  A  well  known  singing  bird,  the 
most  remarkable  species  of  which  is  the 
skylark,  that  sings  so  beautifully  as  it  is 
soaring  in  the  air.  This  bird  is  not  found 
in  America.  Our  meadow  lark  bears  some 
resemblance  to  it,  but  is  nearly  twice  as 
large. 

LARKSPUR.  A  plant  cultivated  in 
gardens,  the  flower  of  which  consists  of 
many  dissimilar  petals  or  leaves,  some  of 
which  end  in  a  tail  or  spur. 

LARVA.  The  grub  or  caterpillar  state 
of  some  insects  so  called  by  Linneeus,  but 
by  others  the  eruca  or  caterpillar. 

LARUM.  A  sort  of  clock  that  makes  a 
noise  or  alarm  at  a  certain  hour. 

LARYNX  (in  Anatomy).  The  top  of 
the  windpipe,  below  the  root  of  the  tongue. 

LASSO.  A  rope  with  a  noose,  used  in 
South  America  for  catching  wild  cattle." 


LAST.  A  measure  or  weight,  as  a  last 
of  corn,  &c.  equal  to  ten  quarters,  and  a 
last  of  cod  fish,  &:c.  equal  to  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  barrels. 

LATH  (in  Carpentry).  A  long,  thin, 
piece  of  wood,  nailed  to  the  rafters  of  a 
wall  or  roof  to  receive  the  plaster  or 
covering.  Laths  are  distinguished  accord- 
ing to  tlie  wood  of  whicli  they  are  made, 
into  hearts  of  oak,  sap  laths,  and  deal 
laths. 

LATHE  (in  Turnery).  The  engine  used 
in  turning  wood,  <fcc. 

LATIN.  The  language  spoken  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  or  the  inhabitants  of 
Latium,  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

LATITAT  (in  England).     A  writ  used 


LAY 

in  personal  actions,  where  the  party  is  to 
be  arrested  in  any  other  county  than  Mid- 
dlesex. 

LATITUDE  (in  Geography).  The  dis- 
tance of  a  place  from  the  equator,  which 
is  either  northern  or  southern,  according 
as  the  place  is  north  or  south.  The  lati- 
tude cannot  exceed  90  degrees,  the  distance 
of  the  equator  from  the  north  or  south 
pole. 

LATTEN.  Iron  plates  tinned  over,  of 
which  tea  canisters  are  made. 

LAVA.  The  mineral  substance  which 
flows  from  Mount  Etna,  Vesuvius,  and 
other  volcanoes,  is  of  a  grayish  colour, 
light,  moderately  hard,  and  brittle,  and 
easily  frangible  :  it  generally  attracts  the 
magnetic  needle,  and  is  easily  fusible  into 
compact  glass. 

f  LAUDANUM,  A  soporific  tincture,  con- 
taining the  finer  and  purer  parts  of  opium, 
drawn  in  water  and  spirits  of  wine,  and 
then  reduced  to  its  due  consistence, 

LAVENDER.  A  plant  with  a  shrubby 
stem,  much  branched  with  numerous 
hoary  leaves.  The  flowers  are  produced 
in  terminating  spikes  from  the  young  shoots 
on  long  peduncles.  The  leaves,  stalk,  and 
flower  yield  a  fragrant  perfume,  and  from 
the  latter  are  prepared  an  essential  oil,  a 
simple  spirit,  and  a  compound  tincture 

LAUNCE-FISH,  or  Sa.vd  Launce.  A 
sea  fish  which  buries  itself  on  the  recess 
of  the  tide  a  foot  deep  in  the  sand.  It  is 
generally  used  for  baits. 

LAUNCH.  A  particular  kind  of  boat, 
used  in  underrunning  the  cables  of  differ- 
ent ships,  that  are  fastened  across  each 
other. 

LAUNCHING.  Putting  a  ship  out  of 
dock,  and  conveying  her  into  the  water. 

LAUNDRESS.  One  whose  business  it 
i9  to  wash  and  get  up  linen. 

LAUREATE,  or  Poet  Laureate  (in 
England).  A  title  given  to  the  king's  poet. 

LAUREL.  An  evergreen  tree,  having 
broad,  thick,  shining  leaves.  The  flower 
consists  of  five  petals  or  leaves,  which  ex- 
pand in  the  form  of  a  rose, 

LAURISTINUS.     The  wild  bay  tree. 

LAW.  In  its  most  extensive  sense,  the 
rule  of  conduct  prescribed  by  the  supreme 
power  of  a  state.  The  laws  of  England 
comprehend  the  Common  Law  and  the 
Statute  Law,  together  with  certain  por- 
tions of  the  Civil  Law  and  the  Canon  Law. 

LAWN.  A  plain  or  level  space  covered 
with  grass,  in  a  pleasure  ground. 

LAY  (in  Ecclesiastical  Law).  An  epi- 
thet for  whatever  belongs  to  the  people  at 
large,  in  distinction  from  those  who  are  in 
holy  orders. 

19* 


LEA 


221 


LAY  (with  Poets).  A  kind  of  ancient 
poetry,  consisting  of  short  verses. 

LAY  (in  Husbandry),  Ground  that  lies 
fallow  or  untilled, 

LAY  BROTHERS.  In  the  Romish 
church,  such  as  performed  the  secular  and 
servile  offices  in  a  convent. 

LAY  CORPORATION  (in  England), 
A  lay  investiture  of  bishops,  &:c, 

LAYER  (in  Horticulture).  A  young 
sprout  bent  down  and  covered  with  mould 
for  raising  fresh  plants. 

LAYER  (among  Fishermen).  A  chan- 
nel or  bed  in  a  creek,  where  small  oysters 
are  thrown  for  bi-eeding. 

LAY  FEE  (in  England).  Lands  held 
in  fee  of  a  lay  lord,  as  distinguished  from 
those  lands  which  belong  to  the  church. 

LAY  IMPROPRIATION  (in  England). 
The  impropriating  or  employing  the  reve- 
nues of  the  church  to  the  use  of  a  la3'man. 

LAYMAN  (in  Ecclesiastical  Law).  One 
who  has  not  taken  holy  orders. 

LAYMAN  (in  Painting).  A  statue  of 
wood,  whose  joints  are  so  made  that  it 
may  be  put  into  any  pasture. 

LAZARETTO.  An  hospital  for  lazars 
or  leprous  persons. 

LAZULI.     See  Lapis. 

LAZULITE.  A  mineral  of  the  silicious 
order,  of  which  lapis  lazuli  is  the  principal 
species.  Its  principal  constituents  are 
silica,  alumines,  carbonate  of  lime,  sul- 
phate of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  &c. 

LEACH  (among  Miners).  A  term  signi- 
fying hard  work. 

LEAD  (in  Mineralogy).  A  bluish  white 
metal,  very  soft  and  flexible,  and  easily 
beaten  into  thin  plates  by  the  hammer. 
In  a  strong  heat  it  boils  and  emits  flames, 
and  if  during  that  time  it  is  exposed  to  the 
air,  its  oxidation  proceeds  very  rapidly. 
It  is  very  brittle  at  the  time  of  congelation. 
Most  of  the  acids  attack  lead,  but  it  unites 
with  most  of  the  metals,  particularly  tin, 
which  in  union  with  lead  forms  the  solder 
used  by  plumbers.  The  carbonate  of  lead, 
which  is  a  powder,  is  better  known  by  the 
name  of  white  lead  ;  the  red  oxide  of  lead 
is  otherwise  called  red  lead. 

LEAD,  or  Sounding  Lead.  Aseaterm 
for  an  instrument  which  is  used  to  discov- 
er the  depth  of  water  at  sea. 

LEAF  (in  Botany).  A  membranaceous 
and  sometimes  succulent  part  of  a  plant, 
which  arises  from  the  stem.  Leaves  ap- 
pear to  assist  the  process  of  vegetation  by 
communicating  the  air  to  the  whole  of  the 
plant,  which  on  that  account  is  found  to 
be  exceedingly  tender  of  its  leaves,  and 
to  suffer  much  from  any  rough  treatment 
which  they  may  receive. 


222  LED 

LEAF.  A  term  applied  to  other  objects 
resemblhiga  leaf  in  shape  or  ma4ie,  as  the 
leaf  of  a  book;  also  leaf  gold  or  silver, 
gold  or  silver  beaten  into  plates  of  exceed- 
ing thinness. 

LEAGUE  (in  Geography).  A  measure 
of  length,  containing  a  certain  number  of 
geographical  paces,  according  to  the  usage 
or  computation  of  different  countries.  A 
league  at  sea,  where  it  is  mostly  used  by 
us,  is  equal  to  three  miles,  or  three  thou- 
sand geometrical  paces:  the  league  in 
France  contains  three  thousand  five  hun- 
dred paces.  The  Dutch  or  German  league 
four  geographical  miles.  Seventeen  Spa- 
nish leagues  are  equal  to  a  degree,  or  sixty- 
nine  and  a  half  statute  miles. 

LEAGUE  (in  Politics).  A  treaty  of 
alliance  between  different  states  or  parties. 

LEAK.  Any  hole  or  chink  in  a  vessel 
which  admits  the  water,  particularly  ap- 
plied to  a  ship  at  sea. 

LEAKAGE  (in  Commerce).  An  allov/- 
ance  made  to  merchants  for  the  leaking  or 
running  of  vessels. 

LEAP  (in  Commerce).  A  measure  equal 
to  half  a  bushel. 

LEAP  YEAR  (in  Chronology).  Any 
year  in  which  a  day  is  added  more  than 
ordinary. 

LEASE  (in  Law).  A  conveyaRpe  of 
lands,  generally  in  consideration  of  rent 
or  other  annual  recompense,  for  term  of 
years,  for  life,  or  at  will,  provided  it  be 
for  a  shorter  term  than  the  lessor  has  in 
the  premises. 

LEASH  (among  Sportsmen).  The  num- 
ber of  three  applied  to  partridges  or  other 
game  which  are  killed. 

LEASING.  The  same  as  gleaning,  or 
picking  up  the  ears  of  coin  after  the  field 
is  cleared. 

LEATHER.  The  skin  or  hide  of  a  beast 
tanned  and  dressed. 

LEATHER-DRESSER..  One  who 
dresses  leather. 

LEATHER-SELLER.  One  who  deals 
in  leather.  The  company  of  leather-sellers 
In  Lon-don,  was  incorporated  in  1382. 

LEAVEN.  A  piece  of  sourdough  put  to 
ferment  a  mass  of  bread. 

LECTURER  (in  Ecclesiastical  Law).  In 
England,  a  minister  who  preaches  in  the  af- 
ternoon, and  is  usually  paid  by  the  people. 

LEDGE  (in  Geography).  A  long  ridge 
of  rocks  near  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

LEDGER.  The  chief  book  used,  in  mer- 
chants accounts,  wherein  every  man's  par- 
ticular account  is  kept;  and  also  all.  the 
goods  bought  and  sold  are  distinctly  placed 
each  by  themselves,  as  debtor  on  the  left 


LEM 

hand    page,   and    creditor   on    the   right 
hand., 

LEE.  A  sea  term  for  that  part  which 
the  wind  blovvs-  upon,  ©r  that  is  opposite 
to  the  wind,  as  the  lee  shore. 

LEECH.  A  well  known  insect  that  lives 
in  the  water,  and  is  commonly  used  in 
bleeding.  The  two  principal  species  are 
the  medicinal  leech,  which  is  employed  to 
draw  blood  where  the  lancet  is  less  safe  ; 
and  the  horse  leech,  which  is  larger,  and 
applied  to  horses  for  the  same  purpose. 

I>EECIIES.  A  sea  term  for  the  edges 
of  a  sail. 

LEEK.  A  potherb  having  long  cylindri- 
cal and  coated  roots.     It  has  sometliing  of 
the  fiavour  of  the  onion. 
LEES.  The  dregs-of  wine. 
LEET.  In  England,  a  little  court  within 
a  manor,  having  a  criminal  jurisdiction. 

LEG  (in.  Anatomy).  A  limb,  and  that 
part  of  the  animal  body  which  serves  for 
walking. 

LEG  (among  Artificers).  Whatever 
serves  for  the  support  of  a  thing,  as  the 
leg  of  a  stool,  &:c. 

LEG  (in  Mathematics).  The  two  sides 
of  a  triangle  are  called  the  legs. 

LEG.  A  sea  term  for  ropes  put  through 
the  bolt  ropes  of  the  main  and  foresail. 

LEGACY  (in  Law).  A  bequest  or  gift 
by  testament  of  any  personal  effects  ;  the 
person  bequeathing  is  called  the  testator, 
and  he  to  whom  it  is  bequeathed  Che 
legatee. 

LEGATE,.  A  cardinal  or  bishop  sent  by 
the  pope  as  his  ambassador  to  sovereign 
princes. 

LEGEND.  A  book  used  in  the  ancient 
Roman  churoliesj  containing  the  lessons 
that  were  to  be  read ;  also  a  chronicle  or 
register  of  the- lives  of  saints. 

LEGEND  (among  Antiquarians).  The 
inscription  on  the  edge  of  a  medal  or 
coin.. 

LEGERDEMAIN,  or  Slight  of  Hakd. 
Tricks  which,,  from  the  dexterity  of  the 
performer,  ai-e  made  to  deceive  the  ob- 
server. 

LEGION    (in    thg  Roman    army).    A 

body  of  6000  foot  and  300  horse,  or  less. 

LEGUMEN.  All  manner  of  pulse. 

LEGUMEN  (in  Botany).   That  species 

of  seed  vessel  vulgarly  termed  a  pod,  as 

the  seed  vessel  of  the  pea,  vetch,  lupine, 

LEMMA.  A  proposition  in  Mathematics, 
which  serves  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
demonstration  of  some  theorem. 

LEMMING.  A  species  of  animals  of  the 
rat  kind;  the  Lapland  lemming  migrates 


LEN 

at  the  approach  of  winter,  and  rather  than 
deviate  from  his  straiglit  course  he  will 
perish  in  attempting  to  surmount  obstacles 
that  lie  in  his  way. 

LEMONADE.  A  drink  made  of  water, 
lemons,  and  sugar. 

LEMON  TREE.  A  varietj'  of  the  citron 
tree,  which  grows  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  yields  the  fruit  that  bears  the  same 
name. 


LET 


223 


LEMUR.  A  genus  of  quadrupeds  some- 
what resembling  the  monkey  in  the  form 
of  the  feet,  but  widely  different  from  that- 
animal  in  its  manners  and  temper.  Two 
of  these  animals  brought  from  India  lately, 
and  exhibited  in  Boston,  would  walk  back- 
ward and  forward  on  a  small  tight  cord, 
usijig  their  tails  for  balance  poles,. 


LENS.  A  piece  of  glass  or  other  trans- 
parent substance  of  the  figure  of  a  lentil, 
which  either  collects  the  rays  of  light  into 
a  point,  in  their  passage  through  ir,  or  dis- 
perses them  according  to  their  form  and 
the  laws  of  refraction.  The  convex  lens 
converges  the  rays  of  light,  and  the  con- 
cave disperses  the  rays.  If  only  one  side 
is  convex  and  the  other  plane,  it  is  called 
a  plano-convex  lens,  such  as  A  in  the  fol- 
lowing figure  ;  if  convex  on  both  sides,  it 
is  a  double  convex  lens,  as  B.  The  con- 
cave lenses  are  also  divided  into  the  plano- 
concave, as  C,  concavo-concave,  as  D,  and 


the  meniscus,  which  is  concave  on  one 
side  and  convex  on  the  other,  as  B. 


LENT.  A  time  of  fasting  and  abstinence 
for  forty  days  before  Easter. 

LENTILS.  A  sort  of  pulse. 

LEO  (in  Astronomy).  A  constellation, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
marked  thus  ^. 

LEOPARD.  An  African  animal  of  the 
cat  kind  covered  with  black  spots  upon  a 
yellow  ground,  so  disposed,  as  to  resemble 
the  print  of  its  foot.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautifuLof  all  quadrupeds. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  An  order  of  insects 
in  the  Linna?an  system,  which  have  their 
wings  imbricated  with  scales,  as  the  but- 
terfly, moth,  &.C. 

LEPROSY  (in  Medicine).  A  foul  cuta- 
neous disease^  appearing  in  dr>',  white, 
thin,  scurfy  scabs. 

LEPUS  (in  Astronomy).  The  Hare,  a 
constellation  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

LE  ROY  LE  VEUT,i.  e.  The  king  wills 
it.  In  England  the  form  of  words  by  which 
the  king  signifies  his  assent  to  the  bills 
that  have  passed  the  two  houses,  after 
which  they  acquire  the  force  of  laws. 

LE  ROY  S'AVISERA,  i.  e.  The  king 
will  consider  of  it.  The  form  of  words  by 
which  he  refuses  his  assent  to  any  bills 
that  are  presented  to  him. 

LETHARGY.  A  disease  arising  from 
cold,  phlegmatic  humours  which  oppress 
the  brain,  and  cause  an  incessant  drowsi- 
ness. 

LETHE.  A  river  in  hell,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  poets,  caused  all  who  drank  of 
it  to  forpet  the  past. 

LETTER  (in  Grammar).  A  character 
in  the  alphabet,  used  to  express  the  simple 
sounds  of  the  voice,  which  in  every  lan- 
guage are  collected  into  a  series  called  the 


224 


LEV 


alphabet.  Letters  are  composed  of  vowels 
and  consonants,  and  form  words. 

LETTER  (in  Printing).  The  type  or 
character  which  is  used  in  composing. 

LETTER  (in  Commerce).  Any  writing 
sent  from  one  person  to  another. 

LETTER  OF  ADVICE.  A  letter  written 
by  a  merchant  to  his  correspondent,  ad- 
vising or  giving  him  notice  of  what  bills 
he  has  drawn  upon  him. 

LETTER  OF  ATTORNEY  (in  Law). 
A  writing  whereby  a  person  constitutes 
another  to  do  a  lawful  act  in  his  stead,  as 
to  receive  debts,  &c. 

LETTER  OF  CREDIT  (among  Mer- 
chants). A  writing  by  one  merchant  to 
another,  desiring  him  to  credit  the  bearer 
with  a  certain  sum  of  money. 

LETTER  OF  MARaUE.  An  extraor- 
dinary commission,  granted  under  the 
king's  seal,  to  merchants  or  others  in  the 
time  of  war,  to  make  reprisals  on  the 
enemy. 

LETTUCE.  A  garden  herb  much  used 
as  a  salad. 

LEUCITE.  A  stone  of  the  garnet  kind. 

LEVEL.  An  instrument  used  to  make 
a  line  parallel  to  the  horizon.  The  plumb 
level  is  that  which  shows  the  horizontal 
line  by  means  of  another  line  perpendicu- 
lar to  that  described  by  a  plummet  or 
pendulum,  which  instrument  consists  of 
two  legs  or  branches,  joined  together  at 
right  angles,  whereof  that  which  carries 
the  thread  and  plummet  is  about  a  foot 
and  a  half  long,  the  tln-ead  is  hung  towards 
the  top  of  the  branch.  A  telescope  is 
placed  on  the  horizontal  branch  of  the  in- 
strument, having  a  hair  placed  horizontally 
across  the  focus  of  the  object  glass,  which 
determines  the  point  of  the  level.  The 
telescope  is  fastened  by  a  ball  and  socket. 


LEVEE.  In  England,  a  company  of  the 
nobility,  gentry,  fee.  who  assemble  to  pay 
their  respects  to  the  king.  It  consists  of 
gentlemen  only,  by  which  it  is    distin- 


LEY 

guished  from  a  drawingroom,  where  ladies 
as  well  as  gentlemen  attend.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  evening  assemblies 
at  the  president's  house  in  Washington. 

LEVELLING.  The  art  of  finding  a  line 
parallel  to  the  horizon  at  one  or  more 
stations,  in  order  to  determine  the  height 
of  one  place  in  respect  to  another.  The 
subjoined  figure  shows  the  manner  of  find- 
ing the  diffei-ence  of  the  level  of  a  place, 
where  there  is  a  level  line  and  two  sights 
level  with  each  other,  whereby  the  per- 
pendicular distance  between  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  any  point  in  the  level  line 
may  be  discovered.  The  art  of  levelling 
is  particularly  applied  to  the  laying  out 
grounds  even,  regulating  descents,  drain- 
ing morasses,  conducting  water,  &;c. 


LEVELLING  (in  Fortification).  The 
reducing  an  uneven  surface  to  that  of  a 
plane,  so  that  the  works  may  be  of  a  cor- 
responding height  and  figure. 

LEVER.  One  of  the  six  powers,  which 
m^ay  consist  of  any  instrument,  as  a  straight 
bar  of  iron  or  wood,  as  A  B,  supported 
upon  a  fulcrum  or  prop,  C,  having  a 
weight,  W,  at  one  end,  a  power,  P,  at  the 
other.  Then  A  C  and  B  C  are  the  arms 
of  the  lever.  Of  this  kind  are  balances, 
scales,  pincers,  &c. 


LEVERET.  A  young  hare. 

LEVIGATION.  The  mechanical  pro- 
cess of  grinding  the  parts  of  bodies  to  a 
fine  paste,  by  rubbing  the  flat  face  of  a 
stone  called  a  muUer,  upon  another  stone 
called  the  table  or  slab. 

LEVITE.  One  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  or 
belonging  to  the  priestly  office. 

LEXICOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  writing 
dictionaries. 

LEYDEN    PHIAL,    or    Leitden    Jar. 


LIB 

So  called  from  M.  Vankleigh,  of  Leydon, 
who  first  observed  its  properties.  A  glass 
jar,  having  the  outside  and  the  inside 
coated  with  tin  foil,  and  a  brass  wire,  the 
upper  part  of  which  terminates  in  a  ball 
of  the  same  metal,  and  the  lower  part 
in  a  chain  that  communicates  with  the  in- 
side. This  jar  admits  of  being  charged  so 
as  to  produce  the  electrical  shock  and 
various  other  experiments  illustrative  of 
the  power  of  electricity. 


LIG 


225 


LIBATION.  A  sacrifice  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  which  consisted  in 
offering  up  some  liquid  to  the  gods. 

LIBEL  (in  Law).  An  injurious  reproach 
or  accusation  written  or  published  against 
the  government,  a  magistrate,  or  a  private 
person. 

LIBEL  (in  the  Ciril  Law).  The  decla- 
ration or  charge  drawn  up  in  writing,  as 
is  used  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 

LIBERAL  ARTS.  Such  as  are  fit  for 
gentlemen  and  scholars. 

LIBERTY  (in  Law).  A  privilege  by 
which  men  enjoy  some  favour  or  benefit, 
beyond  the  ordinary  subject. 

LIBERTY  OF  CONSCIENCE.  The 
liberty  of  following  any  profession  of  reli- 
gion, which  one  pleases,  without  any  con- 
ti'ol  from  government. 

LIBERTY  (in  the  Manege).  A  void 
space  in  the  middle  of  a  bitt  of  a  bridle,  to 
give  place  to  the  tongue  of  a  horse. 

LIBRA  (in  Astronomy).  A  constellation, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
marked  thus  (i£b). 

LIBRARIAN.  One  who  has  charge  of 
a  library. 

LIBRARY.  A  large  collection  of  books, 
also  the  place  which  contains  them.  The 
first  library  spoken  of  in  history  was  that 
formed  by  Pisistratus,  tyrant  of  Athens. 
Euraenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  also  formed 
a  library  of  200,000  volumes ;  but  the  li- 
brary of  Alexandria,  formed  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  contained  700,000.  Among 
the  libraries  of  the  moderns,  that  of  the 


Bodleian,  at  Oxford,  England,  holds  a 
high  rank.  The  king's  library  at  Paris  has 
400,000  volumes. 

LIBRATION  (in  Mechanics).  The 
swinging  motion  of  a  pendulum. 

LIBRATION  OF  THE  MOON  (in  As- 
tronomy). An  apparent  irregularity  in  her 
motion. 

LIBRATION  OF  THE  EARTH.  That 
motion  of  the  earth  by  vvliich.it  always 
retains  the  parallelism  of  its  axis  in  its 
orbit  round  the  sun. 

LICENSE  (in  Law).  A  power  or  au- 
thority given  to  a  person  to  do  some  act 
that  is  not  unlawful. 

LICHENS.  A  kind  of  plant,  otherwise 
called  liverwort,  which  is  of  the  natural 
order  of  the  algte. 

LIEUTENANT.  In  England,  one  who 
supplies  the  place  of  another,  as  the  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  who  is  a  viceroy,  or 
the  lord  lieutenant  of  a  countj',  &c. 

LIEUTENANT  (in  Military  and  Naval 
AlTairs).  The  officer  next  in  rank  and  pow- 
er to  a  captain  ;  also  one  who  conunands 
in  the  absence  of  his  superior  officer,  as 
the  lieutenant-general,  the  officer  next  to 
the  general,  who  in  battle  commands  one 
of  the  wings,  in  a  march  a  detacbment,  at 
a  siege  a  quarter,  when  it  is  bis  day  of 
duty;  so  likewise  the  lieutenant-gene lal 
of  the  artillery,  the  lieutenant-colonel,  ifcc. 
Lieutenants  in  ships  of  war  are  next  ia 
rank  to  the  captain. 

LIFE  ANNUITIES.  Annual  payments 
depending  on  the  life  of  another. 

LIFE  BOAT.  A  particular  kind  of  boat 
used  on  the  coast,  to  preserve  persons 
from  the  wrecks  of  vessels. 


LIFE  ESTATES.  Estates  not  of  inher* 
itance. 

LIFE  GUARDS  (in  England).  The  body 
guard  of  the  king. 

LIGAMENTS.  Substances  in  an  animal 
body,  between  a  cartilage  and  a  membrane, 
harder  than  the  latter  and  softer  than  the 
former,  which  serve  to  strengthen  the 
juncture,  particularly  of  the  bones. 


226 


LIM 


LIGATURE  (in  Surgery).  The  disposing 
of  bandages  for  closing  wounds. 

LIGATURE  (among  Printers).  Type 
consisting  of  two  letters  in  one  piece,  as 
ff,  &c. 

LIGHT  (in  Optics').  The  sensation 
which  arises  from  beholding  any  objectj  or 
the  cause  of  that  sensation.  The  nature  and 
properties  of  light,  and  the  changes  which 
it  undergoes  in  passing  through  bodies, 
form  a  principal  part  of  the  science  of  op- 
tics. 

LIGHT  (in  Painting).  That  part  of  a 
piece  which  is  illumined. 

LIGHT  (in  Architecture).  Lights  are  the 
apertures  in  a  house. 

LIGHT  (in  Military  Affairs).  An  epithet 
for  soldiers  lightly  armed,  as  lighthorse,  or 
lightinfantry. 

LIGHTER.  A  large  vessel  for  carrying 
goods. 

LIGHTERAGE.  Money  paid  for  the 
carrying  goods  in  a  lighter. 

LIGHTERMAN.  One  who  conducts  a 
lighter. 

LIGHTHOUSE.  A  tower  or  lofty  build- 
ing on  the  seacoast,  having  a  light  in  it, 
for  the  guidance  of  mariners  at  night.  It 
is  mostly  erected  upon  a  cape  or  promon- 
tory, or  upon  some  rock  in  the  sea,  and  is 
furnished  with  several  lamps,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  a  great  light  that  may  be 
seen  at  a  distance,  and  prevent  the  marin- 
ers from  running  ashore  or  steering  a 
wrong  course. 

LIGHTNING.  A  flash  of  light  issuing 
from  the  clouds,  that  accompanies  thunder. 
It  is  properly  an  electrical  explosion, 
which  sometimes  bursts  upon  houses, 
trees,  or  other  objects,  and  does  much  mis- 
chief. 

LIGNUM  VIT^.  A  hard  wood,  the 
produce  of  a  West  Indian  tree. 

LILAC.  A  tree  of  the  syringa  tribe, 
which  bears  a  pretty  flower  early  in  the 
spring. 

LILY.  A  plant  with  a  bulbous  and 
perennial  root,  the  flower  of  which  is  six 
petalled  and  campanulated. 

LIMB.  A  jointed  or  articulated  part  of 
an  animal  body. 

LIMB  (in  Astronomy).  The  utmost 
edge  or  border  of  the  body  of  the  sun  or 
moon. 

LIMB  (in  Mathematics).  The  utmost 
edge  or  border  of  an  instrument. 

LliME.  A  fruit  like  a  lemon,  the  juice 
of  which  is  a  strong  acid. 

LIME  (in  Mineralogy).  An  earthy  sub- 
stance, which  is  found  purest  in  limestone, 
marble,  and  chalk,  and  is  procured  by 
burning  in  a  white  heat.    It  is  of  a  white 


LIN 

colour,  and  easily  reduced  to  a  powder. 
If  water  be  poured  on  newly  burnt  lime, 
it  swells  and  falls  to  a  powder,  in  which 
state  it  is  called  slacked  lime. 

LIME  (in  Botany).    A  tree  of  the  orange 
kind,  that  grows  in  warm  climates. 


LIME  KILNS.  Furnaces  in  which  lime- 
stone is  converted  into  lime  by  burning. 

LIMESTONE.  The  native  carbonate 
of  lime,  which  is  generally  rather  blue, 
from  the  presence  of  iron. 

LIMIT  (in  Mathematics).  A  determi- 
nate quantity,  to  which  a  variable  one 
continually  approaches. 

LIMITATION  (in  Law).  A  certain  time 
prescribed  by  statute,  within  which  an 
action  must  be  brought. 

LIMNING.  The  art  of  painting  in  wa- 
ter colours. 

LINCHPIN,  or  LINSPIN.  An  iron  pin 
that  keeps  the  wheel  on  the  axle-tree. 

LINE  (in  Geometry).  A  quantity  ex- 
tended in  length  only.  Lines  are  either 
curves  or  right  lines. 

LINE  (in  Fortification).  Whatever  is 
drawn  on  the  ground  of  the  field,  as  a 
trench,  or  a  row  of  gabions,  &c. 

LINE  (in  Military  Affairs).  Regular 
troops,  in  distinction  from  the  militia, 
volunteers,  &c. 

LINE,  or  a  Ship  of  the  Line  (in  Naval 
Affairs).  Is  any  vessel  of  war  large 
enough  to  be  drawn  up  in  the  line  of  battle. 

LINE  (in  Geography).  Another  name 
for  the  equator,  or  equinoctial  line. 

LINE  OF  BATTLE.  The  disposition 
of  an  army  for  battle. 

LINEN.    A  kind  of  cloth  made  of  flax. 

LING,     A  sort  of  cod  fish. 

LINN^AN  kSYSTEM.  A  system  of 
natural  history,  so  called  from  Linnaeus, 
the  Swedish  naturalist.  It  comprehends  a 
scientific  arrangement  of  all  natural  ob- 
jects, as  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  into 
three  kingdoms,  subdivided  into  classes, 
orders,  genera,  species,  and  varieties,  with 


LIS 

a  description  of  their  generic  and  specific 
characters. 

LINNET.  A  small  singing  bird,  of  the 
finch  kind.  The  bird  in  America  called 
indigo  bird  is  a  variety  of  the  linnet. 


LIV 


227 


LINSEED.  The  seed  of  hemp  or  flax, 
from  which  an  oil  is  extracted. 

LINT.  Linen  scraped  into  a  soft,  wool- 
ly substance,  fit  for  applying  to  wounds. 

LINTEL.  The  upper  part  of  a  door  or 
window  frame. 

LION.  The  fiercest  and  noblest  of  all 
wild  beasts,  which  is  made  to  be  the  em- 
blem of  strength  and  valour,  and  is  on  that 
account  the  most  frequently  borne  in  coats 
of  arms.  It  is  a  native  of  Africa  and  In- 
dia, and  being  nearly  allied  to  the  cat 
tribe,  is  classed  by  Linnaeus  under  the 
same  genus. 


LiaUIDS  (in  Chymistry).  Fluids  which 
are  not  elastic,  nor  diminish  sensibly  in 
bulk,  in  distinction  from  gases  or  elastic 
fluids. 

LiaUIDS  (in  Grammar).  The  letters 
1,  m,  n,  r,  so  called  from  their  soft  and 
melting  sound. 

LiaUOR.  Any  thing  liquid  that  may 
be  drank,  particularly  what  is  of  a  spiritu- 
ous nature. 

LiaUORICE.  A  shrub,  the  root  of 
which  is  full  of  a  sickly  sweet  juice. 

LIST.     A  roll  or  catalogue  of  names. 

LIST,  Civil  (in  England).  The  whole 
of  the  king's  revenue. 

LIST  (among  Mariners).  An  inclination 
to  one  side,  applied  to  a  ship. 

LIST  (among  Clothiers).  A  border  or 
edge  of  cloth. 


LIST,  or  LISTELL  (in  Architecture). 
A  small  band  or  square  moulding,  serving 
to  crown  larger  mouldings. 

LISTS.  A  place  enclosed  with  rails, 
within  which  tournaments  or  feats  of  arms 
were  exhibited. 

LITANY.  A  general  supplication  or 
prayer  sung  or  said  in  churches,  especially 
that  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

LITERARY  PROPERTY.  The  right 
which  authors  have  in  their  works. 

LITHARGE.  The  scum  or  dross  that 
arises  in  purifjing  silver  with  lead.  It  is 
an  oxide  of  lead. 

LITIIIC  ACID.  An  acid  extracted  from 
the  urinary  calculi. 

LITHOGRAPHIC.  An  epithet  for  what 
pertains  to  engraving  on  stone,  as  litho- 
graphic impressions,  those  which  are  taken 
on  paper  from  engravings  on  stone. 

LITHOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  cutting 
or  engraving  on  stone,  from  which  impres- 
sions are  taken  on  paper. 

LITHOMARGE.  An  earth  of  the  clay 
kind,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
fuller's  earth  and  potter's  clay. 

LITHOTOMY  (in  Surgery).  The  ope- 
ration of  removing  a  calculus  or  stone  from 
the  bladder. 

LITMUS  (in  Chymistry).  A  substance 
from  which  is  formed  a  tincture  that  serves 
as  a  test  of  the  presence  of  an  acid  or  an 
alkali.  All  acids  and  salts  change  the 
natural  violet  of  the  litmus  into  red,  and 
all  alkalies  restore  it  to  its  natural  colour 
the  violet. 

LITURGY.  A  set  form  of  prayer,  or  a 
formulary  of  public  devotion,  called  by  the 
Romanists  the  Mass,  and  in  the  English 
church  the  Common  Prayer. 

LIVER  (in  Anatomy).  A  very  large 
viscus  of  a  red  colour,  situated  in  the  right 
hypochondrium,  and  divided  into  two 
lobes,  which  serves  for  the  secretion  of  the 
bile. 

LIVERY  (in  Domestic  Economy).  In 
England,  a  dress  of  a  certain  form  and 
colour,  which  gentlemen  require  their  ser- 
vants to  wear  by  way  of  distinction. 

LIVERY,  or  Livery  of  Seisin  (in 
Law).  Is  a  delivery  of  possession  of  lands, 
tenements,  or  other  corporeal  things. 

LIVERYMEN  (of  London).  A  certain 
number  of  persons  chosen  from  among  the 
freemen  of  each  company  in  the  city.  Out 
of  this  body  are  chosen  the  common  coun- 
cil, sheriff,  and  other  superior  officers  of 
the  city,  and  they  alone  have  the  privilege 
of  voting  at  the  election  of  members  of 
parliament. 

LIVERY  STABLES.  Public  stables, 
w  here  horses  are  let  out  to  hire. 


228 


LOA 


LIVRE.  A  money  of  account  formerly 
used  in  France,  equal  to  twenty  sous,  or 
ten  pence  sterling. 

LIXIVIUM.     A  lye  made  of  ashes. 

LIZARD.  An  extensive  tribe  of  ani- 
mals, classed  by  Linnaeus  under  the  genus 
lacesta,  comprehending  the  crocodile,  bas- 
ilisk, chameleon,  and  salamander.  The 
lizard,  properly  so  called,  is  a  little  reptile 
of  a  green  colour,  and  is  frequently  to  be 
met  with  in  gardens  or  under  dunghills,  &c. 


LLAMA  (in  Natural  History).  An  ani- 
mal of  the  camel  kind  in  Peru  and  Chili, 
which  has  a  bunch  on  the  breast,  long, 
soft  hair,  and  defends  itself  by  ejecting  its 
saliva. 


LL.  D.  i.  e.  Legum  Doctor,  or  Doctor  of 
tlie  Civil  and  Canon  Laws. 

LOAD  (in  Commerce).  A  certain  quan- 
tity of  hay  or  timber,  about  2000  lbs.  of 
hay,  and  of  timber  fifty  feet. 

LOAD  (among  Miners).  A  vein  of  ore, 
the  leading  vein  of  a  mine. 

LOAD  (in  Husbandi^).  A  trench  to 
drain  fens. 

LOADING  A  GUN.  Charging  a  gun. 

LOADSMAN.  The  pilot. 

LOADSTONE.  A  sort  of  ore  dug  out 
of  iron  mines,  on  which  the  needle  of  the 
mariner's  compass  is  touched,  to  give  it  a 
direction  north  or  south.  It  is  a  peculiarly 
rich  ore  of  iron,  found  in  large  masses  in 
England,  and  most  otlier  places  where 
there  are  mines  of  that  metal.  It  is  of  a 
deep  iron  gray,  and  when  fresh  broken,  it 
is  often  tinged  with  a  brownish  or  reddish 
colour. 

LOAF.  A  Jump  of  bread  of  a  certain 
weight,  worked  by  the  baker  into  a  par- 


LOC 

ticular  form,  of  quarterns  or  half  quai*. 
terns;  about  eighty  quarterns  are  made 
from  a  sack  of  flour. 

LOAF  (among  Sugar-bakers).  A  lump 
of  sugar  of  a  conical  form. 

LOAM,  or  LOME.  A  particular  kind 
of  fat,  unctuous,  and  tenacious  earth,  that 
is  used  much  by  gardeners  in  making  com- 
post. 

LOAN.  In  general,  any  thing  intrusted 
to  another  to  be  returned  again ;  particu- 
larly money. 

LOAN  (in  Political  Economy).  Sum.^ 
of  money  borrowed  from  individuals  or 
public  bodies  for  the  service  of  the  state. 
This  practice  of  borrowing  money  to  defray 
the  extraordinary  expenses  in  time  of  war, 
which  has  been  adopted  in  Great  Britain 
during  several  of  her  late  wars,  has  given 
rise  to  the  national  debt.  All  loans  on  the 
part  of  government  in  England,  are  con- 
tracted for  by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exche- 
quer, and  afterwards  confirmed  by  parlia- 
ment. Loans  used  formerly  to  be  granted 
by  public  bodies  to  the  king  in  considera- 
tion of  certain  privileges  that  were  secured 
to  them,  but  now  money  is  commonly 
advanced  by  individuals,  in  consideration 
of  receiving  interest. 

LOBBY  (in  Architecture).  A  kind  of 
passage,  room,  or  gallery,  as  the  lobby  in 
a  theatre. 

LOBBY  (in  Naval  Architecture).  A 
small  room  near  the  bread-room  in  a 
vessel  of  war,  appropriated  to  the  use  of 
the  surgeon. 

LOBE  (in  Anatomy).  A  division  in  any 
body,  as  the  lungs  or  liver. 

LOBE  (in  Botany).  A  division  in  seeds, 
such  as  beans,  peas,  &c. 

LOBSTER.  A  small  crustaceous  fish, 
having  a  cylindrical  body,  with  a  long  tail 
and  long  antennse.  Lobsters  are  found  on 
most  of  the  rocky  coasts  of  England,  and 
are  abundant  in  this  country. 


LOCAL  (in  Law).  Tied  or  joined  to  a 
place  ;  thus  real  actions  are  local,  because 
they  must  be  brought  in  the  country  where 
the  lands,  &c.  lie. 

LOCAL  COLOURS  (in  Painting).  Such 
as  are  natural  and  proper  for  each  par- 
ticular object  in  a  picture. 


LOG 

LOCAL  PROBLEM  (in  Mathematics). 
That  which  admits  of  innumerable  solu- 
tions. 

LOCK  (among  Smiths).  A  piece  of  iron 
work,  which  is  looked  upon  as  a  master- 
piece in  smithery,  as  much  art  and  nicety 
is  required  in  contriving  and  varying  the 
springs,  bolts,  and  different  parts  to  the 
uses  for  which  they  are  intended.  Locks 
intended  for  outer  doors  are  called  stock- 
locks,  those  on  chamber  doors  spring-locks, 
besides  which  there  are  padlocks,  trunk- 
locks,  &c.  The  principle  on  which  all 
locks  depend  is  the  application  of  a  lever, 
that  is  the  key,  to  an  interior  bolt,  by 
means  of  a  communication  from  without ; 
and  the  security  of  locks  depends  upon 
the  impediments  which  may  be  interposed 
between  this  lever  and  the  bolt.  These 
impediments  have  commonly  been  pro- 
duced by  means  of  the  wards  of  the  key 
so  artfully  contrived  as  to  preclude  the 
access  of  all  other  instruments  besides  the 
key  to  the  bolt.  As  these  contrivances 
have  not,  however,  been  always  an  effec- 
tual bar,  Mr.  Bramah  has  constructed  a 
lock  on  such  a  principle  that  the  office 
which  in  other  locks  is  performed  by  the 
extreme  point  of  the  key  is  here  assigned 
to  a  lever,  which  cannot  approach  the  bolt 
until  every  part  of  the  lock  has  undergone 
a  change  of  position. 

LOCK,  or  Weir  (in  Inland  Navigation). 
A  name  for  all  works  of  wood  or  stone 
which  are  made  to  confine  or  raise  the 
water  of  a  river  or  canal.  In  artificial 
navigations  the  lock  consists  of  two  gates, 
the  upper  one  called  the  sluice  gate,  and 
the  under  one  the  flood  gate. 

LOCK  (among  Gunsmiths).  That  part 
of  a  musket  by  which  fire  is  produced  for 
the  discharge  of  the  piece. 

LOCKED  JAW.  A  spasmodic  affec- 
tion which  prevents  the  motion  of  the 
jaws. 

LOCKER  (among  Mariners).  A  box  or 
chest  in  which  things  are  stowed. 

LOCKET.  A  little  lock  of  a  gold  chain  ; 
also  a  spring  or  catch  to  fasten  a  necklace. 

LOCK-UP-HOUSE.  In  En  gland,  a  place 
where  persons  arrested  for  debt  are  imme- 
diately taken  to,  by  the  sheriff's  officers, 
before  they  are  conducted  to  prison. 

LOCOMOTIVE  FACULTY.  The  power 
possessed  by  animals  of  changing  their 
place,  or  moving  from  one  place  to  ano- 
ther. 

LOCUM  TENENS.  A  deputy,  or  one 
acting  in  the  place  of  another. 

LOCUS  GEOMETRICUS.  A  line  by 
which  a  local  or  indeterminate  problem 
is  solved. 

20 


LOG 


229 


LOCUST.  A  voracious  insect,  like  the 
grasshopper,  which  in  some  parts,  particu- 
larly in  Africa  and  Asia  Minor,  fall  like  a 
cloud  upon  the  country,  and  lay  waste  all 
before  them.  They  are  no  less  terrible 
dead  than  alive,  for  their  pulrified  carcas- 
ses cause  a  pestilence  where  they  happen 
to  alight. 


LODE    (among    Miners).    See   Load. 

LODEWORKS.  One  of  the  works  be' 
longing  to  the  tin  mines  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land. 

LODGE.  In  England,  a  cottage  at  a  park 
gate. 

LODGEMENT  (in  Fortification).  A 
work  raised  by  way  of  shelter  for  the  be- 
siegers ;  also  a  place  of  defence  raised  by 
the  besiegers,  when  in  an  attack  they  have 
gained  possession  of  a  post. 

LOG  (in  Husbandry).  A  piece  of  wood 
attached  to  a  chain,  for  the  confinement 
of  cattle. 

LOG  (among  Mariners).  A  fiat  piece  of 
wood,  with  lead  at  one  end  and  a  line  at 
the  other,  for  measuring  the  rate  of  a  ship's 
sailing. 

LOGARITHMS.  Numbers  so  contrived 
and  adapted  to  other  numbers,  that  the 
sums  and  differences  of  the  former  shall 
correspond  to  and  show  the  products  and 
quotients  of  the  latter,  or  more  properly  a 
series  of  numbers  in  arithmetical  progres- 
sion answering  to  another  series  in  geo- 
metrical progression,  thus, 

0,  1,  9,  3,  4,  5,  &c.  Indices  or  Logarithms. 

1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  &c.  Geomet.  Progression. 
Or, 

0,  1,  2,    3,  4,    5,  &c.  Indices  or  Logs, 

1,  3,  9,  27,  81,  243,  &c.  Geomet.  Prog. 
Or, 

0,  1,    2,      3,        4,     &c.  Indices  or  Log. 

1,  10,  100,  1000,  10,000,  &c.  Geom.  Prog. 
Where  it  is  evident  that  the  same  numbers 
in  arithmetical  progression,  which  are  the 
logarithms  or  indices,  serve  equally  for  any 
geometrical  series,  consequently  there  may 
be  an  endless  variety  of  systems  of  loga- 
rithms to  the  same  common  numbers,  by 
only  changing  the  second  term,  2,  3,  10, 
&c.  of  the  geometrical  series.  If  any  two 
indices  be  added  together  their  sum  will 
be  equal  to  the  product  of  the  two  terms  in 


230 


LOa 


geometrical  progression  with  which  those 
indices  correspond,  thus,  2  and  3  added 
together  are  equal  to  5,  and  the  nuiiibers 
4  and  8  corresponding  with  those  indices 
being  multiplied  together  are  equal  to  32, 
which  is  the  number  answering  to  the 
index  5,  So  if  any  index  be  subtracted 
from  another,  the  difference  will  be  the 
index  of  that  number,  which  is  equal  to 
the  quotient  of  the  two  terms  to  which 
those  indices  belong,  thus  the  index 
6 — 4=2,  then  64  divided  by  16,  the  terms 
corresponding  to  these  two  indices  leaves 
the  quotient  4,  which  answers  to  the  index 
2.  Logaiithms  being  the  exponents  of 
ratios  are  on  that  account  called  iiidices, 
thus  the  logarithm  2  is  the  exponent  or 
index  of  the  several  numbers  in  the  geo- 
metrical series  over  which  it  stands,  as  2"^? 
or  the  square  of  2  equal  to  4  in  the  first 
series,  32  or  square  of  3,  that  is  9,  in  the 
second  series,  and  10^  or  the  square  of  10, 
that  is  100,  in  the  third  series;  so  likewise 
3  is  the  index  or  exponent  for  the  cube 
numbers  8,  27,  1000,  &;c.  over  which  it 
stands. 

LOG-BOARD.  A  table  on  which  an 
account  of  the  ship's  way  is  marked. 

LOG-BOOK.  The  book  in  which  the 
account  of  the  log  is  transcribed. 

LOGIC.  The  art  which  teaches  the  right 
use  of  reason,  and  tre;its  of  the  several 
operations  of  the  nnnd  which  are  em- 
ployed in  argumentation  or  reasoning. 

LOG  LLVE.  The  line  fastened  to  the 
log,  which  is  divided  into  certain  spaces 
fifty  feet  in  length,  by  knots  or  pieces  of 
knotted  twine,  unreeved  between  the 
strands  of  the  line,  which  show,  by  means 
of  a  half-minute  glass,  how  many  of  these 
spaces  or  knots  are  run  out  in  half  a 
minute,  and  as  the  distance  of  the  knots 
bears  the  same  proportion  to  a  mile  that 
half  a  minute  does  to  an  hour,  whatever 
number  of  knots  the  ship  runs  in  half  a 
minute,  the  same  number  of  miles  she  runs 
in  an  hour. 

LOGOGRAPHY.  A  method  of  printing 
in  which  the  types  form  whole  words  in- 
stead of  letters.  By  this  method  the  me- 
mory of  the  compositor  is  less  burdened, 
and  the  business  proceeds  with  more  ex- 
pedition and  less  liability  to  err.  It  is  also 
said  that  the  logographic  method  is  not 
more  expensive  than  the  common  method. 

LOGWOOD.  A  sort  of  wood  used  by 
dyers,  called  also  Carnpeche  wood,  be- 
cause it  was  originally  brought  from  Cam- 
pechy,  in  New  Spain.  Logwood  is  very 
dense  and  firm  in  its  texture,  exceedingly 
heavy,  so  as  to  sink  into  water,  of  a  deep 
red  colour,  and  admits  of  a  fine  polish. 


LOO 

It  yields  its  colour  both  to  spirituous  and 
watery  menstrua,  but  alcohol  extracts  it 
more  readily  than  water.  Acids  turn  its 
dye  to  a  yellow,  alkalies  deepen  its  colour, 
and  give  it  a  purple  or  violet  hue. 

LOMENTACE^  (in  Botany).  The 
name  of  tlie  thirty -third  natural  order  in 
Linnceus's  Fragments,  consisting  of  plants 
many  of  which  furnish  beautiful  dyes,  and 
the  pericarpium  of  which  is  always  a  pod 
containing  seeds  that  are  carinaceous,  or 
rneally ,  1  ike  those  of  the  bean,  as  the  cassia, 
the  wild  senna,  logwood,  mimosa,  or  the 
sensitive  plant,  <Scc. 

LONDON  PRIDE.  A  plant  bearing  a 
small  flower. 

LONG  (in  Music).  A  note  equal  to  two 
breves. 

LONG  BOAT  (among  Mariners).  The 
strongest  and  longest  boat  belonging  to  a 
vessel  of  war. 

LONG  BOW.  An  ancient  bow  that  was 
once  much  used. 

LONGIMETRY.  The  measuring  of 
lengths  or  distances,  both  accessible  and 
inaccessible. 

LOx\GlTUDE  (in  Astronom.y).  An  arc 
of  the  ecliptic  intercepted  between  the 
beginning  of  Aries  and  the  point  of  the 
ecliptic  cut  by  the  circle  of  longitude  be- 
longing to  any  star. 

LONGITUDE  (in  Geography).  The  ex- 
tent of  the  earth  from  east  to  west. 

LONGITUDE  OF  A  PLACE.  An  arc 
of  the  equator  intercepted  between  some 
given  point  called  the  first  meridian  and 
the  meridian  passing  through  the  proposed 
place.  This  may  be  either  east  or  west, 
according  as  it  is  reckoned  on  the  east  or 
west  side  of  the  first  meridian. 

LOOF.  A  sea  term  for  the  after  part  of 
a  ship's  bow. 

LOOKING-GLASS.  A  plain  glass 
minor,  which  being  impervious  to  the 
1  ght,  reflects  the  images  of  things  placed 
before  it. 

LOOM  (among  Weavers).  A  frame  by 
which  the  process  of  weaving  is  per- 
formed. 

LOOM.  A  sea  term  for  a  ship  which 
when  seen  at  distance,  appears  big. 

LOOP  (in  Gunnery).  A  small  iron  ring 
in  the  barrel  of  a  gun. 

LOOP  (in  the  Iron  Works).  A  part  of 
a  sow  or  block  of  cast  iron,  broken  or 
melted  off"  from  the  rest. 

LOOP.  A  sea  term  for  the  noose  in  a  rppe. 

LOOPHOLES  (among  Marinersl.  Holes 
in  the  coamings  of  the  hatches  of  a  ship, 
for  firing  muskets  through. 

LOOPHOLES  (in  Fortification).  Little 
holes  in  the  walls  of  a  castle  or  fortifica- 


LOU 

tion,  through  which  arrows  were  dis- 
charged. 

LORD.  In  England,  any  peer  of  the 
realmj  also  a  title  of  honour  sometimes 
given  to  persons  by  virtue  of  tlieir  office, 
as  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Lord  Chief 
Justice,  the  Lord  Mayor. 

LORD  OF  A  MANOR  (in  England).  A 
person  that  had  a  fee,  and  consequently 
the  homage  of  the  tenants  within  his  ma- 
nor, and  also  the  privilege  of  holding  a 
court  baron.  Lords  of  the  manor  still  re- 
tain some  of  the  old  manorial  rights. 

LORY.     A  bird  of  the  parrot  kind. 

LOTE  TREE.  A  kind  of  tree  which 
from  its  jagged  leaves  was  called  the  nettle 
tree. 

LOTION.  The  washing  or  cleansing  of 
any  medicine  with  water;  also  a  wash  for 
the  skin. 

LOTTERY.  A  game  of  chance  in  the 
nature  of  a  bank,  wherein  are  put  tickets 
for  suras  of  money  or  other  things,  called 
prizes,  and  others  of  no  value,  that  are 
called  blanks,  these  being  all  mixed  to- 
gether, the  tickets  are  drawn  at  a  venture, 
and  each  person  has  the  value  of  the  lot 
drawn  to  the  number  of  his  ticket.  Lotte- 
ries were  I'ormerly  employed  by  govern- 
ment in  England,  as  a  means  of  increasing 
the  revenue,  but  have  since  been  abolished. 

LOVE  APPLE.  The  fruit  of  a  tree  in 
Spain,  that  is  of  a  violet  colour. 

LOUIS  D'OR.  A  French  coin,  first 
struck  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  in  1640, 
equal  in  value  to  twenty  shillings  sterling. 
The  modern  Louis  d'or  is  equal  only  to 
sixteen  shillings  and  eight  pence. 

LOZENGE  (in  Heraldry).  A  figure 
which  is  used  to  contain  the  coats  of  arms 
of  all  maidens  and  widows. 


LUS 


231 


LOZENGE  (in  Geometry).  A  quadri- 
lateral figure,  having  two  angles  acute  and 
the  two  opposite  ones  obtuse. 

LOZENGE  (in  Pharmacy).  A  medicine 
made  to  be  held  in  the  mouth,  which  was 
originally  in  the  form  of  a  lozenge. 

L.  S.  An  abbreviation  for  locus  sigilli, 
the  place  of  the  seal. 

LOUIS,  St.,  Order  of.  An  order  of 
knighthood  instituted  1693,  by  Louis  XIV. 


LOUSE.  A  disgusting  Insect,  •which 
lives  by  extracting  animal  juices;  it  infests 
man  and  brutes. 

LOUSY  DISEASE.  A  general  corrup- 
tion of  humours,  which  breeds  lice  in  every 
part  of  the  body. 

LUGGER.  A  small  vessel  carrying  either 
two  or  three  masts,  Vv^ith  a  running  bow- 
sprit, upon  which  lugsails  are  set,  and. 
sometimes  topsails  adapted  to  them. 


LUMBAGO.  A  rheumatic  afFection  of 
the  muscles  about  the  loins. 

LUNACY.  A  kind  of  madness,  so  called 
because  supposed  to  be  influenced  by  the 
moon . 

LUNAR.  Belonging  to  the  moon,  as  a 
lunar  eclipse,  month,  year,  &:c. 

LUNATICS.  Are  properly  such  as  have 
diseased  imaginations,  which  deprive  them 
of  the  use  of  their  reasoning  faculty,  some- 
times altogether  and  sometimes  only  on 
particular  subjects. 

LUNATION,  otherwise  called  the  Sy- 
NODiCAL  Month.  A  revolution  of  the 
moon,  or  the  time  between  one  new  moon 
and  another. 

LUNE  (in  Mathematics).  A  geometrical 
figure  in  form  of  a  crescent. 

LUNGS  (in  Anatomy).  A  viscus  in  the 
animal  body,  composed  of  two  lobes  or 
divisions,  which  are  spongy  bodies,  situ- 
ated in  the  chest,  and  serving  the  purpose 
of  respiration. 

LUPINE.  A  sort  of  pulse,  which  bears 
a  papilionaceous  flower.  There  are  several 
species  of  lupines  cultivated  in  gardens,  as 
the  white  lupine,  the  small  blue  lupine, 
and  the  great  blue  lupine,  <fcc.  which  are 
all  annuals  except  one  species,  called  by 
distinction  the  perennial  lupine. 

LUPUS.  The  Wolf  in  Astronomy,  a 
constellation  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

LURID^  (in  Botany).  A  natural  order 
of  plants  in  the  Linnsean  system,  which 
are  poisonous,  as  the  nightshade,  digitalis, 
&c. 

LUSTRATION.  The  ceremony  of  puri- 
fication performed  by  the  ancient  Romans 


232 


MAC 


every  five  j^ears;  whence  that  space  vt^as 
called  a  lustrum. 

LUSTRE  (in  Mineralogy).  One  charac- 
ter of  mineral  bodies,  which  in  that  respect 
are  distinguished  into  splendent,  shining, 
glistening,  glimmering,  and  dull. 

LUTE.  A  stringed  instrument,  contain- 
ing at  first  only  five  rows  of  strings,  to 
which  were  afterwards  added  six  more. 
It  was  formerly  much  used. 

LUTE  (in  Chymistry).  A  compound 
paste  made  of  potter's  clay,  sand,  and 
other  materials,  for  the  purpose  of  closing 
up  the  necks  of  Tetorts,  receivers,  &c.  in 
different  chymical  experiments. 

LUTIIERANISM,  The  doctrines  of 
Martin  Luther,  the  German  reformer, 
which  form  the  creed  of  all  the  protestants 
in  Germany  who  are  not  Calvinists. 

LYCOPODIUM,  or  Club  Moss.  A 
sort  of  moss,  the  seeds  of  which  when 
ignited  burn  off  like  a  flash  of  lightning. 
It  is  used  in  the  London  theatres. 

LYDL\N  STONE  A  stone  of  a  gray- 
ish black  colour,  which  is  found  in  Bohe- 
mia and  other  parts  of  Germany,  and  also 
in  Scotlantl.  When  polished,  it  is  used  as 
a  test  stone  for  determining  the  purity  of 
gold  and  silver.  It  was  used  for  that  pur- 
pose among  the  ancients,  by  whom  it 
received  this  name,  because  it  was  found 
only  in  the  Tmolus,  a  river  of  Lydia, 


MAC 

LYE.  A  composition  of  ashes  and  wa- 
ter for  washing  or  scouring. 

LYMPH  (in  Anatomy).  Aclearlympid 
humour,  secreted  from  the  blood,  which 
is  carried  by  the  lymphatic  vessels  into  the 
thoracic  duct,  where  it  mixes  with  the 
chyle. 

LYMPHATICS.  The  lymphatic  ves- 
sels. 

LYNX.  A  wild  beast,  of  a  tawny  brown 
colour,  with  black  spots,  and  very  quick 
sighted,  which  in  its  habits  resembles  the^ 
wild  cat. 


LYRA.  The  lyre,  a  constellation  in  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

LYRE.  A  musical  stringed  instrument, 
much  used  by  the  ancients. 

LYRIC.  Pertaining  to  the  harp,  as  lyric 
verse,  poetry  made  for  or  set  to  the  harp. 


M. 


M,  the  thirteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
which  as  a  numeral  stands  for  mille,  a 
thousand,  and  with  a  stroke  over  it,  thus 
M,  it  stood  for  1,000,000.  As  an  abbre- 
viation M.  A.  stands  for  Master  of  Arts, 
M.  D.  Doctor  of  Medicine,  D.  Mus.  Doctor 
of  Music,  MS.  Manuscript,  MSS.  Manu- 
scripts. 

MACADAMIZING.  A  method  of  mak- 
ing roads,  introduced  by  Mr.  Mac  Adam, 
which  consists  in  breaking  the  stories  so 
small  that  they  may  bind  with  the  earth 
into  a  solid  smooth  mass. 

MACARONIC  POEM.  A  sort  of  bur- 
lesque poetry. 

MACAROON.  A  sweetmeat  made  of 
almonds. 

MACCAW.     A  kind  of  parrot. 

MACE  (in  Botany).  A  sort  of  spice,  the 
seQond  coat  of  the  kernel  of  the  nutmeg, 
a  thin  membranaceous  substance,  of  an 
oleaginous  nature,  a  yellow  colour,  an 
extremely  fragrant  aromatic  perfume,  and 
a  pleasant  but  acrid  and  oleaginous  taste. 

MACE  (in  State  Etiquette).  In  England, 


an  ornamented  staff,  borne  as  an  ensign 
of  honour  before  a  magistrate. 

MACERATION  (in  Pharmacy).  An 
infusion  of  ingredients  in  any  liquid,  in 
order  to  soften  them. 

MACHINE.  An  engine  composed  of 
several  parts,  put  together  by  mechanical 
art  and  contrivance,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  bodies,  assisting,  regulating,  or 
stopping  their  motions,  &c.  Simple  ma- 
chines comprehend  the  six  mechanical 
powers.  Compound  machines  are  com- 
posed of  the  simple.  Machines  are  like- 
wise distinguished  according  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  used  into  the 
architectural  machine,  electrical  machine, 
hydraulic  machine,  &c. 

MACHINE  INFERNAL.  A  machine 
used  in  modern  warfare,  for  the  purpose 
of  blowing  up  bridges,  <Slc. 

MACKEREL.  A  well  known  fish,  that 
visits  the  shores  of  the  ocean  in  the  sum- 
mer season  in  vast  shoals. 

MACKEREL-GALE.  A  strong  breeze 
that  is  very  favourable  for  mackerel  fishing. 


MAG 

'  MACULiE  (in  Astronomy).  Dark  spots 
appearing  on  the  luminous  surfaces  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  and  even  some  of  the 
planets. 

MACUL.E  (in  Medicine).  Discolor:^ 
tions  on  tJie  surface  of  the  hody. 

MADDER..  A  substance  used  in  dying, 
which  is  extracted  from  the  root  of  a 
plant  botanically  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  rubia.  The  madder  root  grows 
in  France  and  other  countries  of  Europe, 
that  of  Zealand  is  the  best  of  European 
growth,  but  that  wJiich  comes  from  the 
Levant  is  still  more  esteemed. 

MADEIRA.  A  ricli  wine  made  in  the 
island  of  Madeira. 

MADRIGAL.     A  short  amorous  poem. 

MAGAZINE  (in  Commerce).  A  ware- 
house for  all  sorts  of  mershandise. 

MAGAZINE  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
storehouse  for  arms,  &c. 

MAGAZINE  (in  Literature).  A  periodi- 
cal work  containing  miscellaneous  matter. 

MAGGOT.     The  larva  of  flies,  bees,  &c. 

MAGI.  Astrologers  and  priests  among 
the  Persians  and  Asiatics. 

J.IAGIC.  The  black  art,  or  the  pre- 
tended art  of  producing  supernatural  ef- 
fects, derived  from  the  Persian  magi. 

MAGIC  SQUARE  (in  Arithmetic).  Fi- 
gures so  disposed  into  parallel  and  equal 


MAG 


233 


4 

9    2 

3 

5    7 

8    1^ 

ranks  as  that  the  sums  of  each  row,  as  well 
diagonally  as  laterally,  shall  be  equal. 

MAGIC  LANTERN.  An  optical  ma- 
chine, by  means  of  which  are  represented 
on  an  opposite  wall  in  a  dark  room,  mon- 
strous figures,  magnified  to  any  size  at 


pleasure.    This  contrivance  consists  of  a 

common  lantern  with  a  candle  in  it,  as  in 

20* 


the  subjoined  figure,  to  which  is  added  a 
tube,  and  a  lens  that  throws  the  light  on 
the  object,  and  another  lens  which  magni- 
fies the  image  on  the  wall.  Then  by  con- 
tracting the  tube,  and  bringing  the  glass 
nearer  to  the  object,  the  image  will  be 
enlarged. 

MAGNA  CHARTA  (in  England).  Or 
the  great  charter  of  liberties  first  granted 
by  King  John  in  the  seventeenth  year  of 
his  reign,  a.  d.  1215.  This  was  afterwards 
renewed,  with  some  alterations,  by  his 
son  and  successor  Henry  III.  and  repeated- 
ly confirmed  both  by  this  king  and  King 
Edward  I.  The  Magna  Charta  which  is 
the  first  statute  given  in  the  statute  books, 
is  the  same  as  that  granted  by  Henry  HI. 
in  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign. 

MAGNESIA.  A  white,  soft  powder, and 
one  of  the  primitive  earths,  having  a  me- 
tallic basis  called  m.agnesium.  It  is  mostly 
extracted  from  talc,  asljestos,  boracite,and 
other  stones. 

MAGNESIUM.     See  Manganese. 

MAGNET.     See  Loadstone. 

MAGNETIC  or  MAGNETICAL.  Per- 
taining to  the  magnet  or  loadstone,  as 
magnetic  attraction,  magnetic  needle,  &c. 

MAGNETICAL  MERIDIAN.  A  great 
circle  in  the  heavens,  which  intersects  the 
horizon  in  the  points  to  which  the  mag- 
netical  needle,  when  at  rest,  directs  itself. 

MAGNETIC  NEEDLE,    See  Needle. 

MAGNETISM.  The  property  of  attract- 
ing and  repelling  iron,  as  the  loadstone 
does,  which  v/as  partially  known  to  the 
ancients,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  they 
knew  any  thing  of  its  directive  power, 
which  has  been  so  usefully  employed  by 
the  moderns.  The  natural  magnet  has  the 
power  of  communicating  its  properties  to 
ii'on  or  steel ,  whicji  then  becomes  a  magnet 
itself,  and  is  emplojed  as  such  on  most 
occasions^. 

MAGNETISM,  Animal.  A  pretended 
science,  which  professed  to  cure  diseases, 
particularly  nervous  disorders,  by  commu- 
nicating a  sortof  magnetical  fluid  or  virtue 
from  one  body  to  a,uother. 

MAGNIFYING  (in  Philosophy).  The 
making  objects  appear  larger  by  the  means 
of  glasses  than  they  do  to  the  naked  eye  ; 
convex  glasses,  which  have  this  power, 
are  called  magnifying  glasses,  of  which 
microscopes  are  made. 

MAGNITUDE..  The  extension  of  any 
thing,  whether  it  be  in  one  direction,  as  a 
line ;  in  two  directions,  as  a  surface  \  or 
in  three  directions,  as  a  solid. 

MAGNOLIA.  A  plant,  of  which  the 
magnolia  grandiflora,  or  the  great  mag- 
nolia,, is  the  principal  species.     It  is  a 


234 


MAL 


native  of  Florida,  and  bears  a  beautiful 
milkwhite  flower. 

MAGPIE.  A  cunning,  variegated  bird 
common  in  Europe  and  found  in  the  wes- 
tern regions  of  the  United  States. 

MAHOGANY  (in  Botany).  A  beautiful 
wood,  belonging  to  a  tree  that  grows  in 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  known  by 
the  botanical  name  of  the  swetenea  ma- 
hogani,  or  the  mahogany  tree, 

MAHOMETANS.  Believers  in  the  doc- 
trines and  divine  mission  of  the  impostor 
Mahomet, 

MAIDEN-HAtR.  A  plant,  native  of  the 
south  of  France. 

MAJESTY.  A  title  given  commonly  to 
kings.  It  was  first  used  in  England  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  instead  of  high- 
ness. 

MAIHEM,  or  MAYHEM.  A  corporal 
wound  or  hurt,  by  which  a  man  loses  the 
use  of  any  member.  It  originally  applied 
to  such  corporal  injuries  as  rendered  a 
man  less  fit  for  war, 

MAIL,  or  Mail  Bag.  A  leathern  bag 
for  the  conveyance  of  letters. 

MAIL-COACH.  A  coach  of  a  particular 
construction  for  expeditious  travelling, 
several  of  which  are  employed  by  govern- 
ment for  the  conveyance  of  letters  to  all 
parts  of  England.  Mail  coaches  were  first 
brought  into  use  in  1784.  In  the  United 
States  the  coaches  belong  to  proprietors 
with  whom  the  government  contracts  to 
carry  the  mail. 

MAINFRIZE  (in  Law).  Receiving  a 
person  into  friendly  custody  who  might 
otherwise  be  committed  to  prison,  on  secu- 
rity given  for  his  forthcoming  on  a  day 
appointed  •,  a  sort  of  bail. 

MAINTENANCE  (in  Law).  The  wrong- 
ful upholding  another  in  a  cause. 

MAJOR  (in  Military  Affairs).  An  officer 
above  a  captain. 

MAJOR-GENERAL.  He  who  receives 
the  general's  order. 

MAJOR  OF  A  BRIGADE.  The  officer 
who  receives  the  orders  from  the  major- 
general. 

MAJOR  OF  A  REGIMENT.  The  offi- 
cer next  the  lieutenant-colonel. 

MAJOR,  Town.  The  third  officer  of  a 
garrison. 

MALACHITE.  A  mineral,  the  green 
carbonate  of  copper,  found  '  frequently 
crystallized  in  long  slender  needles.  It 
consists  of  copper,  carbonic  acid,  oxygen, 
and  water. 

MALACOLITE.  A  mineral  found  in  the 
silver  mines  in  Sweden,  and  also  in  Nor- 
way, consisting  of  silica,  lime,  magnesia, 
alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  &c. 


]VI  A  L 

MAIZE,  or  Indian  Corn.  A  well  known 
plant,  once  peculiar  to  America,  but  now 
extensively  cultivated,  in  France,  Germa- 
ny, Italy,  and  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  bread 
stufis,  in  the  United  States. 


MALADMINISTRATION.  Bad  ma- 
nagement of  public  affairs,  or  a  misde- 
meanour in  public  employments. 

MALAPROPOS.  Unseasonably,  or  at 
an  improper  time. 

MALATES.  Salts  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  malic  acid  with  different  bases.  The 
malates  of  potash,  soda,  and  ammonia  are 
deliquescent. 

MALE.  One  of  the  sexes  of  animals. 

MALE  FLOWER.  A  flower  that  bears 
stamens  only,  without  pistils. 

MALE  SCREW.  A  screw  that  has  the 
spiral  thread  on  the  outside  of  the  cylin- 
der. 

MALIC  ACID,  An  acid  discovered  by 
Scheele,  about  the  year  1785.  It  is  pro- 
cured from  the  juices  of  many  fruits,  but 
particularly  from  that  of  apples.  It  is 
composed  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  car- 
ban,  and  combines  with  alkalies,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides,  so  as  to  form  malates. 

MALLEABILITY.  The  property  of 
metals  of  being  capable  of  extension  by 
beating  with  the  hammer,  and  of  being 
worked  into  different  forms. 

MALLET.  A  wooden  hammer. 


MALLOW.  An  herbaceous  plant,  most 
species  of  which  grow  wild  in  the  field. 
The  common  mallow  is  an  annual;  but 
there  are  several  species  which  are  peren- 
nials and  biennials. 

MALT.  Barley  prepared  by  a  particular 
process,  so  as  to  fit  it  for  making  into  beer. 


MAN 

MALT  KILNS.  Are  chambers  full  of 
holes  in  the  floor,  through  which  the  heat 
ascends  from  the  furnace  below  and  dries 
the  barley  that  is  laid  upon  it. 

MAMALUKES.  The  nameof  a  dynasty 
that  reigned  in  Egypt.  They  were  origi- 
nally Turkish  o-r  Circassian  slaves  that 
were  trained  to  arms,  and  being  employed 
in  the  highest  offices  of  the  state,  at  length 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  but  were  subdued 
by  sultan  Selim.  They  became  a  distinct 
body  of  soldiers,  but  have  within  a  few 
years  been  banished  from  tlie  country  bj- 
the  present  Pasha. 

MAMMALIA.  The  first  class  of  animals 
in  the  Linnaan  system  comprehending 
such  as  suckle  their  young  by  means  of 
lactiferotis  teats,  and  aie  for  the  most  part 
quadrupeds. 

MAN.  A  sea  term  for  a  vessel,  as  a 
merchantman^  that  is,  a  vessel  used  in 
transporting  merchants  goods ;  a  man  of 
war,  the  largest  kind  of  vessels  used  in 
war. 

MANDAMUS  (in  Law).  A  writ  original- 
ly granted  by  the  king,  so  called  from  the 
first  word,  Mandamus,  we  command,  com- 
manding corporations  and  inferior  courts, 
or  other  perstms,  to  do  some  particular 
thing,  as  to  admit  any  one  to  an  office  and 
the  like. 

MANDARIN.  A  Chinese  magistrate. 

MANDATE.  A  judicial  command  of 
the  king. 

MANDIBLE.  The  jaw  of  brutes;  in 
Ornithology,  the  bill  of  birds. 

MANDRAKE.  A  plant,  whose  divided 
root  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  legs 
and  thighs  of  a  man. 

MANDRIL,  or  MANDERIL.  A  wooden 
pulley,  part  of  a  turner's  latb-e. 

MANEGE.  A  riding  school;  also  the 
art  of  horsemanship,  or  the  management 
of  both  the  horse  and  the  rider. 

MANEaUIN  (in  the  Fine  Arts).  A 
little  statue  or  model,  usaally  made  of 
wood  or  wax,  and  so  contrived  as  to  be 
put  into  posture  at  pleasure. 

MANGANESE.  A  mineral  which,  when 
pure,  is  of  a  grayish  white  colour,  and 
considerable  brilliancy;  it  has  neither 
taste  nor  smell,  is  of  the  hardness  of  iron, 
and  very  brittle,  when  reduced  to  powder 
it  is  attracted  by  the  magnet.  The  ore  of 
manganese  is  remarkable  for  its  sponta- 
neous inflammation  with  oil.  It  is  mueh 
used  by  glassmakers  and  potters,  and  is 
sometimes  called  soap  of  glass. 

MANGE.  A  cutaneous  disease  incident 
to  horses,  doirs,  and  othsr  domestic  ani- 
mals ;  it  is  attended  with  eruptions  and 
loss  of  hair. 


MAN 


235 


MANGEL  WURZ  EL.  A  sort  of  turnip 
that  is  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  carrot,  but 
much  larger  ;  it  is  reckoned  a  good  winter 
fodder  for  cows,  and  has  been  sometimes 
used  in  Germany  as  the  food  of  man  in 
times  of  scarcity,  whence  it  derives  its 
name,  sisinifying  literally  root  of  scarcity. 

MANGER.  A  trough  out  of  which 
horses  eat  their  corn  or  dry  food. 

MANGER  (among  Mariners).  A  place 
on  the  deck  of  a  vessel  for  receiving  the 
sea  water. 

MANGROVE  TREE.  A  tree  of  Suri- 
nam, which,  like  the  banium  tree,  sends 
forth  numerous  branches,  that  take  root  in 
the  earth  and  form  fresh  trees,  so  as  to 
make  a  wood  out  of  one  main  stock. 

MANICIIEES.  The  followers  of  a  Per- 
sian impostor  in  the  third  century,  who 
taught  that  there  were  two  independent 
principles  or  sods,  one  good  and  one  evil. 

MANIFEST  ( i n  Com merce) .  The 
draught  of  the  cargo  of  a  ship. 

MANIFESTO.  A  public  declaration 
made  by  a  prince,  expTaiiirng  his  reasons 
for  going  to  war  or  adopting  any  hostile 
measure  towards  another  country. 

MANILLE.  A  large  brass  ring,  like  a 
bracelet,  which  was  given  by  the  Euro- 
peans in  their  tratfic  for  slaves  on  the 
African  coast. 

MANIS.  An  Indian  animal  having  no 
teeth,  a  body  covered  above  with  scales, 
and  a  round  extensile  tongue,  with  which 
it  catches  insects. 


MANNA.  The  food  sent  from  heaven 
for  the  support  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness. 

MANNA  (in  Botany).  A  sweet  juice  or 
gum  which  flows  from  many  trees  and 
plants  in  Syria,  and  also  in  Calabria, 
where  it  exudes  from  two  species  of  the 
ash.  Its  smell  is  strong,  its  taste  rather 
nauseously  sweet,  if  exposed  in  hot  coals 
it  swells  up,  takes  tire,  and  leaves  a  light 
coal,  which  aiFords  a  fixed  alkali.  It  is 
dissolved  by  water,  and  affords  by  distilla- 
tion water,  acid,  oil,  and  ammonia. 

MANOMETER,  or  Manoscope.  An 
instrument  for  showing  the  alterations  in 
the  rarit}^  and  density  of  the  air.  It  differs 
from  the  barometer,  in  as  much  as  the  latter 
only  serves  to  measure  the  weight  of  the 


236 


MAP 


atmosphere,  but  the  former  the  density  of 
the  air  in  which  it  is  found. 

MANOR  (in  Law).  In  England,  a  noble 
sort  of  fee  anciently  granted  by  the  king  to 
some  baron  to  dwell  upon,  and  to  exercise 
a  jurisdiction  greater  or  less  within  that  cir- 
cuit: this  was  in  part  let  out  to  the  lord's 
tenants,  and  part  was  reserved  for  the  use 
of  his  family,  which  latter  was  called  terra 
dominicalis,  or  demesne.  Some  part  was 
left  uncultivated,  which  was  called  the 
lord's  waste. 

MANSION  (in  Law).  The  lord  of  the 
manor's  chief  dwelling  house  within  his 
fee. 

MANSLAUGHTER  (in  Law).  The 
killing  a  man  by  misadventure  without 
malice  prepense. 

MANTELETS  (in  Fortification).  A 
kind  of  moveable  parapets  used  in  a  siege. 

MANTIS.  A  sort  of  insects,  of  which 
there  are  numerous  species,  distinguished 
by  the  difference  and  singularitj.  of  their 
shape.  The  chief  species  in  Europe  is  the 
camel  cricket,  or  praying  mantis,  so  called 
because  when  sitting  it  holds  up  its  two 
fore  legs  a«  if  in  the  attitude  of  prayer. 
This  is  a  rapacious  insect,  that  attacks 
other  insects  with  great  fierceness. 

MANUAL.  Pertaining  to  the  hand,  as 
manual  operation,  an  operation  performed 
by  the  hand. 

MANUAL,  Sign  (in  Law).  The  signing 
of  a  deed  or  writing,  underhand  and  seal. 

MANUAL  (in  Literature).  Any  book 
small  enough  to  be  carried  in  the  hand, 
which  contains  a  compendium  of  science. 

MANUFAOTLTRE.  Any  commodity 
made  by  the  hand,  or  any  thing  formed 
from  the  raw  materials  or  natural  pro- 
ductions of  a  country,  as  cloths  from  wool, 
and  cotton  or  silk  goods  from  the  cotton 
and  silk,  &c. 

MANUFACTURER.  One  who  employs 
his  capital  in  manufacturing  goods. 

MANUMISSION  (in  Law).  The  act  of 
enfranchising,  or  setting  a  slave  or  bond- 
man free. 

MANURE.  Whatever  serves  to  enrich 
the  ground  and  fit  it  for  husbandry  pur- 
poses, as  dung,  loam,  soap  ashes,  &c. 

MANUSCRIPT,  abbreviated  MS.  or  in 
the  plural  MS3.  A  book  or  copy  written 
with  the  hand,  in  opposition  to  a  printed 
copy. 

MAP.  A  plane  figure  representing  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  any  part  thereof, 
together  with  the  several  divisions  of  land 
and  water,  and  the  several  countries, 
towns,  and  the  like.  It  is  called  auniver- 
sal  map  when  it  represents  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  or  the  two  hemispheres, 


MAR 

and  a  particular  map  when  it  only  repre- 
sents particular  regions  or  countries.  A 
map  is  properly  a  representation  of  land, 
as  distinguished  from  a  chart,  which  only 
represents  the  sea  or  seacoast. 

MAPLE  (in  Botany).  A  tree  of  which 
there  are  numerous  species,  classed  by 
Linnffius  under  the  scientific  name  acer. 
The  acer  sacharinum,  or  sugar  maple,  in 
North  America,  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able species,  from  which,  by  tapping  the 
trees  early  in  the  spring  is  procured  a  vast 
quantity  of  sugar,  a  tree  of  an  ordinary 
size  yielding  in  a  good  season  from  twenty 
to  thirty  gallons  of  sap. 

MARBLE.  A  sort  of  fossils  composed 
chiefly  of  lime,  moderately  hard,  ferment- 
ing with  and  soluble  in  acid  menstrum, 
and  calcining  in  a  slight  fire;  as  marbles 
admit  of  a  fine  polish,  they  are  used  much 
as  ornaments  in  building.  Marble  is  found 
in  most  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. Derbyshire  abounds  in  this  article, 
as  also  the  Isle  of  Anglesea,  where  there 
is  a  beautiful  marble  called  Verde  de  Cor- 
sica, because  it  is  found  likewise  in  Cor- 
sica, and  in  some  parts  of  Italy. 

MARBLING.  The  painting  any  thing 
with  veins  and  clouds,  so  as  to  represent 
m.^rb]e. 

MARCH  (in  Chronology).  The  third 
month  in  the  year,  which  was  formerly 
the  first  month. 

MARCH  (in  Military  Afl'airs).  The 
movement  of  a  body  of  troops  from  one 
place  to  another;  or  the  stepping  of  a 
soldier  according  to  a  certain  form. 

Mx^RCH  (in  Music).  Any  piece  adapted- 
to  a  soldier's  march. 

MARCHES.  Borders  or  confines,  par 
ticularly  the  boundaries  between  England 
and  Wales. 

MARIGOLD.  A  plant  cultivated  in 
gardens,  which  bears  a  radiated,  discous 
flower. 

MARINE.  A  general  name  for  the  navy 
of  a  kingdom  or  state,  comprehending  also 
all  that  relates  to  naval  affairs,  as  the 
building,  rigging,  arming,  equipping,  navi- 
gating, and  employing  ships,  either  for 
nif^rchandise  or  war. 

MARINE.  Belonging  to  the  sea,  as 
marine  stores,  &c.;  also  the  name  of  a 
body  of  soldiers  raised  for  the  sea  service. 

MARINE  REMAINS.  The  sliells  of 
sea  fishes  and  parts  of  crustaceous  and 
other  sea  animals  found  in  digging  down 
great  depths  into  the  earth,  particularly  on 
the  tops  of  mountains,  which,  as  they 
prove  that  these  places  were  once  covered 
with  water,  are  considered  as  vestiges  and 
striking  evidences  of  the  general  deluge. 


MAR 

MARINER.  One  accustomed  to  a  sea 
Ufe. 

MARINES.  Soldiers  who  serve  on  board 
a  ship,  and  trained  to  fight  either  by  sea 
<jr  on  land. 

MARITIME.  Bounded  by  the  sea,  as  a 
maritime  province  or  county,  that  is,  one 
bounded  by  the  sea;  so  likewise  maritime 
countries,  such  as  England  or  Holland. 

MARK,  or  MARC.  A  weiglit  used  in 
several  states  of  Europe;  in  France  it  is 
equal  to  eight  ounces:  also  a  money  of 
account,  equal  to  about  3^^  M.  sterling. 

MARKET,  A  public  place  and  time  for 
selling  provisions  and  other  things:  in  the 
towns  in  England  a  market  is  held  once 
or  twice  in  the  week,  and  is  less  than  a 
fair, 

MARKET  DAY.  The  day  on  which 
the  market  is  held. 

MARL.  A  sort  of  fat  earth,  consisting 
of  clay  and  the  carbonate  of  lime,  in  which 
the  latter  prevails.  Maries  are  particularly 
useful  as  manures  in  barren  lands. 

MARLINS.  A  sea  term  for  lines  of 
untwisted  hemp  well  tarred,  to  keep  the 
ends  of  the  ropes,  &c.  from  unravelling. 

MARMOTTE.  An  animal  between  a 
rabbit  and  a  mouse,  which  abounds  in  the 
Alps.  The  animal  common  in  the  United 
States  called  woodchuck,  is  a  species  of 
marmotte;  the  prairie  dog,  found  in  the 
plains  of  Missouri  is  another  species  of 
marmotte. 


3!  A  E 


237 


MARaUIS  (in  England).  A  title  of 
honour  next  to  a  duke,  first  given  to  those 
who, governed  the  Marches  of  Wales,  who 
were  called  Lords  Marchers.  The  title  of 
Marquis  was  first  given  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  The  coronet  of  a  marquis  has 
flowers  and  pyramids  with  pearls  on  them 
intermixed. 


MARQ-UE.    See  Letters  of  Marqtte. 

MARaUETRY.  A  curious  kind  of  in- 
laid work,  composed  of  several  fine,  hard 
pieces  of  wood,  ofvarious  colours,  fastened 


in  thin  slices  on  the  ground,  and  some- 
times enriched  with  silver,  ivory,  and 
other  matters. 

MARROW.  A  fat  and  oleaginous  sub- 
stance in  the  bones  of  animals. 

MARS  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the  seven 
primary  planets,  distinguished  by  the  red 
colour  of  his  light,  and  usually  marked  by 
this  character  ^  .  He  performs  his  revo- 
lution in  his  orbit  in  6SG  days  23  hours 
30  minutes  and  39  seconds,  and  his  revo- 
lution on  his  axis  in  24  hours  40  minutes. 

MARS  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology). 
The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  and  the  god 
of  war,  whose  common  attributes  are  his 
helmet,  spear,  and  sword. 


MARTEN.  A  species  of  swallow,  that 
builds  under  the  eaves  of  houses,  but  not 
in  chimneys. 

MARTEN,  or  Martlet.  A  large  kind 
of  weasel  found  in  Northern  countries. 
It  has  a  small  head,  an  agile  body,  and 
lively  eyes.  The  fur  of  the  marten  is  val- 
uable. There  are  two  kinds  in  America; 
the  Pine  marten,  and  Pennants  marten, 
called  Fisher, 


'mmm. 


MARSHAL  (in  England).  The  chief 
officer  of  arms,  as  the  Earl  Marshal,  a  great 
officer  of  the  crown,  who  takes  cognizance 
of  all  matters  of  the  law  of  arms;  the  name 
also  of  other  officers, as  the  Knight  Marshal 
or  Marshal  of  the  King's  House,  Marshal 
of  the  King's  Bench,  who  has  the  custody 
of  the  King's  Bench  prison,  and  ftlarshal 
of  the  Exchequer,  to  whom  the  king's 
debtors  are  committed.  In  this  country, 
the  term  is  applied  to  the  executive  officer, 
attendant  upon  the  United  States  Courts. 


238  M  A  S 

MARSHAL,  or  Field  Marshal  (in 
Military  Affairs).  In  England,  the  highest 
officer  in  the  army. 

MARSHALLING  (in  Heraldry).  The 
disposing  of  the  several  coats  of  arms  be- 
longing to  distinct  families  in  one  and  the 
same  escutcheon,  together  with  their  orna- 
ments-, one  branch  of  the  science  of  heral- 
dry. 

MARSHALSEA  (in  England).  A  court 
originally  instituted  to  hear  and  determine 
causes  between  the  servants  of  the  king's 
household  and  others  within  the  verge  of 
the  court,  that  is  within  twelve  miles 
round  Whitehall,  in  London. 

MARTIAL  LAW  (in  England).  The 
law  that  has  to  do  only  with  soldiers  and 
seamen  where  the  king's  army  is  on  foot. 
This  law  differs  from  the  common  law,  in 
as  much  as  it  depends  upon  the  pleasure 
of  the  king.  In  cases  of  riots  and  rebel- 
lions, Martial  Law  is  sometinftes  proclaimed 
when  the  civil  power  is  not  s;trong  enough 
to  preserve  the  peace. 

MARTINGALE  (in  the  Manege).  A 
thong  of  leather  fastened  at  one  end  of  the 
girts  under  the  belly  of  the  horse. 

MARTINGALE.  A  sea  term  for  a  rope, 
extending  from  the  jib  boom  to  the  end 
of  the  bumkin. 

MASCULINE  GENDER.  The  gender 
of  nouns  that  denote  the  male  sex. 

MASH,  Bran  scalded  in  hot  water  and 
given  to  a  horse  or  cow,  &c. 

MASHES  OF  A  NET.  Holes  formed 
by  the  strings  of  a  net. 

MASHING.  The  mixing  the  malt  and 
hot  water  together  in  brewing. 

MASK.     A  covering  for  the  face. 

MASONRY.  The  art  of  hewing,  cutting, 
or  squaring  stones,  and  fitting  them  forthe 
use  of  buildings;  also  of  joining  them  to- 
gether with  mortar. 

MASONS,  or  Workers  in  Stone. 
Were  incorporated  in  London  about  the 
year  1419. 

MASONS,  Free,  or  Accepted  Masons. 
A  fraternity  of  great  antiquity,  so  called 
because  the  first  founders  of  that  society 
were  persons  of  that  profession.  They 
are  bound  by  an  oath  of  secrecy  not  to 
reveal  any  thing  that  passes  within  the 
society,  and  the  members  throughout  the 
whole  world  are  known  to  each  other,  by 
certain  secret  signs. 

MASORITES.  The  rabbies  who,  under 
Esdras  the  scribe,  are  supposed  to  have 
purged  the  Hebrew  Bible  of  the  errors 
that  crept  into  it  during  the  Babylonish 
captivity.  They  divided  the  canonical 
books  into  twenty-two,  and  these  twenty- 


M  A  S 

two  books  into  chapters,  and  the  chapters 
into  verses. 

MASQ-UE  (in  Architecture).  Certain 
pieces  of  sculpture  representing  hideous 
forms,  which  serve  to  fill  up  vacant  spaces. 

MASaUERADE.  An  exhibition  in 
which  persons,  having  masks  or  vizards, 
meet  together  and  represent  different  cha- 
racters. 

MASS  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs).  The 
ritual  or  service  of  the  Romish  church; 
when  the  prayers  are  simply  rehearsed, 
without  singing,  it  is  called  Low  Mass: 
but  when  the  prayers  are  sung  by  choris- 
ters, and  the  service  is  performed  by  a 
deacon  and  subdeacon,  it  is  called  High 
or  Grand  Mass. 

MASSES  (in  Painting).  The  parts  of  a 
picture  containing  great  lights  and  shad- 
ows. 

MASSICOT.    A  yellow  oxide  of  lead. 

MASS-PRIEST.  The  name  for  priests 
who  are  kept  in  chantries  or  at  particular 
altars,  to  say  so  many  masses  for  thesoul3 
of  the  deceased. 

MAST.  The  upright  beam  or  post  on 
the  deck  of  a  vessel,  to  which  the  yards, 
sails,  &:c.  are  fixed.  The  mainmast  is  the 
largest  mast  in  the  ship;  the  foremast  \a 
the  next  in  size,  standing  near  the  stem  of 
the  ship;  the  raizenmast,  the  smallest  of 
the  three,  stands  between  the  mainmast 
and  the  stern. 

MASTER  (in  England).  The  name  of 
several  officers  who  preside  in  their  several 
departments,  as  Master  of  the  Assay, 
Master  of  the  Ceremonies,  Master  of  the 
King's  Household,  &c. 

MASTER  OF  THE  FACULTIES  (in 
England).  An  officer  under  the  Archbish- 
op of  Canterbury,  who  grants  licenses  and 
dispensations. 

MASTER  OF  THE  HORSE  (in  Eng- 
land). A  great  officer  of  the  crown,  who 
orders  all  matters  relating  to  the  king's 
stables. 

MASTER  OF  THE  ORDNANCE  (in 
England).  A  great  officer  who  has  charge 
of  all  the  kings  ordnance  and  stores. 

MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS  (in  Eng-. 
land)'.  The  chief  assistant  of  the  lord 
chancellor  and  lord  keeper.  He  has  the 
keeping  of  all  the  rolls  and  grants,  &c. 

MASTER  OF  A  SHIP.  An  officer  in 
a  public  ship  who  inspects  the  provisions, 
stores,  &c. 

MASTER  AT  ARMS.  In  a  ship  of  war, 
he  who  has  charge  of  the  small  arms,  and 
exercises  the  petty  officers,  &c. 

MASTER  OF  ARTS.  The  second  de- 
gree taken  up  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford  in 


MAS 

England,  to  which  candidates  are  not  ad- 
mitted until  they  are  passed  seven  years 
standing.  In  the  Scotch,  and  other  uni- 
versities, this  is  the  first  degree. 

MASTERS  IN  CHANCERY.  In  Eng- 
Assistants  to  the  Lord  Chancellor,  of 
which  there  are  twelve  ordinary  masters, 
who  sit  in  court  every  day  during  term,  ta- 
king affidavits  and  acknowledgments  of 
deeds,  &c.  To  them  are  referred  all  inter- 
locutory orders  and  computing  damages, 
&;c.  There  are  also  Masters  Extraordinary 
appointed  to  act  in  every  county  beyond 
ten  miles  distant  from  London. 

MASTICATORY.  A  medicine  that  re- 
quires to  be  chewed,  to  promote  the  saliva. 

MASTICK,  or  MASTIC.  A  resinous 
substance  in  the  form  of  tears,  of  a  very 
pale  yellow  colour,  and  farinaceous  ap- 
pearance, having  little  sinell  and  a  bitter 
astringent  taste.  It  exudes  mostly  from  a 
tree  of  the  turpentine  kind,  called  in  botany 
pistacia  lentiscus,  whicli  grows  in  Turkey. 

MASTICOT  (in  Painting).  A  yellow 
colour,  prepared  from  tin. 

MASTIFF.  A  kind  of  dog  with  pendu- 
lous lips  and  a  robust  body 


MAT 


239 


MASTODON,  or  MAMMOTH.  This 
animal,  which  must  have  been  manj'  times 
larger  than  the  elephant,  is  now  extinct, 
and  all  that  remains  to  attest  its  former 
existence,  are  the  bones  which  are  found 
deeply  imbedded  in  the  earth.  These 
bones  have  been  discovered  in  vaiious  parts 
of  the  United  States,  but  as  yet  only  one 
nearly  entire  skeleton  has  been  obtained. 
This  was  dug  up  near  Newburg,  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  is  now  in  the 
museum  at  Philadelphia. 

It  is  Impossible  to  determine  to  what  race 
this  huge  animal  belonged,  except  that  its 
formation  and  modes  of  living  were  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  elephant.  That  he 
was  not  of  the  same  species,  is  probable  ; 
that  he  was  nearly  allied  to  the  rhinoceros 
and  hippopotanms,  is  also  probable. 

The  bones  of  prodigiously  large  animals 
of  the  elephant  kind  have  been  f  )und  in 
Siberia,  and  those  of  the  mastodon  have 


been  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 
The  following  striking  observations  on 
this  subject,  are  by  Dr.  Godman. 

'The  emotions  experienced,  when  for 
the  first  time  we  behold  the  giant  relics  of 
this  great  animal,  are  those  of  unmingled 
awe.  We  cannot  avoid  reflecting  on  the 
time  when  this  huge  frame  was  clothed 
with  its  peculiar  integuments,  and  moved 
by  appropriate  muscles  ;  when  the  mighty 
heart  dashed  forth  its  torrents  of  blood 
through  vessels  of  enormous  caliber,  and 
the  mastodon  strode  along  in  supreme  do- 
minion over  every  other  tenant  of  the 
wilderness. 

'However  we  examine  what  is  left  to 
us,  we  cannot  help  feeling  that  this  animal 
must  have  been  endowed  with  a  strength 
exceeding  that  of  other  quadrupeds,  as 
much  as  it  exceeded  them  in  size  ;  and, 
looking  at  its  ponderous  jaws,  armed  with 
teeth  peculiarly  formed  for  the  most  effec- 
tual crushing  of  the  firmest  substances,  we 
are  assured  that  its  life  could  only  be  sup- 
ported by  the  destruction  of  vast  quantities 
of  food. 

'  Enormous  as  were  these  creatures  dur- 
ing life,  and  endowed  with  faculties 
proportioned  to  the  bulk  of  their  frames, 
the  whole  race  has  been  extinct  for  ages. 
No  tradition  nor  human  record  of  their  ex- 
istence has  been  saved,  and  but  for  the 
accidental  preservation  of  a  comparatively 
few  bones,  we  sliould  never  have  dreamed 
that  a  creature  of  such  vast  size  and 
strength  once  existed,  nor  could  we  have 
believed  that  such  a  race  had  been  extin- 
guished forever.  Such,  however,  is  the 
fact ;  ages  after  ages  have  rolled  away, 
empires  and  nations  have  arisen,  flourish- 
ed, and  sunk  into  irretrievable  oblivion, 
while  the  bones  of  the  mastodon,  which 
perished  long  before  the  periods  of  their 
origin,  have  been  discovered,  scarcely 
changed  in  colour,  and  exhibiting  all  the 
marks  of  perfection  and  durability. 

'  That  a  race  of  animals  so  large,  and 
consisting  of  so  many  species,  should  be- 
come entirely  and  universally  extinct,  is  a 
circumstance  of  high  interest ;  for  it  is  not 
with  the  mastodon  as  with  the  elephant, 
which  still  continues  to  be  a  living  genus, 
although  many  of  its  species  have  become 
extinct ;  the  entire  race  of  the  mastodon 
lias  been  utterly  destroyed,  leaving  noth- 
ing but  the  "  nHi:hty  wreck"  of  their  skel- 
etons, to  testify  that  they  once  were  among 
the  living  occupants  of  this  land.' 

MATCH  (in  Gunnery).  A  rope  slightly 
twisted  and  prepared  with  inflammable 
ingredients,  which  will  burn  for  a  lengtli 
of  time  without  going  out. 


240 


MAT 


MATCHLOCK.  A  kind  of  harquebuss, 
which  was  fired  with  a  match. 

MATE.  An  assistant  officer  on  board  a 
vessel. 

MATER.  See  Alma  Mater. 

MATERIALIST.  One  who  maintains 
that  the  soul  is  material. 

MATERIA  MEDICA.  All  that  is  used 
in  the  art  of  medicine  for  the  prevention 
or  cure  of  diseases,  wliether  prepared  from 
vegetables,  minerals,  or  animals. 

MATHEMATICS.  The  science  which 
teaches  or  treats  of  whatever  is  capable  of 
being  numbered  or  measured,  and  is  di- 
vided into  arithmetic,  or  that  branch  which 
has  numbers  for  its  object,  and  geometry, 
which  treats  of  magnitude.  It  is  also  dis- 
tinguished into  Pure  Mathematics,  which 
consider  quantities  abstractedly,  and  with- 
out any  relation  to  matter,  and  Mixed 
Mathematics,  which  treat  of  the  properties 
of  quantity,  as  applied  to  material  or  sen- 
sible objects,  and  interwoven  with  physi- 
cal considerations,  as  astronomy,  geogra- 
phy, navigation,  mechanics,  surveying, 
architecture,  &c. 

The  following  list  of  the  writers  who 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  diffe- 
rent branches  of  the  mathematical  science 
will  furnish  the  best  historical  view  of 
mathematics  in  general. 


722  Confucius,  the   Chinese  philosopher. 

600  Thales,  a  Greek  astronomer.  Anaxi- 
mander,  an  inventor  of  globes. 

500  Cleostratus,  an  astronomer.  Anaxa- 
goras,  a  philiisopher.  Anaximines,  a 
diallist.  Pythagoras,  an  astronomer  and 
geometrician. 

400  Plato,  a  geometrician.  Euctemon,  an 
astronomer.  Meton,  the  inventor  of  the 
Metonic  cycle.  Hippocrates,  a  geome- 
trician. Oenopides,  a  geometrician.  Zen- 
odorus,  a  geometrician. 

300  Aristotle,  a  philosopher.  Calippus,  an 
astronomer,  and  inventor  of  the  Calyppic 
period.  Dinocrates,  an  architect.  Theo- 
phrastus,  a  philosopher.  Xenocrates,  a 
philosopher.  Eudoxus,  an  astronomer 
and  geometrician.  Pytheas,  an  astrono- 
mer. Archytas,  a  philosopher.  Aristasus, 
a  geometrician.  Denostratus,  a  geome- 
trician.    Menechmus,  a  geometrician. 

200  Apollonius,  a  geometrician,  author  of 
the  Conic  Sections.  Archimedes,  a  ge- 
ometrician, and  inventor  of  machines. 
Aristarchus,  an  astronomer.  Eratosthe- 
nes, a  mathematician.  Euciid,  a  geom- 
etrician, author  of  the  Elements.  Aratus, 
an  astronomer  and  poet.  Aristilius,  an 
astronomer.  Nicomedes,  a  geometri- 
cian, the  inventor  of  the  conchoid. 

100  Hipparchus,  an  astronomer,  numljeied 
the  stars.  Ctesibius  invented  water 
pumps.  Hero  invented  the  clepsydra 
and  a  fountain. 


M  A  T 

A.    D. 

Cleomedes,  aRoman  a.^tronomer.    Gem- 
inus,  an  astronomer  of  Rhodes.     Manil- 
ius,   astronomer  and  poet.     Manlius,  an 
astronomer.      Vitruvius,    an    architect. 
Julius  Cffisar,  the  reformer  of  the  calen- 
dar. Sosigenes,  an  Egyptian  astronomer. 
Menelaus,   a  writer  on  spherical   trigo- 
nometry. Posiidonius,a  mathematician 
Theodosius,  a  writer  on  spheres.    Jam- 
blichus,  a  Syrian  philosopher. 
100  Nicomachus,  a  Creek  mathematician. 
Sextus  Frontinus,  an  engineer.     Ptole- 
my, an  Egyptian  astronomer  and  geogra- 
pher, author  of  the  Almagist.   Hypsicles, 
a  Greek  mathematician. 
200  Diophantus,  a  Greek  algebraist. 
300  Janiblichus,    a    Syrian    philosopher. 
Pappus,  a  Greek  commentator  on  Apol- 
lonius, &c.    Theon,  a  Greek  commenta- 
tor on  Ptolemy,  &c. 
400  Hypatia,  daughter  of  Theon,  a  com- 
mentator   on   Diophantus.     Proclus,  a 
Greek  commentator  on  Euclid.  Diodes, 
a  Greek  geometrician,  discoverer  of  the 
cissoid.    Serenus,  a  Greek  geometrician. 
500  Marinus,   a  geometrician   of  Naples 
Arithemius,  an  architect.     Eutocius,  a 
Greek  geometrician.    Isodorus,  an  ar- 
chitect. 
GOO  The  Venerable  Bede,  an  English  monk 

and  philosopher. 
700  Almansor  the  Victorious,  an  astrono- 
mer.    Hero  the  Younger,  a  Greek  geom- 
etrician. 
800  A!  Maimon  the  Caliph,  an  astronomer. 
Al  Raschid,  a  Persian  astronomer.     Al- 
fragan,  an  Arabian  astronomer.     Albor- 
tegni,  an  Arabian  astronomer. 
900  Pops  Silvester,  II.  a  mathematician. 
1000  Ibn   Ion  is,   an    Arabian  astronomer. 
Geber  Ben  Alpha,  an  Arabian  commen- 
tator on  Ptolemy's  Almagest. 
1100  Alhazen,  an    Arabian  optician  and 

astronomer. 
1200  Leonard  de  Pisa,  an  Italian,  and  the 
first  European  algebraist.  JNfassir  Eddin, 
a  Persian  astronomer.  Alphi)nsu3,  king 
of  Castile,  an  astronom.er,  and  author  of 
the  Alphonsine  tables.  John  Halifax, 
or  Sacrobosco,  an  English  mathematici- 
an. Jordanus  Nemorarius,  an  arithme- 
tician. Roger  Bacon,  an  English  philos- 
opher. Campanus,  an  astronomer.  Vi- 
tellio.,  an  optician. 
1300  Albano,  an  Italian  mathematician. 
Ascoli,  an  Italian  mathematician.  John 
of  Saxony,  an  astronomer. 
1400  Biancliini,  an  Italian  astronomer. 
Moschopnlus,  a  modern  Greek  arithme- 
tician. Purbach,  an  astronomer.  Regi- 
omontanus,  or  Muller,  an  astronomer  of 
Vienna.  Cardinal  Cusa,  an  astronomer. 
Henry,  son  of  John  king  of  Portugal,  the 
inventor  of  charts.  Ulug  Beg,  a  Persian 
astronomer.  Luca=;  de  Burgo,  or  Pacci- 
oli,  a  German  al^ehraist.  Bernard,  an 
Italian  astronomer.  Dominic  Novera, 
an  Italian  astronomer. 
1530  Copernicus,  a  German  astronomer, 
and  tlie  reviver  of  the  solar  system.  Peter 
Apian,  or  Appian,  a  German  astronomer. 
Cardan,  an  Italian  algebraist. 


MAT 


MAT 


241 


1500  Commaiidine,  an  Italian  commentator 
on  Euclid  and  otlier  ancient  niatliematici- 
ans.  Ferreus,  an  Italian  niatliematician. 
Maurolycus,  an  Italian  matliematiciau. 
Nonius,  a  Portuguese  niatliematician. 
Sturniius,  a  German  arithmatician.  Tar- 
taglia,  an  Italian  algebraist.  Vieta,  a 
French  algebraist.  Ferrari,  an  Italian 
algebraist.  Stevinus,  a  Flemish  mathe- 
matician. Mercator,  a  German  geogra- 
pher. Ramus,  a  French  matheiuaticilin. 
Recorde,  an  English  algebraist.  S^tit'eli- 
us,  a  German  algebraist.  L'bakii  Guido, 
an  Italian  mathematician.  Tjcho  Bra- 
he,  a  Danish  astronomer.  Lord  Bacon, 
an  English  philosopher.  Galileo,  an 
Italian  philosopher.  Bombelli,  an  Italian 
algebraist.  Castelli,  an  Italian  niatlie- 
matician. Clavius,  a  German  geometri- 
cian.    Digges,  an  English  philosopher. 

1600  Briggs,  an  English  aritlimeUi  ian,  the 
inventor  of  logarithms.  Des  Cartes,  a 
French  geometiician  and  algebraist, 
discovered  !he  equation  of  curve  lines. 
Kepler,  a'Jerina'i  ast]-onomer,  explained 
the  laws  of  celestial  motion.  Kapier,  a 
Scotch  arithmetician,  improved  the  sys- 
tem of  logarithms.  Torricelli,  an  Italian 
philosopher  and  discoverer  of  the  barom- 
eter. Bayer  a  German  astronomer. 
Gassendi,  a  French  astronomer.  Longo- 
montanus,  a  Danish  mathematician. 
Harriot,  an  Engl;sh  a'gebraist.  Horrox, 
an  English  a'stronomer.  Kircher,  a 
German  philosopher.  Oughtr.d,  an  En- 
glish geometrician  and  arithmetician. 
Porta  Baptista,  the  inventor  of  the  cam- 
era obscura.  Cava'erius,  a  Mianese  al- 
gebraist. Brouncker,  an  Irish  mathe- 
matician. Ferm\t,  a  French  arithmeti- 
cian, wrote  on  the  theory  of  numbers. 
Pascal,  a  French  philosopher,  introduced 
the  doctrine  of  chances.  Wallis,  an 
English  malhematiciaii,  first  treated  on 
the  arithmetic  of  infinite  quantities. 
Bulialdus,  a  French  astronomer.  Des- 
chales,  a  French  geometrician.  Girard, 
a  French  algebraist.  J.  and  D.  Gregory, 
a  Scotch  family  of  mathematif^ians,  the 
first  of  whom  invented  a  telescope,  &c. 
the  second  edited  Euclid.  Ilevelius,  a 
Prussian  astronomer.  Horrebow,  a  Da- 
nish astronomer,  ftiersennc,  a  French 
geometrician.  Riceioli,  ari  Italian  as- 
tronomer, geometrician  and  chronolo- 
gist.  Roberval,  a  French  geometrician. 
Tacquet,  a  French  mathematician.  Seth 
Ward,  an  English  geometrician  and 
arithmetician.  John  de  Witt,  a  Dutch 
mathematician.  James  Bernoulli,  a 
Swiss  mathematician.  Barrow,  an  En- 
glish mathematician.  Hooke,  an  En- 
glish philosopher,  made  many  discove- 
ries in  mechanics.  Huygens,  a  geome- 
trician, diallist,  and  horologist,  discover- 
ed the  evolute  of  curves.  Leibnitz,  a 
German  geometrician  and  arithmeti- 
cian, wrote  on  the  difFerential  calculus. 
L'Hopital,  a  French  mathematician. 
Flamstead,  an  English  astronomer.  Ol- 
denburgh,  an  English  mathematician 
and  astronomer.  Boyle,  an  English 
21 


philosopher.  Ozanam,  a  Frencli  math- 
ematician. Pell,  an  English  aigebraist. 
Fchooten,  a  Dutch  mathematician. 
Wren,  an  English  architect. 
1700  j\ewton,  author  of  a  new  system  of 
philosophy.  John  Bernoulli,  a  iSwiss 
maihematc-ian.  Brauley,  an  English 
astronomer,  discovered  the  aberration  of 
the  stars.  Cotes,  an  English  geometri- 
cian. Tnylor,  an  English  arithmetician 
and  optician.  Cassini,  D.  and  J.,  French 
astronomers.  Gravesande,  a  Dutch 
mathematician.  Ke  11,  atrcotch  astron- 
omer. La  Hire,  a  French  geometrician 
and  astronomer.  ?aunderson,  an  En- 
glish mathematician,  ^^aurin,  a  French 
mathematician.  Wolfius,  a  German 
mathematician,  Clairaut,  a  French 
mathematician.  J^.laclaurin,  a  Scotch 
algebraist.  De  Moivre,  a  French  arith- 
metician. Simpson,  an  English  mathe- 
matician. Fellidor,  a  French  engineer. 
Bernoulli,  N.  and  D.,  Swiss  philoso- 
phers. La  Caille,  a  French  astronomer. 
Collins,  an  English  mathematician. 
Dolland,  an  optician.  Maupertius,  a 
French  astronomer  and  geometrician. 
Meyer,  a  German  astronomer,  and 
author  of  some  tables.  Robins,  an 
English  mathematician  and  engineer. 
Simson,  a  Scotch  geometrician,  trans- 
lator ai.d  editor  of  i.uclid's  LlemeiUs. 
D'Alembert,  a  French  mathemarician. 
Euler,  a  German  geometrician  and  alge- 
braist. Landen,  an  English  algebraist, 
author  of  the  Residual  Analysis.  La- 
lande,  a  French  astronomer.  Maske- 
lyne,  an  English  astronomer.  Waring, 
an  Eng'ish  arithmetician.  Bailly,  the 
French  historian  of  astronomy.  Berke- 
ley, an  English  philosopher.  Boscovitch, 
an  Italian  m  ithematician  and  philoso- 
pher. Emerson,  an  English  arithmeti- 
cian and  a'gebraist.  Biontucla,  a  French 
mathematician,  and  the  historian  of 
mathematics.  Horsley,  an  English 
mathematician. 

MATINS.  The  first  part  of  the  daily 
service,  particularly  in  the  Romish  church. 

MATRASS  (in  Chymistry).  A  long 
straight-necked  chymical  glass,  made  for 
digestion  or  distillation. 

MATRICE.  A  mould,  or  whatever  gives 
form  to  any  thing,  as  in  Printing,  the 
mould  or  form  in  which  the  type  or  letter 
is  cast. 

MATRICE  (in  Coining).  The  piece  of 
steel  on  which  are  engraved  the  figures, 
arms,  &c.  with  which  the  coin  is  to  be 
stamped. 

MATRICES  (among  Dyers).  The  first 
simple  colours,  as  black,  white,  blue,  red, 
and  sallow  or  root  colour. 

MATRICULATION.  The  admitting 
of  any  person  to  be  a  member  of  an  Eng- 
lish university, 

MATRIX.    The  bed  or  mould  of  earth, 


242 


MEA 


&c.  in  which  any  mineral  substance  is 
found. 

MATRON.  An  elderly  respectable  fe- 
male who  is  employed  as  a  nurse  in  hos- 
pitals. 

MATRON  (in  Law).  A  married  woman 
of  experience,  who  is  in  certain  cases  em- 
pannelled  upon  juries. 

MATT.  Rope  yarn,  junk,  &c.  beaten 
flat  and  interwoven  to  save  the  yards,  &.c. 
from  galling. 

MATTE.  Peruvian  tea,  much  used  in 
South  America. 

MATTER.  That  which  is  the  object  of 
our  senses,  and  appears  under  the  diverse 
forms  of  solids,  fluids,  and  gases. 

MAUNDY  THURSDAY  (in  Eng- 
land). The  Thursday  before  Good  Friday, 
in  which  the  king  is  accustomed  to  give 
alms  to  the  poor. 

MAUSOLEUM.  A  stately  sepulchre 
built  by  Artemisia,  queen  of  Caria,  for  her 
husband  Mausolus  ;  also  any  pompous 
Bepulchral  monument. 

MAXIMUM  (in  Mathematics).  The 
greatest  quantity  attainable  in  any  case. 

MAY.     The  fifth  month  in  the  year. 

MEAD,  An  agreeable  drink,  made  of 
honey  and  water  boiled  and  fermented. 

MEADOW.  Ground  covered  with  grass, 
which  is  commonly  left  for  hay. 

MEADOW  SWEET.  A  herb  with 
crumpled  leaves,  something  like  those  of 
the  elm,  growing  In  meadows.  Its  flower 
expands  in  the  form  of  a  rose. 

MEAL.  The  edible  part  of  corn,  par- 
ticularly of  barley. 

MEAN  (in  Mathematics).  The  middle 
between  two  extremes,  as  a  mean  motion, 
mean  distance,  arithmetical  mean,  geomet- 
rical mean,  &c. 

MEAN  ARITHMETICAL,  Half  the 
sum  of  the  extremes. 

MEAN  GEOMETRICAL,  or  A  Mean 
Proportional.  The  square  root  of  the 
product  of  the  two  extremes. 

MEAN  HARMONICAL.  Double  a 
fourth  proportional  to  the  sum  of  the  ex- 
tremes. 

MEAN  TIME,  or  Equal  Time.  That 
which  is  measured  by  an  equable  motion, 
as  a  clock. 

MEASLES.  A  disorder  incident  to  chil- 
dren, consisting  of  a  fever,  attended  with 
inflammation,  cough,  and  difficulty  of 
breathing. 

MEASURE.  Any  given  quantity  by 
which  the  quantity,  length,  breadth,  thick- 
ness, and  capacity  of  other  things  may  be 
estimated. 

MEASURE  (in  Geometry).    Any  cer- , 


MEC 

tain  quantity  assumed  as  one,  or  unity,  to 
which  the  ratio  of  other  similar  quantities 
is  expressed,  thus  the  measure  of  a  line  is 
the  extension  of  a  right  line  at  pleasure, 
which  is  to  be  considered  as  unity,  as  an 
inch,  a  foot,  or  a  yard. 

MEASURE  (in  Arithmetic).  A  certain 
number  or  quantity,  which  being  repeated 
a  certain  number  of  times  is  equal  to  ano- 
ther that  is  bigger,  to  which  it  has  relation, 
as  6  is  the  measure  of  36. 

MEASURE  (in  Music).  That  note,  as 
the  semibreve,  by  which  all  the  other 
notes  are  measured  or  adjusted  to  its  val- 
ue. 

MEASURE  (in  Poetry).  A  certain 
number  of  syllables  metrically  measured. 

MEASURE  (in  Commerce).  Determi- 
nate quantities,  by  which  all  things  that 
are  bought  and  sold  are  measured  as  to 
their  quantity,  and  estimated  as  to  their 
rate  :  these  are  various  in  different  coun- 
tries. 

MECHANICAL.  Pertaining  to  me- 
chanics. 

MECHANICAL  AFFECTIONS 
(among  Philosophers).  Such  properties  of 
matter  or  body  as  arise  from  its  figure, 
bulk  or  motion. 

MECHANICAL  PHILOSOPHY.  That 
which  explains  the  phenomena  or  appear- 
ances of  nature  from  mechanical  princi- 
ples, viz.  from  the  motion,  rest,  size,  fig- 
ure, &LC.  of  the  small  particles  of  matter. 
This  is  the  same  as  the  corpuscular  philos- 
ophy. 

MECHANICAL  POWERS.  The  six 
simple  machines  to  which  ail  others,  how 
complex  soever,  may  be  reduced,  and  of 
the  assemblage  whereof  they  are  all  com- 
pounded ;  these  are  the  simple  lever,  the 
wheel  and  axis,  the  pulley,  the  inclined 
plane,  the  wedge,  and  the  screw.  These 
six  might  be  reduced  to  two,  for  the  pulley 
and  wheel  are  only  assemblages  of  levers, 
and  the  wedge  and  screw  are  inclined 
planes. 

MECHANICAL  SOLUTION  OF  A 
PROBLEM  (with  Mathematicians).  Is  a 
construction  or  proof  not  done  in  a  strictly 
geometrical  manner,  but  by  the  help  of 
instruments. 

MECHANICS.  The  science  of  motion, 
or  that  branch  of  mixed  mathematics 
which  treats  of  the  effects  of  powers  or 
moving  forces,  and  applies  them  to  ma- 
chines and  engines.  Newton  divides  this 
science  into  practical  and  rational  ;  the 
former  of  which  relates  to  the  mechanical 
powers,  namely,  the  lever,  balance,  wheel 
and  axis,  pulley,  wedge,  screw,  inclined 


MEC 

plane,  &;c.  (see  Mechanical  Powers); 
and  the  latter,  that  is,  rational  mechanics, 
relates  to  the  theory  of  motion,  showing 
when  the  forces  and  powers  are  given, 
how  to  determine  the  motion  that  will  re- 
sult from  them ;  and  conversely,  when  the 
circumstances  of  the  motion  are  given, 
how  to  trace  the  forces  or  powers  from 
which  they  arise. 

As  to  the  practical  part  of  mechanics, 
this  was  doubtless  one  of  the  first  branch- 
es of  knowledge  which  necessity  would 
lead  men  to  acquire,  it  being  impossible  to 
pursue  any  of  the  mechanic  arts  success- 
fully, without  the  aid  of  mechanical  pow- 
ers in  raising  weights  or  exerting  forces. 
That  all  the  mechanical  powers  were  well 
known  to  the  ancients  is  certain  from  the 
number  and  perfection  of  the  machines 
which  they  had  in  use.  The  theoretical 
part  of  mechanics  appears,  however,  not 
to  have  engaged  their  attention  before  the 
time  of  Archimedes,  Avho  particularly  ap- 
plied himself  to  this  subject  5  and,  in  his 
book  on  Equiponderants,  has  given  us  the 
theory  of  the  lever,  the  inclined  plane,  the 
pulley,  and  the  screw.  From  his  time  to 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  theory  of  the 
mechanical  science  remained,  with  little 
or  no  addition  or  change.  Stevinus,  a 
Flemish  mathematician,  revived  the  sub- 
ject by  treating  on  the  laws  of  equilibrium, 
of  a  body  placed  on  an  inclined  plane, 
&;c. ;  and  Galileo  afterwards,  in  his  trea- 
tise on  statics,  extended  his  researches  on 
the  theory  of  the  inclined  plane,  the  screw, 
and  all  the  mechanical  powers,  but  more 
particularly  on  the  theory  of  accelerated 
motion.  Torricelli,  a  pupil  of  Galileo, 
added  several  propositions  concerning  pro- 
jectiles ;  Huygens  treated  of  the  motion  of 
bodies  along  given  curves  ;  and,  in  1661, 
Huygens,  Wallls,  and  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  all  discovered  the  true  laws  of  per- 
cussion, without  any  previous  communi- 
cation with  each  other.  Henceforth  the 
study  of  mechanics,  like  every  other 
branch  of  the  mathematical  science,  was 
illustrated  and  enlarged  by  different  wri- 
ters of  great  name  :  as  by  Newton,  in  his 
Principia;  Leibnitz,  in  his  Resistentia 
Solidorum  ;  Deschales,  in  his  Treatise  on 
Motion  ;  Parent,  in  his  Elements  of  Me- 
chanics and  Physics  ;  Oughtred,  in  his 
Mechanical  Institutions  ;  Keil,  in  his  In- 
troduction to  True  Philosophy  ;  De  la  Hire, 
in  his  Mechanique  ;  Ditton,  in  his  Laws 
of  Motion  ;  Gravesande,  in  his  Physics  ; 
Euler,  in  his  Tractatus  de  Motu  ;  Mus- 
chenbrock,  in  his  Physics  ;  Bossu,  in  his 
Mechaniques  ;  Lagrange,  in  his  Mechani- 


MED 


243 


que  Analytique  ;  Atwood,  in  his  Treatise 
on  Motion  ;  Gregory,  in  his  Mechanics, 
Theory,  and  Practice,  &c. 

MEDAL.  An  ancient  coin,  or  a  piece 
of  metal  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  stamped  to 
preserve  the  memory  of  some  illustrious 
person,  or  of  some  distinguished  event. 

MEDALLION.  A  very  large  medal, 
supposed  to  be  anciently  struck  by  the 
emperors. 

MEDICINE.  The  art  of  preserving 
health,  curing  diseases,  and  alleviating 
maladies.  It  is  an  art  that  assists  nature 
in  the  preservation  of  health  by  the  use  of 
proper  remedies. 

MEDIETAS  LINGUA  (in  England). 
A  jury  consisting  of  half  natives  and  half 
foreigners,  which  is  empannelled  in  cases 
where  the  party  to  be  tried  is  a  foreigner. 
MEDIMNO.  A  corn  measure  in  the 
Levant,  equal  to  nearly  four  English 
quarters. 

MEDIUM  (in  Physics).  That  space  or 
region  through  which  a  body  in  motion 
passes  to  any  point  ;  thus,  ether  is  suppo- 
sed to  be  the  medium  through  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  move  ;  air  is  the  medium 
through  which  bodies  move  near  the  earth  ; 
water  the  medium  wherein  fishes  live  and 
move. 

MEDIUM,  ^THERiAL.  A  subtle  medi- 
um supposed  by  Newton  to  occupy  every 
part  of  space,  in  which  the  planetary  mo- 
tions are  performed  without  resistance, 
and  by  means  of  which  light  is  reflected, 
inflected,  and  refracted,  heat  is  propagated 
and  increased,  and,  in  short,  all  the  great 
operations  of  nature  are  supposed  to  be 
carried  on  through  the  agency  of  this  uni- 
versal medium. 

MEDLAR.  The  fruit  of  a  tree  called, 
in  Botany,  the  Mespilus  Germanica, 
which  in  its  leaf  resembles  a  laurel.  The 
fruit,  which  in  shape  resembles  an  apple, 
is  not  eatable  until  it  is  in  a  state  of  rotten 
ripeness. 

MEDULLA  CEREBRI.  The  soft  sub- 
stance of  the  brain,  covered  externally 
with  a  cortical  substance  of  an  ashy  colour. 
MEDULLA  OBLONGATA.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  spinal  marrow,  or  an  ex- 
tended portion  of  the  brain. 

MEDUSA  (in  Mythology).  One  of  the 
three  Gorgons,  said  to  have  been  born 
with  snakes  on  her  head  instead  of  locks 
of  hair.  Perseus  cut  off  the  head  of  Me- 
dusa, and  placed  it  in  the  shield  of  Miner- 
va. 

MEDUSA.  A  sort  of  worms  which, 
causing  when  touched  aslighttinglingand 
redness,  are  denominated  sea-nettles. 


244 


MEN 


MER 


MEERSHAUM.  A  fine  sort  of  Turkish 
clay,  of  which  pipes  are  made  in  Germany 
of  various  forms.  It  assumes  a  beautiful 
brown  colour  after  it  has  been  used  for 
smokhig  for  some  time. 

MELLITE,  or  Honey-Stone.  A  mine- 
ral found  first  in  Thuringia,  which  is  of  a 
honey-yellow  colour,  and  is  usually  crys- 
tallized in  small  octaedrons. 

MELLITIC  ACID.  A  substance  pro- 
cured from  mellite. 

MELODY  (in  Music).  The  agreeable 
sensation  produced  by  a  regular  succession 
of  different  sounds. 

MELOE.  A  sort  of  insects,  of  which 
the  two  principal  species  are  tlie  oil  beetle, 
so  called  because,  on  being  handled,  it  ex- 
udes from  its  legs,  drops  of  a  clear,  deep 
yellow  oil  or  fluid,  of  a  very  peculiar  and 
penetrating  smell ;  and  the  meloe  vesica- 
torius,  or  Spanish  fly,  which  is  used  in 
raising  blisters. 

MELON.  A  plant  of  the  cucumber  tribe, 
the  flower  of  which  consists  of  one  bell- 
shaped  leaf  cut  into  several  segments.  The 
fruit  is  mostly  of  an  oval  shape,  and  filled 
with  seeds.  • 

MEMBRANE  (in  Anatomy).  A  broad, 
nervous,  and  fibrous  substance,  which 
serves  as  a  covering  for  different  parts  of 
the  body,  particularly  the  brain  and  the 
viscera. 

MEMENTO.  A  hint  to  awaken  the 
memory. 

MEMOIRS.  Histories  written  by  those 
who  have  been  witnesses  of  the  transac- 
tions, and  acquainted  with  the  persons, 
which  they  describe. 

MEMORANDUM.  A  short  note,  for 
the  better  remembrance  of  a  thing. 

MEMORIAL,  A  monument,  or  what- 
ever else  serves  to  call  a  thing  or  person 
to  remembrance. 

MEMORY,  Artificial.  A  method  of 
assisting  the  memory  by  some  artificial 
contrivance,  as  that  of  forming  certain 
words,  the  letters  of  which  shall  signify 
the  date  or  era  to  be  remembered.  Various 
devices  of  this  kind  have  been  hit  upon  at 
different  times. 

MENDICANTS.  Monks  so  called,  who 
go  about  begging  alms, 

MENSTRUUM.  A  liquid  which  serves 
to  extract  the  virtues  of  any  substance,  by 
infusion,  decoction,  &c.  Water  is  the  men- 
struum of  all  salts,  oils  of  resins,  acids  of 
alkalies  and  the  like. 

MENSURATION.  The  art  of  measur- 
ing lines,  superficies,  and  solids,  which,  in 
consequence  of  its  extensive  application  to 
the  purposes  of  life,  is  considered  as  of  the 
greatest  importance. 


Euclid  treats  of  mensuration,  as  far  as 
regards  surfaces,  only  of  the  measuring  of 
triangles ;  and  in  regard  to  curvilinear 
figures,  he  attempted  the  measurement  of 
the  circle  and  the  sphere.  Archimedes 
carried  this  subject  to  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent :  he  found  the  area  of  a  parabola  to 
be  two  thirds  of  its  circumscribing  triangle  ; 
which,  with  the  exception  of  the  lunulea 
of  Hippocrates,  was  the  first  instance  of 
the  quadrature  of  a  curvilinear  space.  He 
likewise  determined  the  ratio  of  spheroids 
and  conoids  to  their  circumscribing  cylin- 
ders, and  has  left  us  liis  attempt  at  the 
quadrature  of  the  circle.  He  demonstrated 
that  the  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of  which 
one  of  its  sides  about  the  right  angle  is 
equal  to  the  radius,  and  the  other  to  the 
circumference ;  and  thus  reduced  the  qua- 
drature of  the  circle  to  the  determining  the 
ratio  of  the  circumference  to  tlie  diameter, 
a  problem,  in  the  solution  of  which  he 
could  only  arrive  at  an  approximation  to 
the  truth,  showing  that  the  ratio  between 
the  circumference  and  the  diameter  was 
less  than  that  of  7  to  22.  What  Archimedes 
failed  to  effect  in  this  respect  has  continued 
to  this  day  unattainable,  notwithstanding 
the  efforts  which  iiave  been  made  by  sub- 
sequent mathematicians,  particularly  with- 
in the  last  three  centuries,  to  arrive  at  a 
greater  approximation.  As  all  hopes  of  ac- 
curately squaring  the  circle  and  some  other 
curves  were  at  length  given  up,  mathema- 
ticians applied  themselves  to  the  finding 
the  most  convenient  series  for  approxima- 
ting towards  tlieir  true  lengths  and  quadra- 
tures ;  and  the  science  of  mensuration  has 
in  consequence  assumed  a  more  consistent 
form,  as  may  be  clearly  seen  in  the  trea- 
tises of  Hawney,  Robertson,  Hutton,  and 
Bonnycastle. 

MEPHITIC.  Poisonous,  like  the  Me- 
phitis, or  Damp,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
miners ;  as  Mephitic  Air,  another  name  for 
nitrogen  gas,  on  account  of  its  noxious 
quality  ;  and  Mephitic  Acid,  carbonic  acid, 
so  called  because  it  cannot  be  respired 
without  causing  death. 

MERCATOR'S  CHART.  A  sea  chart, 
in  which  the  parallels  of  latitude  and  the 
meridians  are  represented  by  straight 
lines. 

MERCER.  One  who  deals  in  wrought 
silks.  The  mercers'  company  in  London 
was  incorporated  in  1393. 

MERCHANT.  In  England,  one  that  ex- 
ports and  imports  merchandise.  In  the 
U.  S.,  the  term  is  ai)plied  to  large  dealers 
generally. 

MERCHANTMAN.    A  vessel  that  is 


MER 


MET 


245 


employed  in  carrying  merchandise  to  dif- 
ferent countries. 

MERCURY  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology). 
The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia,  the  god  of 
eloquence  and  commerce,  and  the  messen- 
ger of  the  gods,  whose  common  attributes 
are  his  caduceus,  his  winged  hat,  and  his 
talaria  or  winged  feet. 


MERCURY  (in  Astronomy).  The  small- 
est of  the  planets,  and  the  nearest  the  sun, 
marked  by  the  character  $  .  The  period 
of  his  revolution  is  87  days  23  hours  15 
minutes  and  43  seconds. 

MERCURY.  A  mineral  or  metallic  fluid, 
vulgarly  called  quicksilver,  and  distin- 
guished from  all  other  metals  by  its  extreme 
fusibility,  which  is  such,  that  it  does  not 
assume  the  solid  state,  until  cooled  to  the 
S9th  degree  below  0  on  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer, and  of  course  is  always  fluid  in 
temperate  climates.  It  is  volatile,  and  rises 
in  small  portions  at  the  common  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  ;  it  readily  combines  with 
gold,  silver,  lead,  tin,  bismuth,  and  zinc, 
and  on  that  account  is  usefully  employ- 
ed in  the  silvering  of  looking-glasses, 
making  barometers  and  thermometers, 
and  for  various  other  purposes. 

MERGANSER.  A  water-fowl,  which 
frequents  the  Hebrides  during  the  winter 
season,  very  similar  in  size  and  appear- 
ance to  a  goose. 


MERIDIAN.    A  great  circlie>  on  the  ter- 
restrial sphere,  passing  through,  tiie  polea 
21* 


of  the  world  and  the  zenith  or  vertex  of 
any  place,  exactly  dividing  the  east  from 
the  west.  Tlie  meridians  are  as  numerous 
as  the  places  on  the  earth ;  and  the  first 
meridian  is  that  from  which  the  reckoning 
commences,  which  is  mostly  fixed  from 
the  capital  of  each  country. 

MERLIN.  The  smallest  bird  of  the 
Hawk  kind. 

MESNE  PROCESS  (in  Law),  An  in- 
termediate process,  which  issues  pending 
tJie  suit,  upon  some  collateral  matter ;  also, 
all  such  process  as  intervenes  between  the 
beginning  and  end  of  a  suit. 

MESSENGER,  or  King's  Messenger. 
In  England,  an  officer  chiefly  employed 
under  the  direction  of  the  secretaries  of 
state,  to  convey  despatches  foreign  and  do- 
mestic. 

METALLURGY.  The  art  of  working 
metals,  so  as  to  separate  them  from  the 
ore.  It  may  also  comprehend  the  several 
operations  by  which  they  are  rendered 
available  to  particular  purposes,  as  assay- 
ing, gilding,  refining,  smelting,  &;c. 

METALS.  Compact  bodies  generated  in 
the  earth,  which  are  heavy,  hard,  opaque, 
possessed  of  a  remarkable  lustre,  fusible, 
and  malleable  in  diflerent  degrees.  There 
were  originally  reckoned  but  seven  metals, 
namely,  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  iron,  lead, 
and  quicksilver  ;  but  this  number  has  since 
been  increased  to  thirty,  some  of  which 
have  the  metallic  properties  in  a  small 
degree.  Of  the  primitive  metals,  gold  is 
the  heaviest ;  but  platinum,  one  of  the 
newly  discovered  metals,  is  found  to  be 
still  heavier. 

METAMORPHOSIS  (in  Entomology). 
The  change  which  insects  undergo  in  pass- 
ing from  one  state  to  another. 

METAPHOR.  Tlie  application  of  a  word 
in  some  other  than  its  ordinary  use,  on  ac- 
count of  some  resemblance  between  the 
two  objects  :  thus  the  king  is,  by  a  meta- 
phor, said  to  be  the  head  of  his  kingdom, 
because  the  head  is  the  chief  part  of  the 
body. 

METAPHYSICS.  The  science  which 
considers  beings  as  abstracted  from  all 
matter,  as  accidents,  relations,  and  the  like, 
but  particularly  beings  in  their  nature 
purely  spiritual,  as  God,  angels,  and  the 
soul  of  man. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS.  The  migration 
or  passing  of  the  soul  out  of  one  body  into 
another,  which  is  said  to  have  been  the 
doctrine  maintained  by  Pythagoras,  and 
is  now  held  by  the  Brahmins  and  Bud- 
hists,  in  India. 

METEOR.  A  general  term  for  all  the 
piienomena  of  the  atmosphere,  but  particu- 


246 


MEZ 


MIL 


larly  for  such  sudden  and  luminous  appear- 
ances as  are  occasionally  visible,  such  as 
fireballs  or  luminous  bodies  of  considerable 
magnitude,  that  are  frequently  to  be  seen 
in  the  tropical  climates  ;  shooting  or  falling 
stars,  that  are  of  common  occurrence  ;  and 
the  ignis  fatuus,  seen  in  marshes. 

METEORIC  STONES..  Heavy,  stony 
bodies,  that  are  supposed  to  fall  from  the 
fireballs  after  they  have  exploded.  These 
stones,  which  are  looked  upon  by  soin,e  as 
concretions  formed  in  the  atmosphere,  are 
by  a  chymical  analysis  found  to  contain 
silica,  oxide  of  iron,  magnesia,  sulphur, 
lime  and  oxide  of  nickel. 

METEOROLOGY.  The  doctrine  of  me- 
teors in  general,  or  the  study  of  the  vari- 
able phenomena  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
changes  to  which  the  atmosphere  is  most 
subject  are  such  as  respect  its  temperature, 
weight,  moisture,  and  electricity,  which 
are  marked  and  measured  by  the  barome- 
ter, thermometer,  hygrometer,  and  electro- 
meter. The  results  of  these  changes  are 
winds,  rains,  snow,  heats,  colds,  dews,  &,c. 
The  intensity  of  the  winds  is  measured  by 
the  aerometer-,  and  the  quantity  of  rain  is 
measured  by  the  pluviometer  or  rain-gauge. 

METER,  or  Coal-Meter.  A  measurer 
of  coals  before  they  are  delivered  out  to 
sale. 

METHODISTS..  A  sect  of  physicians 
who  flourished  at  Rome,  and  professed  to 
follow  the  rules  of  Galen  ;  also  a  sect  of 
religionists,  who,  in  the  seventeenth  centu- 
13%  professed  to  defend  the  tenets  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  against  the  Protestants  ; 
and  in  modern  times,  another  sect,  who 
profess  to  act  by  a  rule  of  their  own,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  doctrine  and  disci- 
pline of  the  Church  of  England.  The 
leaders  of  this  latter  sect  were  Wesley  and 
Whitfield,  the  followers  of  whom  are  divi- 
ded into  two  parties. 

METONYMY  (in  Rhetoric).  A  figure 
of  speech,  whereby  one  thing  is  put  for 
another,  as  the  cause  for  the  effect,  the 
part  for  the  whole,  and  the  like. 

METRE  (in  Poetry).  A  system  of  feet 
composing  a  verse  ;  as  pentameter,  a  verse 
of  five  feet,  hexameter,  a  verse  of  six 
feet,  &c. 

METRE  (in.  Commerce).  A  French 
measure,  equal  to  rather  more  than  thirty- 
nine  inches; 

METROPOLIS.  The  chief  city  of  a 
kingdom  or  province. 

METROPOLITAN.  A  bishop  of  the 
mother  church  ;  an  archbishop,  who  is 
bishop  of  tlis  metropolis. 

MEZZOTINTO.  A  particular  kind  of 
engraving,  so  called  from  its  resemblance 


to  drawings  in  India  ink.  This  is  per- 
formed by  punching  the  copper  plates 
with  the  grounding  tool,  scraping  them 
with  the  scraper,  and  then  rubbing  them 
with  the  burnisher  or  smooth  piece  of 
steel,  to  produce  the  effect  desired. 

MIASMA.  The  contagious  effluvia  of 
pestilential  diseases. 

MICA,  or  Muscovy  Glass.  A  stone 
which  forms  the  essential  part  of  many 
mountains.  It  consists  of  a  number  of 
thin,  laminae  adhering  to  each  other.  It 
has  long  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  glass, 
particularly  in  Russia. 

MICROMETER.  An  astronomical  ma- 
chine which  serves  to  measure  extremely 
small  distances  in  the  heavens,  &c. 

MICROSCOPE.  An  optical  instrument 
which  magnifies  objects,  so  that  the  small- 
est may  be  distinctly  seen  and  described. 
The  invention  of  microscopes,  like  many 
other  in-genious  discoveries,  has  been 
claimed  for  different  authors.  Huygens 
informs  us  that  Drebell,  a  Dutchman,  con- 
structed the  first  microscope  in  1621 ;  but 
Borelli  states,  in  a  letter  to  his  brother, 
that  when  he  was  ambassador  in  England 
in  1619,  Cornelius  Drebell  showed  him  a 
microscope,  which  he  said  was  given  him 
by  the  archduke  Albert,  and  had  been 
made  by  Jansen,  whom  he  considers  to 
have  been  the  real  inventor,  although  F. 
Fontana,  a  Neapolitan,  claimed,  in  1646, 
the  honour  of  the  invention  to  himself, 
and  dated  it  from  the  year  1618. 

MIDRIFF,  or  Diaphragm  (in  Anato- 
my) .  A  membrane  which  divides  the  trunk 
of  the  body  into  the  thorax  and  abdomen, 
the  upper  and  lower  cavity. 

PrIIDSHlPMAN.  An  officer  in  the  navy, 
who  assists  on  all  occasions,  both  in  stow- 
ing and  rummaging  the  hold,  sailing  the 
ship,  &c. 

MIDSUMMER.  The  summer  solstice. 
The  24th  of  June  is  the  Midsummer  Day, 
which  is  also  quarter  day. 

MIDWIFERY.  The  art  of  assisting 
women  in  childbirth. 

MILE.  A  long  measure,  which,  in  Eng- 
land, contains  8  furlongs,  or  1760  yards, 
or  5230  Xeet. 

MILIARY  GLANDS.  The  small  and 
infinitely  numerous  glands,  which  secrete 
the  perspiration. 

MILITARY.  A  name  for  the  whole 
body  of  soldiery,  with  their  equipments, 
&c.. 

MILITARY.  An  epithet  for  what  belongs 
to  soldiers,  as  Military  Architecture,  Mili- 
tary Exercises,  &:c. 

MILITARY  ARCHITECTURE.  See 
Fortification. 


MIM 

MILITARY  EXECUTION.  Ravaging 
a  countrj^  that  refuses  to  pay  the  contribu- 
tion levied  upon  it ;  also  the  punishment  in- 
flicted by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

MILITARY  ROAD  or  WAY.  A  road 
made  for  the  passage  of  armies,  like  those 
constructed  by  the  Romans  in  Britain. 

MILITIA.  A  military  force  raised  by 
ballot,  for  the  permanent  defence  of  a 
country. 

MILK.  A  fluid  which  serves  for  the 
nourishment  of  young  animals.  It  is  se- 
creted by  particular  glands  in  the  female 
of  all  animals  vvhich  suckle  their  young, 
which,  on  that  account,  are  denominated 
mammalia.  The  constituent  parts  of  cows' 
milk,  procured  by  cliymical  analysis,  are, 
aroma,  an  odorous,  volatile  principle ; 
water,  which  forms  a  considerable  part ; 
bland  oil,  from  which  the  cream  is  formed  ; 
curd,  or  animal  gluten  ;  sugar  or  the  serum 
of  milk;  and  some  neutral  salts.  Human 
milk  is  the  thinnest  of  all,  and  next  to 
that,  asses'  milk,  which  is  prescribed  for 
consumptive  persons. 

MILK-THISTLE.  A  biennial,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  eaten  as  a  salad. 

MILKY  WAY,  or  Via  Lactea  (in  As- 
tronomy). A  broad  track  or  path  encom- 
passing the  whole  heavens,  which  is  easily 
discernible,  from  its  milky-white  appear- 
ance. 

MILL.  A  machine  for  grinding  wheat,&c. 
of  which  there  are  different  kinds,  accord- 
ing to  the  different  methods  of  putting  them 
in  motion,  as  watermills,  windmills,  horse- 
mills,  handmills,  and  also  steammills. 
They  are  also  distinguished  according  to 
the  uses  they  serve,  as  cornmills,  cotton- 
mills,  papermills,  barkmills,  &c.  Corn  is 
ground  by  two  millstones  placed  one  above 
the  other  witiiout  touching,  the  space  be- 
tween them  beins;  made  greater  or  less,  ac- 
cording as  the  miller  would  have  the  flour 
finer  or  coarser. 

MILLENNIUM.  A  thousand  years, 
generally  taken  for  tlie  thousand  years  of 
Christ's  reign  here  on  earth. 

MILLET.  A  plant  thatbears  an  immense 
number  of  small  grains.  In  Central  Afri- 
ca, it  is  the  common  food  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

MILLING.     The  same  as  fulling. 

MILLING.  The  stamping  of  coin  by 
means  of  a  mill.  This  is  one  part  of  the 
process  in  coining. 

MILLION.  The  number  often  hundred 
thousand. 

MILLREA.  A  Portuguese  gold  coin, 
equal  to  five  shillings  and  sevenpence 
halfpenny  sterling. 

MIMOSA,  or  The  Sensitive  Plant, 


MIN 


247 


so  called  on  account  of  the  sensibility  of 
its  leaves.  It  is  a  numerous  tribe  of  plants, 
which  are  all  natives  of  warm  climates. 
They  have  all  the  singular  property  that 
their  leaves  recede  from  the  touch,  and 
run  rapidly  together ;  in  some,  the  foot- 
stalks and  all  are  affected.  The  humble 
sensitives  instantly  t\ill  downward,  as  if 
fastened  by  hinges.  These  plants  have  all 
winged  leaves,  each  wing  consisting  of 
many  small  pinnae.  From  the  Mimosa 
Nilotica,  represented  underneath,  is  pro- 
cured the  gum  arable. 


MINE.  A  deep  hollow,  running  unde 
ground,  whence  various  minerals,  particu 
larly  the  metallic  kind,  are  dug  out. 
These  mines  are  mostly  dug  through  vari- 
ous strata  or  beds  of  substances,  of  which 
the  interior  of  the  earth  is  composed.  In 
tJiese  strata  are  found  innumerable  fissures, 
called  by  the  miners  lodes,  which  contain 
the  metal  sought  for.  The  passage  or  de- 
scent to  the  mine  is  by  means  of  a  pit 
called  a  shaft.  The  principal  signs,  by 
which  metallic  veins  are  discovered,  are 
miiieral  waters,  pieces  of  ore  found  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  warm  exhalations, 
metallic  sands,  &c. 

MINE  (in  Fortification).  A  subterrane- 
ous passage  dug  under  the  wall  or  rampart 
of  a  fortification,  for  the  purpose  of  blow- 
ing it  up  by  gunpowder.  The  place  where 
the  powder  is  lodged  is  called  the  chamber. 

MINER.  One  who  digs  mines  or  works 
in  mines. 

MINERALOGY.  That  science  which 
treats  of  the  solid  and  hard  component 
parts  of  the  earth.  Minerals  have  been 
variously  classed  by  different  writers.  The 
system  of  Werner  comprehends  them  under 
the  four  classes  of  earths,  salts,  inflamma- 
bles, and  metals.  To  this  Linnaeus  has' 
added  a  fifth  class  of  petrifactions. 

MINERAL  WATERS.  Springs  im- 
pregnated with  mineral  substances. 

MINERVA.  The  daughter  of  Jupiter, 
and  goddess  of  wisdom  and  the  fine  arts. 


248 


MIS 


She  is  commonly  represented  with  all  the 
emblems  of  war,  as  the  helmet,  spear,  and 
Ehield. 

MINERVALIA.  Presents  among  the 
ancients,  made  by  the  boys  to  their  mas-' 
ters  before  the  feast  of  Minerva. 

MINIATURE.  A  delicate  kind  of  paint- 
ing, consisting  of  little  points  or  dots  in- 
stead of  lines,  commonly  done  on  ivory, 
and  used  in  taking  portraits  3  also  the  por- 
trait itself. 

MINIM  (in  Music).  A  measure  of  time 
marked  thus,  C],  equal  to  two  crotchets. 

MINIMUM  (in  Mathematics).  The  least 
quantity  attainable  in  a  given  case. 

MINISTER  OF  STATE.  In  England, 
one  who  conducts  the  affairs  of  state  by  an 
authority  from  the  king. 

MINISTER,  Foreign.  A  person  sent 
into  a  foreign  country,  to  manage  the  af- 
fairs of  the  state  by  which  he  is  sent. 

MINIUM,  or  Red  Lead.  An  oxide  of 
lead,  procured  by  exposing  this  metal  to  a 
great  heat  and  a  free  access  of  air. 

MINK.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  kind, 
common  in  North  America,  that  frequents 
the  banks  of  streams. 

MINOR  (in  Law).  An  heir,  male  or 
female,  within  the  age  of  twenty-one. 

MINORITY  (in  Law).  A  state  of  non- 
age J  also  the  smaller  number  of  persons 
who  give  their  votes  on  any  questions. 

MINSTREL.  A  player  on  any  musical 
instrument ;  an  itinerant  performer. 

MINT  (in  Botany).  A  pot-herb,  which 
has  a  creeping  root  and  a  strong  aromatic 
scent. 

MINT.    The  place  where  coin  is  made. 

MINUTE  (in  Geometry,  marked thus('). 
The  sixtieth  part  of  the  degree  of  a  circle  ; 
also  the  sixtieth  part  of  an  hour. 

MIRACLES.  Works  effected  in  a  man- 
ner different  from  the  ordinary  course  of 
nature,  by  the  immediate  power  of  the 
Almighty,  for  some  particular  purpose. 

MiRKOR.  The  surface  of  any  opaque 
body  polished,  and  adapted  to  reflect  the 
rays  of  light  which  fall  upon  it,  and  to 
represent  objects.  Mirrors  are  either  flat, 
as  looking-glasses ;  concave,  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  converging  the  rays  of  light ;  or  con- 
vex, for  the  purpose  of  diverging  the  rays 
of  light. 

MISADVENTURE  (in  Law).  A  sort 
of  homicide  against  the  mind  of  the  kill- 
er, partly  by  negligence  and  partly  by 
chance. 

MISCELLANEtE.  One  of  Linnmus's 
natural  orders  of  plants,  comprehending 
such  as  were  not  included  in  the  other 
orders. 

MISCHIEF  (in  Law).  Damage  or  inju- 


MIT 

ry  done  to  the  property  of  another,  not  for 
gain,  but  with  a  malicious  intent. 

MISDEMEANOUR.  An  offence  lesa 
than  felony. 

MISLETOE.  A  plant  which  always 
grows  on  trees,  and  was  thought,  therefore, 
to  be  an  excrescence  of  the  tree ;  but  it 
has  been  found  to  be  propagated  by  the 
seed  or  berry  which  is  conveyed  by  the 
misletoe  thrush  from  one  tree  to  another : 
this  bird  being  fond  of  these  seeds,  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  viscous  part 
of  tlie  berry  sticks  to  his  beak,  and,  in  his 
attempts  to  disengage  himself  from  it  by 
striking  his  beak  against  the  bark  of  the 
tree,  the  berry  sticks  to  the  latter ;  and  if 
it  happen  to  light  on  a  smooth  part,  it  will 
take  root,  and  sprout  out  the  next  winter. 
This  plant  adheres  most  readily  to  the  ash 
and  other  smooth-rinded  trees,  as  the 
apple,  &c. 

MISNAII.  The  code  or  collection  of 
the  civil  law  of  the  Jews. 

MISNOMER  (in  Law),  The  giving  a 
person  a  wrong  name. 

MISPRISION.  In  general,  a  neglect, 
as  misprision  of  treason,  a  neglect  to  reveal 
treason  j  which  was  formerly  high  treason 
in  England. 

MISSAL.  The  book  of  the  Romish  cer- 
emonies. 

MISSILE.  Any  weapon  thrown  or  dis- 
charged from  a  machine,  as  stones  from  a 
sling. 

MISSIONARIES.  Ministers  sent  into 
any  country  to  preach  Christianity. 

MISTS.  Vapours  hovering  over  the 
earth,  which  are  either  drawn  upwards  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  fall  down  by  their 
own  weight  in  the  shape  of  dew,  or,  in 
cold  weather,  in  that  of  hoar  frost. 

MITE.  One  of  the  smallest  insects,  that 
is  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  except 
by  its  motion.  As  seen  through  a  micro- 
scope, it  is  found  to  have  eight  legs,  two 
eyes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and 
two  jointed  tentacula.  It  mostly  lives  in 
cheeses. 


MITE  (in  Commerce).  A  small  coin 
formerly  current,  equal  to  about  one  third 
part  of  a  farthing ;  also  a  weight  among 
the  moneyers,  equal  to  the  twentieth  part 
of  a  grain. 

MITRR  (among  Carpenters).  An  angle 
just  45  degrees,  or  half  a  right  angle. 


MOL 


MON 


249 


MITRE.  A  sacerdotal  ornament  worn 
on  the  head  by  bishops  on  solemn  occa- 
sions ;  it  is  a  cap  of  a  conical  form. 


MIZEN.     See  Mast. 

MNEMONICS.  Precepts,  rules,  and 
common-places,  to  help  the  memory. 

MOAT  (in  Fortification).  A  deep  trench 
dug  round  the  ramparts  of  a  fortified  place. 

MOCKING-BIRD.  A  sort  of  American 
thrush,  which  has  the  faculty  of  imitating 
the  notes  of  other  birds.  Tliis  bird  is  so 
perfect  an  imitator,  that  it  will  catcli  parts 
of  tunes  from  a  flute,  and  repeat  them 
with  great  sweetness  and  accuracy.  It 
seldom  migrates  farther  north  tlian  Penn- 
sylvania. 

MODE  (in  Music).  A  regular  disposition 
of  the  tune  in  relation  to  certain  principal 
sounds,  which  ai-e  called  the  essential 
chords  of  the  bass. 

MODEL.  An  original  pattern,  or  the 
shape  or  design  of  any  thing  in  miniature  ; 
particularly  applied  to  an  artificial  pattern 
made  in  wood,  stone,  plaster,  or  other 
matter,  with  all  its  parts  and  proportions, 
in  order  to  give  a  full  idea  of  the  work 
that  is  to  be  executed. 

MODERNS.  A  name  given  generally 
to  those  who  have  distinguished  them- 
selves since  the  revival  of  learning,  as 
compared  with  the  ancients,  and  also  with 
those  of  the  middle  ages. 

MODULE  (in  Architecture).  A  certain 
measure  by  which  the  proportions  of  col- 
umns are  regulated. 

MODUS  DECIMANDT.  In  England, 
something  paid  as  a  compensation  for 
tithes,  on  the  principle  of  a  moderate 
equivalent. 

MOHAIR.  The  hair  of  a  kind  of  goat 
at  Angora  in  Turkey,  of  which  the  natives 
make  camblets. 

MOIDORE.  A  Portuguese  coin,  equal 
to  27s.  sterling. 

MOLASSES.  The  gross  fluid  matter 
that  remains  of  sugar  after  boiling  j  the 
scum  of  the  sugar-cane. 

MOLE  (among  Mariners).  A  long  pier 
or  artificial  bulwark  of  masoniy,  extending 
obliquely  across  a  harbour. 


MOLE.  An  animal  that  lives  under 
ground,  and,  on  account  of  the  smallness 
of  its  eyes,  was  formerly  supposed  to  be 
blind. 


ISIOLLUSC  A.  An  order  of  animals  un- 
der the  class  vermes  in  the  Linnajan  sys- 
tem, comprehending  naked  simple  animals 
not  included  in  a  shell,  but  furnished  with 
limbs,  as  the  snail,  star-fish,  cuttle-fish, 
sea-urchin,  &c. 

MOLTING.  The  changing  of  feathers, 
hair,  or  horns,  in  birds  and  beasts. 

MOLYB DATES.  Salts  formed  from 
molybdic  acid  in  combination  with  earths, 
alkalies,  &c. 

MOLYBDENUM.  A  metal  Avhich  ex- 
ists, mineralized  by  sulphur,  in  the  ore 
called  the  ore  of  Molybdena.  INIolybdenum 
has  hitherto  been  obtained  only  in  small 
globules. 

MOjMENTUAI.  The  quantity  of  motion 
in  a  moving  body. 

MONADELPHIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
the  Linucean  classes,  consisting  of  plants 
in  which  all  the  stamens  are  united  below 
into  one  cylindrical  body. 


MONANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
the  Linneean  classes,  consisting  of  plants 
that  have  only  one  stamen. 


MONARCHY.  A  government  in  which 
the  supreme  power  is  vested  in  one  person. 


250 


MON 


MONASTERY.  A  college  of  monks  or 
nuns  ;  a  house  of  religious  retirement. 

MONDAY.  The  second  day  of  the 
week. 

MONEY,  Whatever  is  made  the  me- 
dium of  trade  for  determining  the  value 
of  commodities  in  buying  or  selling.  It 
consists  either  of  coins,  orpieces  of  stamped 
metal,  or  of  paper  money  or  moneys  of 
account.  Paper  money  is  called  paper 
currency,  to  distinguish  it  from  specie, 
metallic  currency,  or  cash :  it  comprehends 
notes  of  hand,  bills  of  exchange,  bonds, 
mortgages  &c.  Moneys  of  account  are 
imaginary  moneys,  used  only  in  keeping 
accounts;  such  was  the  English  pound 
until  sovereigns  were  coined. 

MONEYERS.  In  England,  officers  in 
the  king's  mint,  who  make  and  coin  the 
money. 

MONGREL.  Any  creature  of  a  mixed 
breed. 

MONK.  One  of  a  religious  community ; 
one  who  dwells  in  a  monastery,  under  a 
vow  of  observing  the  rules  of  the  order  he 
belongs  to. 

MONKEY.  A  well  known  animal,  with 
a  long  tail,  cheeks  pouched,  and  haunches 
naked.  The  cut  below  represents  a  small 
epeciesj  called  the  striated  monkey. 


MONKEY  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
machine  used  for  driving  large  piles  of 
wood. 

MONKSHOOD,  or  Aconite.  A  poi- 
sonous plant  bearing  a  fine  blue  flov/er. 

MONOCEROS-  One  of  the  new  con- 
stellations in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

MONOCHORD.  A  musical  instrument 
with  one  string. 

MONODY.    A  funeral  ditty. 

MONOGYNIA  (in  Botany).  An  order 
In  the  Linnsean  system,  comprehending 
plants  that  have  only  one  pistil  or  stigma 
in  a  flower. 

MONOECIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
LinnjeanclasseSjincluding  plants  that  have 
male  and  female  flowers  on  the  same  plant, 


MOO 

as  the  plane-tree,  hazel,  chestnut,  cucum- 
ber, &c. 


MONOLOGUE.  A  soliloquy,  or  scene 
where  one  only  speaks. 

MONOPETALOUS.  One-petalled,  ap- 
plied to  flowers  the  corolla  of  which  con- 
sists of  one  petal  only. 

MONOPOLY.  In  England,  a  grant  from 
the  king  to  any  person  or  persons  for  the 
sole  trading  in  any  commodity ;  also  the 
unlawful  engrossing  to  one's  self  any  trade, 
or  the  sale  of  any  commodity,  in  order  to 
enhance  the  price. 

MONOSYLLABLE.  A  word  of  one 
syllable. 

MONOTONY.  Sameness  in  the  tone  of 
the  voice  ;  a  fault  in  elocution  or  delivery. 

MONSOONS,  or  Trade-Winds.  Peri- 
odical winds  in  the  Indian  sea,  that  blow 
one  half  the  year  one  way,  and  the  other 
half  on  the  opposite  points.  These  points 
and  times  of  shifting  are  different  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  ocean. 

MONTH  (in  Chronology).  The  twelfth 
part  of  a  year,  otherwise  called  a  calendar 
month,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  astronom- 
ical month,  which  is  either  solar  or  lunar. 
A  solar  month,  or  the  time  in  which  the 
sun  passes  through  a  whole  sign  of  the 
zodiac,  is  30  days  16  hours  29  minutes 
5  seconds ;  a  lunar  month,  or  the  period 
of  one  lunation,  is  29  days  12  hours  44 
minutes, 

MOOD  (in  Grammar).  The  manner  of 
forming  a  verb,  or  the  manner  of  the 
verb's  inflections,  so  as  to  express  the  dif- 
ferent forms  and  manners  of  the  action,  or 
the  different  intentions  of  the  speaker;  as 
the  indicative  mood,  which  declares  a 
thing;  the  imperative  mood,  by  which 
one  commands;  the  subjunctive  mood, 
which  implies  a  conditional  action ;  the 
potential  mood,  which  denotes  the  possi- 
bility of  doing  the  thing  ;  and  the  infinitive 
mood,  which  expresses  the  action  indefi- 
nitely. 

MOON.  One  of  the  secondary  planets, 
and  a  satellite  to  the  earth,  marked  thus  (J  ; 
is  in  diameter  2144  miles,  and  fifty  times 
less  than  the  earth.  The  surface  of  the 
moon  is  diversified  with  mountains  and 
valleys.  Her  sidereal  or  periodical  motion 
on  her  own  axis  she  performs  in  27  days 
7  hours  43  minutes  and  11  seconds ;  hey 


MOS 

synodical  motion,  or  her  motion  in  her 
orbit  round  the  earth,  she  performs  in 
29  days  12  hours  44  minutes  12  seconds : 
the  former  is  called  the  periodical,  and 
the  latter  the  synodical  month. 

MOONSTONE.  A  pure  kind  of  feld- 
sparj  found  in  Ceylon  and  Switzerland. 

MOOR-COCK.  A  bird  of  the  grouse 
tribe,  inhabiting  the  heaths  of  Scotland 
and  the  north  of  England. 

MOOR-HEx\.  A  water-fowl  of  the  coot 
tribe 

MOORING.  Laying  out  the  anchors 
for  the  secure  riding  of  the  ship. 

MOOSE.    See  Elk. 

MORAVIANS,  or  Hernhutters.  A 
sect  of  professing  Christians,  who  prevail 
in  Germany,  and  are  distinguished  both 
by  the  singularity  of  their  doctrine  and 
their  manners. 

MORDANTS  (in  Dyeing).  Substances 
combined  with  the  vegetable  or  animal 
fibre,  in  order  to  fix  the  dye-stuff. 

MOROCCO.  A  fine  kind  of  leather 
prepared  from  the  skin  of  an  animal  of 
the  goat  kind,  and  imported  from  the  Le- 
vant. 

MOROXYLIC  ACID.  An  acid  pro- 
cured from  the  white  mulberry. 

MORSE.  A  species  of  sea  animal  of  the 
seal  kind,  of  which  there  are  several  va- 
rieties inhabiting  the  northern  seas.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  walrus, 
or  great  morse. 

MORTALITY,  Bills  of.     See  Bills. 

MORTAR.  A  thick,  short  cannon,  hav- 
ing a  large  bore,  and  mounted  on  a  low 
strong  carriage,  which  serves  for  throwing 
bombs,  &c. 

MORTAR  (with  Apothecaries).  A  strong 
vessel  for  pounding  things  in  with  a  pestle. 

MORTAR  (among Masons).  Lime, sand, 
and  hair  mixed  together,  so  as  to  make  a 
cement. 

MORTGAGE  (in  Law).  A  dead  pledge, 
or  a  pawn  of  lands  and  tenements,  or  any 
thing  immovable,  given  on  condition  that 
it  should  be  the  creditor's  for  ever,  if  the 
money  be  not  paid  on  the  day  appointed. 

MORTISE,  or  MORTOIS" (among  Car- 
penters). A  kind  of  joint  consisting  of  a 
hole  of  a  certain  depth  cut  in  a  piece  of 
timber  so  as  to  receive  another  piece 
called  the  tenon. 

MORTMAIN.  In  England,  an  aliena- 
tion of  lands  and  tenements  to  any  guild, 
corporation,  or  fraternity,  and  their  succes- 
sors, which  may  not  be  done  without  the 
king's  license. 

MOSAIC,  or  Mosaic  Work.  An  as- 
semblage of  little  pieces  of  glass,  marble, 
precious  stones,  Sec,  of  various  colours,  cut 


MOT 


251 


square  and  cemented  on  a  ground  of  stucco 
in  imitation  of  painting. 

MOSaUE.  A  temple  or  place  of  reli- 
gious worship  among  the  Mahometans. 
The  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantino- 
ple is  converted  into  a  Turkish  mosque. 

MOSaUITO.  A  large  kind  of  gnat  in 
warm  climates,  which  inflicts  deep  wounds 
on  those  whom  it  attacks. 

MOSS.  A  parasitic  plant,  something 
like  down,  that  adheres  to  the  trunks  of 
trees,  and  was  formerly  supposed  to  be 
merely  an  excrescence,  but  is  now  found 
to  be  a  perfect  plant,  having  roots,  flower, 
and  seeds,  yet  cannot  be  propagated  by 
seed.  It  is  oftentimes  very  injurious  to 
fruit  trees,  and  ought  to  be  scraped  oft' in 
the  spring  season  and  in  moist  weather. 


MOTH.  An  insect  something  similar  to 
the  butterfly,  but  not  so  large.  It  is  very 
injurious  to  cloth  and  furniture. 

MOTHER.  The  mouldy  lees  of  wine, 
beer,  &c. 

MOTHER  OF  PEARL.  The  shell  of 
pearl  fish. 

MOTION  (in  Physiology).  A  change  of 
place,  which  is  absolute  if  it  be  indepen- 
dent of  any  other  body,  and  relative  if  it 
changes  the  relative  place  of  a  moving 
body,  as  in  the  case  of  two  vessels  sailing 
in  the  same  or  contrary  directions  with 
different  velocities.  Animal  motion  is  that 
by  which  the  situation,  figure,  magnitude 
of  the  parts  of  animals  is  changed,  which 
takes  place  in  the  act  of  their  growth. 

MOTION  (in  Law).  An  application  in 
court,  either  by  the  parties  themselves  or 
their  counsel,  in  order  to  obtain  some 
order  or  rule  of  court. 

MOTION  (in  Parliament  or  any  other 
public  assembly).  The  proposing  of  any 
matter  for  the  consideration  of  those 
present. 

MOTTO.  A  word  or  short  sentence,  put 
to  an  emblem  or  device,  or  to  a  coat  of 
arms  in  a  scroll,  at  the  bottom  of  ihit 
escutcheon. 


252 


MOU 


MOVABLES.    Personal  goods. 

MOVEMENT  (in  Military  Affairs).  The 
regular,  orderly  motion  of  an  army,  for 
some  particular  purpose. 

MOVEMENT  (in  Music).  The  progress 
of  sounds  from  grave  to  acute,  or  from 
acute  to  grave. 

MOVEMENT  (among  Watchmakers). 
A  name  for  the  inner  works  of  a  watch, 
&c.,  that  move. 

MOULD  (in  Horticulture).  Earth  mixed 
with  dung,  &c.,  fit  for  the  reception  of 
seeds. 

MOULD  (among  Mechanics).  A  form 
or  frame  in  which  any  thing  is  cast,  as 
glaziers'  moulds,  tallowchandlers'  moulds, 
and  the  like. 

MOULDINESS.  A  term  applied  to 
bodies,  as  bread,  <&:c.,  which  are  in  a  state 
of  corruption,  from  the  action  of  the  damp 
or  air.  This  shows  itself  by  a  white  down, 
which,  when  seen  through  a  microscope, 
appears,  like  the  moss,  to  be  a  kind  of 
plants,  although  some  have  imagined  it  to 
look  like  animalculaj. 

MOULDINGS  (in  Architecture).  Pro- 
jectures  beyond  the  naked  wall,  such  as 
cornices,  door-cAses,  &c.,  which  are  cut  so 
as  to  be  ornamental. 

MOUND  (among  Antiquarians).  A  ball 
or  globe  with  a  cross  upon  it,  which  kings 
are  represented  as  holding  in  their  hands, 
to  designate  their  sovereign  majesty. 


MOUND  (in  Fortification).  Any  thin? 
raised,  as  a  bank  of  earth,  &c.,  to  fortify 
or  defend  a  place. 

MOUNT.  An  artificial  elevation  of 
earth. 

MOUNTAIN  ASH.  An  ornamental 
tree,  which  in  its  leaf  resembles  the  com- 
mon ash  ;  but  it  bears  a  clustered  flower, 
that  is  succeeded  by  a  beautiful  red  berry. 

MOUNTAINS.  Extraordinary  eleva- 
tions of  the  earth,  such  as  the  Alps  and 
Pyrenees  in  Europe,  the  Caucasus  and 
Uralian  mountains  in  Asia,  and  the  Andes 
in  America.  Mountains  mostly  consist  of 
Btone. 

MOUNTING  (in  Military  Affairs).  Go- 
ing upon  some  arduous  or  specific  duty, 
as  mounting  a  breach,  that  is,  running  up 


MUL 

to  it ;  mounting  the  trenches,  going  upon 
duty  in  the  trenches,  &c.  j  but  mounting 
a  cannon  is  setting  it  on  its  carriage. 

MOUSE.  A  little  animal  that  haunts 
houses  and  fields.  It  is  nearly  allied  to 
the  rat,  and  is  classed  with  it  under  the 
name  of  Mus  in  the  Linnaean  system. 
Field  mice  are  frequently  white. 


MOUSE-EAR.  A  plant  very  similar  to 
chickweed  ;  but  the  flower  is  larger,  and 
the  fruit  shaped  like  an  ox's  horn,  gaping 
at  the  top. 

MOUTH.  The  aperture  in  the  head  of 
any  animal  at  which  the  food  is  received, 
and  by  which  the  inspiration  and  expira- 
tion of  the  air  is  performed  ;  also  the  aper- 
ture of  many  other  things,  so  called  from 
the  similarity  of  situation  or  use,  as  the 
mouth  of  a  cannon,  where  the  powder  and 
ball  go  in  and  out ;  the  mouth  of  a  river, 
where  the  water  passes  in  and  out ;  and 
the  mouth  of  a  vessel,  &c. 

M.  P.  An  abbreviation  for  Member  of 
Parliament. 

MS.     An  abbreviation  for  Manuscript. 

MSS.  An  abbreviation  for  Manuscripts. 

MUCILAGE.  A  slimy  substance  of  suf- 
ficient consistence  to  hold  together,  as  a 
solution  of  gum  or  any  tenacious  liquid, 
or  a  viscous  extraction  from  roots  and 
other  parts  of  vegetables. 

MUCUS.  A  viscous  fluid  secreted  by 
certain  glands  in  the  body. 

MUFFLE.  A  small  earthen  oven  used 
for  cupellation. 

MUFTI.  The  chief  priest  among  the 
Mussulmen,  appointed  by  the  grand  seign- 
ior himself.  He  is  the  oracle  in  all  doubt- 
ful questions  of  their  law. 

MULATTO.  Any  one  born  of  a  black 
man  and  white  woman,  and  vice  versa. 

MULBERRY  TREE.  A  large,  spread- 
ing tree,  the  fruit  of  which  resembles  the 
raspberry  in  its  seedy  make,  but  is  much 
larger.  The  white  mulberry  is  cultivated 
in  France,  Italy,  and  the  United  States, 
for  its  leaves,  to  fe:;d  silkworm^,  but  the 
Persians  make  use  of  the  common  black 
mulberry  for  this  purpose. 

MULE.  A  mongrel  kind  of  quadruped, 
generated  between  an  ass  and  a  mare, 


MUN 


MUS 


253 


and  sometimes  between  a  horse  and  a  she- 
ass.  Mules  are  hardy,  sure-footed  animals, 
used  much  in  mountainous  countries,  as 
about  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  ;  but  they 
are  incapable  of  propagating  their  species. 


MULE  (in  Botany).  Any  flower  or  fruit 
produced  from  two  sorts. 

MULETEER.     A  driver  of  mules. 

MULLET.  A  fish  with  a  head  almost 
square,  and  a  silvery  body. 

MULTIPLE.  A  number  which  includes 
another  a  certain  number  of  times,  as  6, 
the  multiple  of  2. 

MULTIPLICATION.  One  of  the  four 
simple  rules  of  arithmetic,  which  consists 
in  the  increasing  of  any  one  number  by 
another  as  often  as  there  are  units  in  that 
number  by  which  the  one  is  increased. 
The  number  multiplying  is  the  multiplier ; 
the  number  multiplied,  the  multiplicand  ; 
and  the  result  of  the  operation  is  the  pro- 
duct. 

MULTIPLYING-GLASS.  A  glass  other- 
wise called  a  polyhedron,  being  ground 
into  several  planes  that  make  angles  with 
each  other,  and  cause  objects  to  appear 
increased  in  number. 

MULTUM  IN  PARVO.  Much  in  a 
small  compass. 

MUM.  A  kind  of  liquor  made  of  wheat, 
and  brought  from  Brunswick  in  Germany. 

MUMMIES.  The  name  of  dead  bodies 
which  have  been  preserved  for  ages  from 
corruption  in  Egypt,  by  a  particular  me- 
thod of  embalming;  also  the  liquor  run- 
ning from  such  mummies,  which  ap- 
proaches more  or  less  to  a  state  of  solidity, 

MUNDIC.  A  sort  of  copper  ore  ;  a  sul- 
phuret  of  copper  of  a  gi-eenisli  yellow 
colour. 

MUNICIPAL  (in  the  Civil  Law).  An 
epithet  signifying  'invested  with  the  civil 
rights  of  a  citizen  ;'  with  us,  it  is  an  epi- 
thet for  what  belongs  to  a  town  or  city, 
as  municipal  laws,  laws  enjoyed  by  the 
inhabitants  of  a  free  town  or  city ;  and  in 
22 


an  extended  sense,  municipal  law  is  the 
law  by  which  any  particular  state  or  coun- 
tiy  is  governed. 

MURAL  CROWN.  A  crown  among 
the  Romans,  given  to  him  who  first  scaled 
the  walls  of  a  city. 


MURDER  (in  Law),  The  wilful  and 
felonious  killing  a  man  with  malice  pre- 
pense. 

MUREX.  A  shell-fish  noted  among  the 
ancients  for  its  purple  dye  ;  in  the  Linnjean 
system,  it  is  a  genus  of  insects  under  the 
class  vermes,  the  animal  of  which  is  a 
limax  :  the  shell  is  univalve  and  spiral. 

MURIATES,  Salts  formed  from  muri- 
atic acid  with  certain  bases,  as  the  muriate 
of  ammonia,  of  soda,  &c. 

MURIATIC  ACID  (otherwise  called 
Spirit  of  Salt).  An  acid  procured  from 
salt,  consisting  of  hydrogen  combined  with 
chlorine  gas.  Its  odour  is  pungent,  and  its 
taste  acid  and  corrosive.  If  an  inflamed 
taper  be  immersed  in  it,  it  is  instantly 
extinguished :  it  is  also  destructive  of  hu- 
man life. 

MURRAIN.  A  wasting,  contagious  dis- 
order among  cattle. 

MUS  (in  Zoolog}')'  A  generic  term,  in 
the  Linnajan  system,  for  a  tribe  of  animals 
of  the  class  mammalia,  and  order  glires, 
distinguished  principally  by  their  teeth. 
The  most  remarkable  species  are  the  com- 
mon rat  and  mouse,  tlie  musk  rat,  the 
Norway  rat,  &c. 

MUSCI.  Mosses;  one  of  the  families 
into  which  Linn;eus  has  divided  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  It  is  of  the  class  crypto- 
gamia,  and  comprehends  a  vast  variety  of 
species,  as  the  earth-moss,  bristle-moss, 
spring-moss,  water-moss,  &c. 

MUSCLE  (in  Anatomy).  Afleshy,fibrous 
part  of  the  body,  consisting  of  a  bundle  of 
thin,  parallel  plates,  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  fasciculi,  or  little  threads  and 
fibres,  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  relax- 
ation and  contraction,  and  serving  as  the 
organ  of  motion.  The  extremities  of  the 
muscles  are  inserted  into  the  bones. 


MUSES  (in  the   Heathen   Mythology). 
Divinities   supposed  to  preside   over  the 


254 


MUS 


MUS 


arts  and  sciences.  They  were  nine  in  ' 
number,  namely,  Clio,  to  whom  they  at- 
tributed the  invention  of  history ;  Melpo- 
mene, the  inventor  of  tragedy  3  Thalia,  of 
comedy  ;  Euterpe,  of  the  use  of  the  flute  5 
Terpsichore,  of  the  harp  5  Erato,  of  the 
lyre  and  lute  ;  Calliope,  of  heroic  verse ; 
Urania,  of  astrology;  Polyhymnia,  of  rhe- 
toric. Herodotus  divided  his  history  into 
nine  books,  to  each  of  which  he  gave  tlie 
name  of  one  of  the  muses. 

MUSEUM.  A  collection  of  rare  and 
interesting  objects,  particularly  in  the  de- 
partments of  Natural  History;  also  the 
place  where  the  collection  is  deposited. 
The  term  was  originally  appilied  to  a  study, 
or  a  place  set  apart  for  learned  men,  in  the 
royal  palace  of  Alexandria,  by  I'toleiny 
Philadelphus,  who  founded  a  college,  and 
gave  salaries  to  the  several  membex's,  add- 
ing also  an  extensive  library,  which  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world. 

INIUSHROOM.  A  plant,  the  generic 
name  of  which,  in  the  Linnsean  system, 
is  agaricus.  It  is  a  spongy  substance, 
which  grows  up  to  its  bulk  on  a  sudden. 
The  seeds  of  mjishrooms  have  not  long 
been  discovered. 


MUSIC.  The  science  which  treats  of 
the  number,  time,  division,  succession,  and 
combination  of  sounds,  so  as  to  produce 
harmony.  It  is  divided  into  Theoretical 
Music,  which  inquires  into  the  properties 
of  concords  and  discords,  and  explains 
their  combinations  and  proportions  for  the 
production  of  melody  and  harmony  ;  and 
Practical  Music,  which  is  the  art  of  applj'- 
ing  the  theory  of  music  in  the  composition 
of  all  sorts  of  tunes  and  airs. 

MUSIC,  History  of.  The  first  traces 
of  music  are  to  be  found  in  Egypt,  where 
musical  instruments,  capable  of  much  va- 
riety and  expression,  existed  at  a  time 
when  other  nations  were  in  an  uncivilized 
state.  The  invention  of  the  lyre  is  by  them 
ascribed  to  Hermes  Trismegistus,  the  Mer- 
cury of  the  Egyptians,  which  is  a  proof 
of  its  antiquity ;  but  a  still  greater  proof 
of  the  existence  of  musical  instruments 


amongst  them  at  a  very  early  period  is 
drawn  from  the  figure  of  an  instrument 
said  to  be  represented  on  an  obelisk, 
erected,  as  is  supposed,  by  Sesostris  at 
Heliopolis.  This  instrument,  by  means  of 
its  neck, was  capable, with  only  two  strings, 
if  tuned  fourths,  of  furnishing  that  series  of 
sounds  called  by  the  ancients  a  heptachord  j 
and  if  tuned  fifths,  of  producing  an  octave. 
As  Aloses  was  skilled  in  all  the  learning 
of  the  Egyptians,  it  is  probable  that  the 
Israelites,  who  interwove  music  in  all 
their  religious  ceremonies,  borrowed  much 
from  tliat  people.  'I'hat  the  Greeks  took 
their  first  ideas  of  music  from  the  Egj^p- 
tians  is  clear  from  tliis  :  that  they  ascribed 
the  invention  of  the  lyre  to  Mercury,  al- 
though they  jnade  Apollo  to  be  the  god  of 
music,  and  gave  him  that  instrument  to 
play  upon.  In  no  country  was  music  so 
much  cultivated  as  in  Greece.  The  muses, 
as  well  as  Apollo,  Bacchus,  and  other  gods 
and  demigods,  practised  or  promoted  it  in 
some  way  or  other.  Their  poets  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  like  the  Celtic  and 
German  bards,  and  the  scalds  of  Iceland 
and  Scandinavia,  who  went  about  singing 
their  poems  in  the  streets,  and  the  palaces 
of  princes.  In  this  manner  did  Orpheus, 
Homer,  Hesiod,  Sappho,  and  others  recite 
their  verses ;  and  in  after  times,  on  the 
institution  of  the  games,  Simonides,  Pin- 
dar, and  other  posts  celebrated  in  public 
the  exploits  of  the  victors.  The  instruments 
known  in  the  time  of  Homer  were  the 
lyre,  flute,  syrinx,  and  trumpet.  The  in- 
vention of  notation  and  musical  characters 
is  ascribed  to  Terpander,  a  poet  and  nmsi- 
cian,who  flourished  671  years  before  Christ. 
We  afterwards  find  philosophers,  as  well 
as  poets,  among  the  number  of  those  who 
admired  and  cultivated  music,theoretically 
as  well  as  practically,  as  Pythagoras,  Plato, 
Aristotle,  Aristoxenus,  Euclid,  and  many 
others.  Pythagoras  is  celebrated  for  his 
discoveries  in  this  science ;  namely,  for 
that  of  musical  ratios,  and  the  addition  of 
an  eighth  string  to  the  lyre.  The  former 
of  these  he  is  supposed  to  have  derived 
from  the  Egyptians.  He  also  explained 
the  theory  of  sounds,  and  reduced  it  to  a 
science.  Aristoxenus  is  the  most  ancient 
writer  on  music  of  whose  works  there  are 
any  remains.  Euclid  followed  up  the  idea 
of  Pythagoras'  ratios,  which  he  reduced 
to  mathematical  demonstration.  To  this 
list  of  Greek  writers  may  be  added  Ni- 
chomachus  Gerasenus,  Alypius,  Gaudenti- 
us,  Bacchius  senior,  Ptolemy  the  astrono- 
mer,and  Aristides  Giuintilian, whose  works 
are  still  extant.  These  wrote  under  the 
Roman  emperors,  many  of  whom  cultiva- 


MUS 

ted  music  and  followed  the  theory  of  the 
Greeks.  Amongthe  Roman  writers  maybe 
reckoned  Vitruvius,  who,  in  liis  architec- 
ture, touches  lightly  on  this  subject ;  also 
Martianus  Capellaand  BoethiuSjWho  wrote 
on  the  decline  of  the  empire.  After  them 
some  centuries  elapsed  l)efore  the  science 
of  music  met  with  any  particular  attention. 
Its  introduction  into  the  cliurch  service 
prevented  it  from  falling,  like  other  arts, 
into  total  neglect.  Instrumental  music 
was  introduced  into  the  public  service  of 
the  church  under  Constantine  the  Great. 
The  practice  of  chanting  the  psalms  was 
begun  in  the  western  churches  by  St.  Am- 
brose, about  350  years  after  Christ ;  three 
hundred  years  after,  tlie  metliod  of  chant- 
ing was  improved  by  St.  Gregory  the 
Great.  It  was  probably  introduced  into 
England  by  St.  Augustine,  and  greatly 
improved  by  St.  Dunstan.  The  use  of  the 
organ  probably  commenced  in  the  Greek 
church,  were  it  was  called  hydraulicon, 
or  the  water-organ.  The  first  organ  known 
in  Europe  was  sent  as  a  present  to  King 
Pepin  from  the  emperor  Constantine  Co- 
pronymus.  It  came  into  general  use  in 
France,  Germany,  and  England,  in  the 
tenth  century.  Soon  after  this,  music  be- 
gan again  to  be  cultivated  as  a  science, 
particularly  in  Italy,  where  Guido,  a  monk 
of  Arezzo,  first  conceived  the  idea  of  coun- 
terpoint, or  the  division  of  music  into 
parts  by  points  set  opposite  to  each  other, 
and  formed  the  scale  afterwards  known 
by  the  name  of  the  gamut.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  invention  of  the  time-table, 
and  afterwards  by  regular  compositions  of 
music.  But  the  exercise  of  the  art  was 
for  a  long  time  confined  to  sacred  music, 
during  which  period  secular  music  was 
followed  by  itinerant  poets  and  musicians, 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancients.  Of  this 
description  were  the  troubadours  in  France, 
the  Welsh  bards  or  harpers  in  England, 
and  the  Scotch  minstrels. 

MUSICIAN.  A  professor  of,  and  prac- 
titioner in  music ;  one  wlio  performs  on 
any  musical  instrument.  The  musicians 
in  London  form  one  of  the  city  compa- 
nies. 

MUSK.  An  oily,  friable,  brownish  sub- 
stance, generated  in  the  body  of  the  musk, 
of  the  most  powerful  and  penetrating 
smell,  which  is  used  as  a  perfume.  It  is 
partially  soluble  in  water,  which  receives 
its  smell,  and  also  in  alcohol,t.o  which,  how- 
ever, it  does  not  communicate  its  odour. 

MUSK.  A  quadruped,  in  size  and  figure 
resembling  a  small  roebuck.  It  is  a  native 
of  Thibet  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  and  is 
remarkable  for  having  an  oval  bag  in  the 


MUT 


255 


lower  part  of  its  belly,  containing  the  per- 
fume called  musk. 


MUSK-APPLE  and  MUSK-PEAR.     A 

sort  of  apple  and  pear  having  the  perfume 
of  musk  ;  also  other  plants  or  flowers,  so 
called  from  their  having  the  same  perfume, 
as  the  musk  cranesbill,  and  the  musk  ochra, 
a  West  Indian  plant. 

MUSKET.  A  commodious  sort  of  fire- 
arms used  by  soldiers.  The  regular  length 
of  a  musket  is  3  feet  8  inches  from  the 
muzzle  to  the  pan. 

MUSKET-SHOT.  The  distance  that  a 
musket  will  carry,  which  is  about  120 
fathoms. 

MUSK-OX.  An  animal  with  short  legs, 
and  long  hair,  that  resembles  the  Bison, 
and  inhabits  the  frigid  regions  of  North 
America. 

]MUSK-RAT.  An  animal  of  the  beaver 
kind,  which  yields  an  oily  fluid,  having 
the  perfume  of  musk.    Its  fur  is  valuable. 

I\IUSK-ROSE.  A  sort  of  rose,  from 
wliich  a  highly  odorous  oil  is  extracted  at 
Tunis. 

MUSLIN.     A  fine  sort  of  cotton  cloth, 

MUSaUETEERS.  Soldiers  armed  with 
muskets. 

MUSSEL.  A  testaceous  animal  found 
lodged  in  limestone,  or  in  deep  beds  under 
water. 

MUSSULMAN,  or  Moslem,  i.  e.  Faith- 
ful.    The  name  assumed  by  Mahometans. 

MUST.  The  newly  pressed  juice  of  the 
grape,  which,  by  a  chymical  analysis,  is 
found  to  contain  v.'ater,  sugar,  jelly,  glu- 
ten, and  bitartrate  of  potash. 

MUSTER.  A  reviev,'  of  soldiers  under 
arms. 

MUSTER-ROLL.  A  specific  list  of  the 
oflicers  and  men  in  every  regiment,  troop, 
or  company. 

MUTATIS  MUTANDIS.  Things  being 
changed  as  they  ought  to  be. 

MUTE  (in  Law).  Not  answering  direct- 
ly to  the  arraignment,  on  an  indictment  for 
felony.    A  prisoner  is  said  to  stand  mute 


256 


NAK 


when  he  will  not  put  himself  upon  the 
inquest. 

MUTE  (in  Mineralogy).  An  epithet  for 
minerals  which  do  not  ring  when  they  are 
struck. 

MUTES  (in  Grammar).  Letters  which 
cannot  form  a  sound  witJiout  a  vowel  after 
them,  as  b,  c,  d,  g,  k,  p,  q,  t. 

MUTES  (in  the  Grand  Seignior's  Se- 
raglio). Dumb  officers,  who  are  sent  to 
strangle,  witli  the  bow-sti'ing,  basliaws  or 
other  persons  who  fall  under  the  sultan's 
displeasure. 

MUTES  (among  Undertakers).  Those 
men  who  are  employed  to  stand  at  the 
door  of  the  deceased,  until  the  body  is 
carried  out. 

flIUTINY.  A  revolting  from  lawful  au- 
thority, particularly  among  soldiers  and 
sailors. 

MYRMELEON.  A  genus  of  insects  in 
the  Linntean  system,  one  species  of  which 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  its  larva. 


NAS 

which  has  the  property  of  preparing  a  sort 
of  pitfall  for  the  ensnaring  of  other  insects. 

MYRRH.  A  resinous  concrete  juice, 
procured  from  a  tree  growing  in  Arabia 
and  Abyssinia.  The  sort  of  tree  which 
yields  this  substance  is  not  exactly  known, 
but,  according  to  Bruce,  it  is  a  sort  of 
mimosa.  Myrrh  is  in  the  form  of  tears, 
brittle,  of  an  aromatic  taste,  not  melting 
when  heated,  and  burning  with  difficulty  ; 
yields  oil  by  distillation,  and  forms  a  yel- 
low solution  with  water. 

MYRTLE.  A  fragrant  shrub,  which, 
among  the  ancients,  was  sacred  to  Venus. 
The  common  myrtle  is  a  native  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Europe. 

MYRTUS.  The  generic  name  of  the 
myrtle  in  the  Linnasan  system  ;  includes 
also  among  its  species  the  pimento  or  all- 
spice tree. 

MYTHOLOGY.  The  fabulous  history 
of  the  heathen  deities  and  heroes,  and 
divine  honours  paid  to  them. 


N. 


N,  the  thirteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
stood  as  a  numeral  for  900,  and,  with  a 
dash  over  it,  thus,  N,  9000.  N,  or  No. 
stands  as  an  abbreviation  for  numero, 
number ;  also  for  north,  note,  noun,  &c. 

NABOB,  or  NAVOUB,  An  Indian 
word  for  a  deputy  ;  a  title  of  dignity  and 
power  applied  to  tliose  who  act  under  the 
soubahs  or  viceroys. 

NABONASSAR.  First  king  of  Baby- 
lon, in  whose  reign,  according  to  Ptolemy, 
astronomical  observations  were  made ; 
whence  an  sera  was  formed  from  this 
king's  reign,  called  the  aera  of  Nabonas- 
sar,  dated  747  years  before  Christ. 

NADIR  (in  Astronomy).  That  point  in 
the  heavens  opposite  to  the  zenith,  and 
directly  under  our  feet,  or  a  point  in  a 
right  line,  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  our 
feet  through  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and 
terminating  in  the  lower  hemisphere. 

NAIL  (in  Anatomy).  The  horny  lamina 
on  the  extremity  of  the  fingers  and  toes. 

NAIL  (with  Ironmongers).  Spikes  of 
iron  and  brass,  having  heads,  and  fitted  for 
binding  several  pieces  of  wood  together. 

NAIL  (in  Commerce).  A  measure  of 
length,  containing  the  sixteenth  part  of  a 
yard. 

NAKED.  A  term  in  Architecture,  ap- 
plied either  to  a  column  or  a  v/all,  to 
denote  the  face  or  plain  surface  from 
which  the  projections  take  their  rise. 


NANKIN.  A  well  known  stuff,  so  call- 
ed from  Nanking,  a  city  in  China. 

NAPE.     The  hinder  part  of  the  neck. 

NAPHTHA.  A  native  combustible  li- 
quid, and  one  of  the  thinnest  of  the  liquid 
bitumens  issuing  from  the  earth,  and  found 
on  the  borders  of  springs  on  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  many  other  places. 
It  feels  greasy,  has  a  bituminous  smell, 
takes  fire  on  the  approach  of  flame,  and  is 
so  light  as  to  float  on  the  water. 

NARCISSUS.  A  genus  of  plants,  which 
is  cultivated  in  gardens  on  account  of  its 
sweet-smelling  flowers,  which  are  either 
yellow  or  white. 

NARCOTICS  (in  Medicine).  Soporife- 
rous  and  stupifying  medicines,  as  opium 
and  its  preparations. 

NARROW.  A  small  passage  between 
two  lands. 

NARVAL.  An  animal  of  the  whale 
tribe,  remarkable  for  its  single  tooth  stand- 
ing out  like  the  horn  of  the  unicorn. 


NASTURTIUM.  A  plant,  which  is  cul- 
tivated in  gardens,  and  bears  a  flower  of 
a  deep  crimson  colour.    The  seeds,  when 


NAV 


NAV 


257 


bruised,  have  a  pungent  smell  that  causes 
sneezing. 

NATIONAL  DEBT.  Loans  advanced 
to  government,  which  constitute  the  funds 
or  stocks,  for  which  interest  is  paid  from 
revenues  set  apart  for  the  purpose. 

NATRON.    Native  carbonate  of  soda. 

NATURAL  HISTORY.  That  branch 
of  knowledge  which  treats  of  the  charac- 
teristics or  distinctive  marks  of  each  indi- 
vidual object,  whether  animal,  vegetable, 
or  mineral  j  as  also  of  its  peculiar  habits, 
qualities,  uses,  &c. 

NATURALiZATIOx\  (in  Law).  The 
admitting  af  an  alien  into  the  number  of 
natural  subjects. 

NATURAL  ORDERS  (in  Botany).  A 
mode  of  classifying  plants  according  to 
their  natiual  or  more  obvious  character- 
istics. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  That 
branch  of  science  which  treats  of  the  pow- 
ers of  nature,  the  properties  of  natural 
bodies,  and  their  actions  on  one  another, 
comprehending  under  it  the  several  divi- 
sions of  astronomy,  chymistiy,  electricity, 
galvanism,  hydraulics  or  hydrostatics, 
magnetism,  mechanics,  optics,  pneuma- 
tics, &c. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  The  sci- 
ence of  shipbuilding,  comprehending  the 
theory  of  delineating  marine  vessels  upon 
a  plane  surface,  and  the  art  of  framing 
them  upon  the  stocks  according  to  the 
proportions  exhibited  in  a  regular  design. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE,  History 
OF.  The  first  example  of  any  construction 
fitted  to  be  borne  up  by  the  waters  is  re- 
corded in  Scripture  in  the  case  of  the  ark 
built  by  Noah  under  the  divine  assistance 
and  commands.  As  this  was  built  by  more 
than  human  aid,  it  is  not  surprising  tliat 
we  hear  of  no  farther  attempts  at  building 
vessels  of  any  kind  until  the  nation  of  the 
Egyptians  was  formed,  who  doubtless  pro- 
fited by  those  arts  and  sciences  which,  as 
is  generally  admitted,  were  practised  be- 
fore the  fiood,  and  transmitted  by  Noah 
and  his  family  to  his  posterity.  The  EgAp- 
tians,  we  are  told,  cons'  ;d  the  barks 
which  they  used   on  ,ile  of  planks 

cutout  of  the  acacia,  ^  ,ptian  thorn; 
the  planks  were  nev  tare,  measuring 

about  three  feet  uach  way,  and,  being 
lapped  over  each  other  like  tiles,  were 
fastened  together  with  wooden  pins.  The 
joints  and  seams  were  carefully  calked 
with  the  papyrus,  and  benches  of  the  same 
material  were  formed  for  the  rowers.  As 
the  nacessity  of  some  impelling  and  direct- 
ing force  in  aid  of  human  labour  was  soon 
felt,  a  rudder  and  a  sail  were  quickly 


added.  The  sail,  which  was  made  of  the 
papyrus,  was  fastened  to  a  pole  serving  as 
a  mast,  which  was  made  of  the  acantha. 
As  such  vessels  were  incapable  of  stem- 
ming the  current  of  the  river  when  the 
wind  was  unfavourable,  they  used  to  be 
towed  by  persons  on  the  bank,  and  when 
they  went  with  the  current,  the  Egj'ptians 
used  to  accelerate  their  motion  by  tying 
a  hurdle  of  tamarisk  to  the  prow  of  the 
vessel,  and  letting  it  down  into  the  water ; 
the  stream  acted  on  the  hurdle  more 
strongly  than  it  would  on  the  sides  of  the 
vessel,  and  thus  increased  the  velocity  of 
its  motion  very  materially.  In  order  to 
preserve  a  due  balance  between  the  head 
and  the  stern,  which  might  otherwise 
have  been  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the 
hurdle,  they  caused  a  stone  of  consider- 
able magnitude,  pierced  through  the  mid- 
dle, to  be  suspended  by  a  I'ope  from  the 
stern,  which  enabled  them  to  swim  nearly 
with  an  even  keel. 

The  first  contrivance  to  supply  the  place 
of  a  commercial  vessel  is  generally  ad- 
mitted to  have  been  a  kind  of  raft,  or 
collection  of  trees  fastened  together  with 
ropes,  made  from  the  bark.  But  as  in  a 
structure  so  rude  they  were  altogether 
without  the  power  of  directing  their  course, 
they  set  about  remedying  this  inconveni- 
ence, by  putting  a  few  thick  planks  to 
the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet  in  the  water 
between  the  joists  of  the  trees  which  com- 
posed the  raft.  These,  being  raised  or 
lowered  at  the  pleasure  of  the  pilot,  served 
in  som-e  measure  the  purpose  proposed. 
With  no  better  contrivances  than  this,  the 
Phoenicians  are  said  to  have  visited  the 
islands  of  Sicily,  Corsica,  and  various 
other  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  is 
also  worthy  of  observation,  that  floats  an- 
swering to  the  description  of  these  were 
found  in  the  south  seas  in  the  last  century. 

Although  the  Greeks  were  not  remark- 
able for  a  spirit  of  commercial  enterprise, 
yet  the  remains  of  antiquity  furnish  us 
with  ample  evidence  of  the  advances 
wliicli  they  made  in  the  art  of  ship-build- 
ing. They  had  vessels  of  diiferent  forms 
and  sizes,  distinguished,  according  to  their 
use,  into  ships  of  passage,  ships  of  burden, 
and  ships  of  war.  The  latter  were  like- 
wise designated  triremes,  quadremes,  and 
quinquiremes,  according  to  the  number  of 
banks  of  oars,  which  were  raised  in  a 
sloping  direction  one  above  another.  Those 
which  had  most  banks  were  built  highest, 
and  rowed  with  the  greatest  strength.  The 
Greeks,  in  all  probability,  derived  their 
knowledge  of  ship-building  from  the  Car- 
thaginians, a  warlike  and  trading  people 


258 


NAV 


descended  from  the  Phoenicians,  who  were 
celebrated  for  their  skill  in  the  construc- 
tion and  management  of  vessels.  In  con- 
sequence of  their  contests  with  the  Romans, 
the  latter,  after  having  suffered  one  or  two 
defeats  in  naval  engagements,  acquired 
the  art  of  building  ships  from  their  rivals, 
and  successfully  employed  it  to  their  over- 
throw. 

The  modern  art  of  ship-building  appears 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  northern 
tribes,  among  whom  we  find  that  trees 
hollowed  out  like  canoes  were  first  used. 
The  crusades  first  gave  the  impulse  to  im- 
provements in  ship-building,  which,  not- 
withstanding, continued  for  some  time  at 
a  low  ebb.  Even  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
the  First,  ships  were  very  insignificant  in 
point  of  size,  for  it  appears  that  forty  men 
were  deemed  sufficient  to  man  the  largest 
vessels  in  England.  The  states  of  Venice 
and  Genoa  probably  first  increased  the 
size  of  their  ships,  but  they  were  soon  sur- 
passed by  the  Spaniards,  who  first  em- 
ployed cannon.  The  Hanse  Towns  made 
such  advances  in  naval  architecture,  that 
in  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  usual  for 
them  to  let  their  ships  out  to  foreign 
princes.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  ships 
of  considerable  size  began  to  be  built  in 
England,  and  they  continued  to  increase  in 
magnitude  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
when  two  very  large  ships  were  built, 
namely,  the  Regent,  of  1000  tons  burthen, 
and  the  Henry  Grace  Dieu,  which  was 
larger.  From  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the 
navy  of  Great  Britain  acquired  great  im- 
portance, and  in  consequence  of  the  wars 
which  have  been  since  carried  on  in  seve- 
ral subsequent  reigns,  it  has  risen  to  its 
present  state. 

In  1673  the  British  navy  consisted  of 
83  ships,  of  which  58  were  of  the  line  ;  in 
1689  there  were  173  ships,  and  in  1791, 
above  430. 

NAVAL  CROWN.  A  crown  among 
the  Romans,  given  to  him  who  first  boarded 
an  enemy's  ship ;  it  was  a  circle  of  gold 
representing  the  beaks  of  ships. 


NAVE.    The  body  or  main  part  of  a 
church. 


NAV 

NAVIGATION.  The  art  of  conducting 
a  vessel  at  sea  from  one  port  to  another. 
This  is  navigation,  properly  so  called,  to 
distinguish  it  from  common  navigation  or 
coasting,  that  is,  conducting  vessels  from 
one  port  to  another  lying  on  the  same 
coast;  and  inland  navigation,  which  is 
performed  by  small  craft  on  canals.  There 
is  also  a  submarine  navigation,  that  is,  the 
art  of  sailing  under  water  by  means  of  the 
diving  bell,  &c.  Navigation  is  divided 
into  theoretical  navigation,  which  treats 
of  the  ditference  of  latitude,  tiie  difference 
of  longitude,  the  reckoning  or  distance  run, 
the  course  or  rhumb  run  on,  besides  the 
different  modes  of  sailing — plain  sailing,  in 
which  the  plane  chart  is  made  use  of;  Mer- 
cator's  or  globular  sailing,  in  which  Merca- 
tor's  chart  is  used,  &c.  Practical  navigation 
has  respect  to  the  places  sailed  to,  or  the 
waters  sailed  over,  and  is  either  proper, 
common,  inland,  &;c.  as  before  explained. 
NAVIGATION,  History-  of.  Naviga- 
tion and  commerce  without  doubt  took 
their  rise  together  ;  for  the  desire  of  gain, 
being  one  of  the  most  powerful  incentives 
to  action,  would  naturally  lead  men  to 
explore  distant  countries.  Hence  we  find 
that  the  Phoenicians,  particularly  those  of 
Tyre,  who  were  the  first  trading  people  on 
record,  were  also  the  first  to  make  fleets, 
and  by  the  aid  of  astronomical  observa- 
tions to  extend  their  voyages  to  some  dis- 
tance from  tlieir  own  shores.  The  Cartha- 
ginians followed  the  course  of  their  an- 
cestors the  Tyrians,  and  addicted  them- 
selves so  thoroughly  to  trade  and  navigation 
that  they  surpassed  every  other  nation  of 
antiquity  in  the  cultivation  of  these  two 
arts.  They  first  made  the  quadremes,  or 
four -oared  galleys,  and  probably  were  the 
first  who  made  cables  for  their  large 
vessels  of  the  shrub  spatum.  They  like- 
wise pushed  their  discoveries  to  a  vast 
extent.  They  were  perfectly  acquainted 
with  the  Mediterranean  and  all  the  ports 
in  it,  and  proceeded  to  the  westward  far- 
ther than  any  other  nation.  Britain  and 
the  Canaries  were  known  to  them,  and  in 
the  opinion  of  some  they  even  went  as 
far  as  America.  The  formidable  fleets  they 
fitted  out,  the  quantity  of  shipping  they 
always  kept  in  their  employ,  and  the 
honour  they  so  long  eryoyed  of  being  the 
masters  of  the  sea,  sufficiently  attest  the 
advances  wliich  they  made  in  navigation. 
As  the  Greeks  and  Ronians  were  more 
addicted  to  war  than  commerce,  they  em- 
ployed their  shipping  principally  in  trans- 
porting their  men  to  the  countries  they 
were  going  to  attack,  or  in  engaging  their 
i  enemies  at  sea.     Tliat  the  Athenians  ex- 


NAVIGATION. 


259 


celled  all  the  other  Greeks  in  their  mari- 
time warfare  is  evident  from  the  victories, 
which  they  gained  over  tlie  Persians  by 
sea.    As  to  the  llomans,  they  are  said  by 
Polybius  to  Iiave  been  utter  strangers  to 
naval  affairs,  and  quite  ignorant  of  ship- 
building, before  tlie  first  Punic  war,  when 
a  Carthaginian  galley,  having  accidentally 
stranded  on  the  coast  of  Italy,  was  taken 
by  them,  and  served  as  a  model  for  the 
construction  of  vessels..   Of  this  they  made 
so  good  a  use  as  to  raise  a  fleet  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  galleys,  with  which 
they  were  enabled  to  beat  the  Carthagi- 
nians on  their  own  element.    It  does  not 
appear,  however,  that  either  of  these  peo- 
ple went  to,  any  distance  in  their  vessels, 
either  for  purposes  of  trade  or  curiosity. 
The  only  voyage  of  discovery  we  read  of 
in  antiquity  was  that  made  by  Nearchus, 
under  the  auspices  of  Alexander.    In  all 
other  countries,  navigation  was  encouraged 
solely  for  the  purposes  of  cotnmerce,  as 
by  the  Egyptians  and  the  Byzantines,  and 
subsequently  by  the  Venetians  and  Geno- 
ese until  the  time  of  the  crusades,  when 
a  spirit  of  adventure  was  excited  through- 
out   all   Europe,   and  preparations   were 
made    for    voyages    to    the    Holy  Land, 
which  led  to  tlie  improvement  of  naviga- 
tion.   The  laws  of  Oleron,  framed  and 
established  by  our  king  Richard  I.,  show 
tliat  a  system  of  maritime  policy  was  now 
tliought  necessary.     Of  the  progress  of  the 
English  navy,  it  suffices  here  to  observe, 
tliat  the  first  statutes  respecting  it  were 
passed  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  and  that 
from  that  period  to  the  present  it  has  been 
the  object  of  government  to  raise  it  to  the 
highest  pitch  of  perfection.    As  to  the  art 
of  navigation  generally,  nothing  contribu- 
"^led  so  much  to  its  advancement  as  the  in- 
vention of  the  mariner's  compass,  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  which  gave  so  great  a 
facility  to  the  exploring  of  unknown  re- 
gions.    From  this  time  many  considerable 
voyages  were  made,  particularly  by  the 
Portuguese,  under  the  auspices  of  Henry 
Duke    of  Visco,    who    was    particularly 
skilled  in  cosmography,  and  employed  a 
person  from  the  island  of  Majorca  to  teach 
navigation  and  to  make  instruments  and 
charts.  In  the  subsequent  reign  of  John  lU 
one  Martin  de    Bohemia,  a  Portuguese, 
native  of  the  island  of  Fayal,  a  pupil  of 
Eegiomontanus,  calculated,  about  1485,  for 
the  use  of  navigators,  tables  of  the  sun's 
declination,  and  recommended  tlie  astro- 
labe for  taking  observations  at  sea.  About 
the  same  time,  Columbus  conceived  the 
idea  of  exploring  a  passage  to  India  by 
flailing  directly  towards  the  west  across 


the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  being  furnished 
with  a  small  armament  of  three  ships  by 
Fenlinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  he  set 
sail  in  August,  1492,  and  steered  directly 
for  the  Canary  Islands  ;  thence  holding  his 
course  due  west,  he  stretched  away  into 
unfrequented  and  unknown  seas .  After  en- 
countering incredible  difficulties  and  hard- 
ships from  the  elements,  and  a  scarcity  of 
provisions,  but  above  all  from  the  muti- 
nous spirit  of  his  crew,  he  arrived  at  Gua- 
nami,  one  of  the  large  cluster  of  islands 
called  the  Lucaya,  or  Bahama  Isles.  He 
also  discovered  Cuba,  Hispaniola,  and  seve- 
ral other  small  islands,  and,  having  left  a 
colony  in  a  fort  at  Hispaniola,  returned 
to  Spain  in  Marcli,  1493.  In  September 
following,  he  set  out  on  his  second  voyage, 
and  sailed  by  the  Leeward  Islands  to 
Hispaniola  5  and  in  a  third  voyage,  under- 
taken in  149S,  he  discovered  the  continent 
of  America.  In  the  same  year,  Vasco  de 
Gama  returned  to  Lisbon  from  a  voyage 
to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  As  from  practice  the  art  of  navi- 
gation was  thus  materially  improved,  so 
likewise  addilibnal  eflbrts  were  now  made 
to  advance  it  IhcoreticaUy,  and  to  extend 
its  cultivation »  The  emperor  Charles  V. 
founded  a  lecture  at  Seville  for  the  im- 
provement of  navigation,  which  derived 
much  advantage  from  the  discovery  of  the 
variation  of  the  compass,  and  the  use  of 
the  cross  stafi'.  The  subject  also  now  be- 
gan to  engage  the  pens  of  the  learned. 
Two  treatises,  the  first  of  the  kind,  con- 
taining a  system  of  the  art,  were  published 
in  Spanish,  the  first  by  Pedro  de  Medina, 
at  Valladolid,  in  1545,  called  'Arte  de 
A^avegar,'  the  other  at  Seville,  in  1556, 
by  Martin  Cortes,  under  the  title  of '  Breve 
Compendio  de  la  Sphera  y  de  la  Arte  de 
Navegar,  &c.'  which  was  translated  into 
English  and  passed  through  several  im- 
pressions. . ,  _ 

The  finding'  of  the  longitude,  which  is 
still  a  desideratum  in  the  art,  had  even 
early  engaged  the  attention  of  writers  ;  for 
we  find  that  Pedro  Nunez,  or  Nonius, 
published  a  treatise  on  this  subject  in  1537 
in  the  Portuguese  language,  which  was 
afterwards  printed  at  Basil  in  Latin,  under 
the  title  of  '  De  Arte  et  Ratione  Navi- 
gandi.'  In  this  work  the  problem  of  deter- 
mining the  latitude  from  two  observations 
of  the  sun's  altitude  and  the  intermediate 
.  azimuth  is  resolved.  In  1557,  Bourne 
;  published  his  '  Regiment  for  the  Sea,'  in- 
tended as  a  supplement  to  Cortes ;  and  in 
1581, Michael  Coignet,  a  native  of  Antwerp, 
published  his  '  Instruction  Nouvelle  des 
I  Points  plus  excellens  ~ei  ^necessaires  tou- 


260 


NAU 


NEE 


chant  I'Art  de  Naviger,'  intended  as  an 
improvement  upon  Medina.  Tlie  discov- 
ery of  the  dipping-needle  was  explained 
by  Robert  Norman,  in  his  '  New  Attrac- 
tive,' a  pamphlet,  to  which  is  commonly 
subjoined  William  Burrough's  '  Discourse 
of  the  Variation  of  the  Compass.'  In  1594, 
Captain  John  Davis  published  a  small 
treatise  entitled  the  'Seaman's  Secrets,' 
which  was  much  esteemed  at  that  time. 

As  the  errors  of  the  plane  chart  had  been 
much  complained  of  by  those  who  were 
conversant  with  the  subject,  Gerard  Mer- 
cator  was  led  to  construct  a  universal  map, 
for  the  pm-pose  of  obviating  those  objec- 
tions, the  use  of  which  was  afterwards 
fully  illustrated  by  Mr.  Edward  Wright  of 
Cambridge,  who,  in  his  '  Correction  of  cer- 
tain Errors  in  Navigation,'  printed  in  1599, 
showed  the  true  method  of  dividing  the 
meridian  from  Cambridge,  as  also  the  man- 
ner of  constructing  the  table,  and  its  uses 
in  navigation.  The  method  of  approxima- 
tion by  what  is  called  the  middle  latitude 
is  mentioned  by  Gunter  in  his  works, 
printed  in  1623,  but  was  not  brought  into 
general  use  until  some  time  after.  The  ap- 
plication of  logarithms  to  navigation  was 
also  made  by  this  author  in  a  variety  of 
ways  ;  but  Thomas  Addison,  in  his  '  Arith- 
metical Navigation,'  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  apply  logarithmic  tables  to  the 
cases  of  sailing.  From  this  time  several 
writers  in  England  and  elsewhere  contrib- 
uted to  the  improvement  of  the  science,  as 
Gellibrand,  in  a  '  Discourse  Mathematical 
on  the  Variation  of  the  Needle  ;'  Norwood, 
in  his  '  Seaman's  Practice  j'  John  Baptist 
Riccioli,  at  Bologna,  in  1661;  Father  Mil- 
let Dechals,  in  1674  and  1677  ;  M.  Bougier, 
in  1693  ;  William  Jones,  in  a  '  New  Com- 
pendium of  the  whole  Art  of  Navigation  ;' 
Peter  Bouque,  in  his  '  Nouveau  Traite 
de  Navigation;'  and  I'r.  Robertson's 
'  Elements  of  Navigation,'  to  whicli  was 
added  a  valuable  preface  by  Dr.  James 
Wilson, 

NAVIGATOR.  One  who  follows  the 
practical  part  of  navigation  ;  particularly 
one  who  goes  on  voyages  of  discovery. 

NAUMACerA.  The  representation  of 
a  sea  fight,  which  among  the  Romans 
formed  a  part  of  the  Circensian  games. 

NAUTICAL.  An  epithet  for  what  be- 
longs to  the  navy  or  navigation,  as  tlie 
Nautical  Almanack,  which  in  Enirland  is 
published  under  the  direction  of  tlie  Board 
of  Longitude,  for  the  use  of  inariners. 

NAUTILUS.  A  genus  of  testaceous 
worms,  one  species  of  which,  called  the 
sail  shell,  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  sea 
in  its  shell,  by  the  help  of  a  membrane 


which  it  extends,  so  as  to  make  it  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  sail. 

NAVF.  The  whole  naval  establish- 
ment of  any  country,  comprehending  the 
ships,  oflicers,  men,  stores,  &c.  &c.  That 
part  of  the  navy  of  England,  which  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  title  of  the  Royal  Navy, 
comprehends  all  ships  of  war  and  their 
crews,  &c. 

NAVY  BOARD  (in  the  English  Navy) 
consists  of  a  lord  high  admiral  or  lords 
commissioners,  with  a  number  of  inferior 
officers. 

NAZARENES,  A  term  of  reproach 
among  the  Jews  for  our  Saviour  and  liis 
disciples. 

NAZARITES.  A  sect  among  the  Jews 
afiectmg  certain  peculiarities. 

N.  B.  i.  e.  NoTA  Bene.     Take  notice. 

NEAP  TIDES.  Tides  in  the  second 
and  last  quarter  of  the  moon,  not  so  high 
as  the  spring  tides. 

NEAT.  All  kinds  of  beeves,  as  the  ox, 
cow,  &;c. 

NEAT'S  FOOT  OIL,  An  oil  extracted 
from  the  feet  of  oxen  or  cows. 

NEAT'S  LEATHER.  Leather  made 
of  the  skins  of  cattle. 

NEAT  WEIGHT.  The  weight  of  a 
commodity  without  the  bag,  &:c. 

NEBUL.^.  Spots  in  the  heavens,  some 
of  which  consist  of  clusters  of  exceedingly 
small  stars,  others  appear  like  luminous 
spots  of  different  forms. 

NECK.  That  part  between  the  head 
and  the  body. 

NECK.  Any  thing  long  in  the  form  of 
the  neck,  as  the  neck  of  a  bottle,  a  violin, 
&c. 

NECROLOGY.  A  register  of  the  deaths 
of  benefactors  in  a  monastery  ;  also  a  reg- 
ister of  distinguished  persons  who  die 
within  a  certain  period. 

NECROMANCY.  A  sort  of  magic  prac- 
tised by  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans, 
by  which  they  attempted  to  raise  the  dead 
or  make  them  appear. 

NECTAR  (in  Mythology).  The  drink 
of  the  gods,  according  to  the  poets. 

NECTAR  (in  Medicine).  A  drink  of  a 
delightful  taste,  smell,  and  color. 

NlilCTARrNE.  A  sort  of  peach,  having 
a  smooth  rind  and  a  firm  flesh. 

NECTARY,  The  melliferous  part  of  a 
vegetable, 

NEEDLE.  An  instrument  of  steel  for 
sewing,  having  a  sharp  point  for  piercing, 
and  an  eye  to  receive  the  thread  ;  also  an 
instrument  for  knitting,  wjiich  is  a  simple 
steel  wire. 

NEEDLE,  or  Magnetical  Needle. 
A  needle  touched  with  the  loadstone,  and 


NEP 

suspended  on  a  pivot,  on  which,  playing 
at  liberty,  it  directs  itself  to  the  north  and 
south  of  the  horizon.  Magnetical  needles 
are  called  horizontal  when  balanced  equal- 
ly on  both  sides,  and  inclinatory  or  dipping 
when  they  are  constructed  so  as  to  show 
tiie  dip  of  the  needle,  or  how  far  it  points 
below  the  horizon. 

NEGATIVE.  An  epithet  for  what  im- 
plies negation. 

NEGATIVE  ELECTRICITY.  That 
state  of  bodies,  in  which  they  are  deprived 
of  some  portion  of  the  electricity  which 
they  naturally  contain. 

NEGATIVE  PREGNANT  (in  Law). 
A  negative  which  implies  an  affirmation, 
as  when  a  person  deuies  having  done  a 
thing  in  a  certain  manner  or  at  a  cer- 
tain time,  as  stated  in  the  declaration, 
wliicli  implies  that  he  did  it  in  sojne  man- 
ner. 

NEGATIVE  QUANTITIES  (in  Alge- 
bra). Quantities  ha\'ing  the  negative  sign 
set  before  tiiem. 

NEGATIVE  SIGN  (in  Algebra).  A 
sign  marked  thus  — ,  to  denote  less  than 
nothing. 

NEGOTIATION.  The  conducting  a 
treaty,  either  in  political  or  commercial 
matters. 

NEGROES.  Tlie  black  inhabitants  of 
Africa,  having  woolly  hair  and  a  peculiar 
complexion.  They  have  hitherto  been  the 
objects  of  the  inhuman  traffic  called  the 
slave-trade.  TJiey  are  very  numerous  in 
the  central  parts  of  Africa,  and  it  appears 
by  the  late  Travels  of  Denliam  and  Clap- 
perton  and  others,  that  powerful  king- 
doms exist  there,  in  a  state  further  advan- 
ced toward  civilization,  than  was  suppos- 
ed. It  has  been  imagined  that  the  ne- 
groes are  inferior  in  capacity  to  the  other 
races  of  mankind,  but  a  better  knowledge 
of  Africa  may  throw  doubt  upon  this 
opinion. 

NEAI.  CON.  An  abbreviation  for  nem- 
ine  contradicente,  that  is,  no  one  opposing, 
applied  to  the  decisions  of  the  English  par- 
liament and  other  public  assemblies. 

NEM.  DISS.  An  abbreviation  for  nom- 
ine dissentiente,  no  one  dissenting,  that 
is,  with  unanimous  consent. 

NEPHRITE.  A  sort  of  stone  of  the 
talc  kind,  of  a  dark  leek-green  colour, 
verging  to  blue.  It  is  found  in  China, 
America,  and  Egypt,  and  is  highly  prized 
by  the  Hindoos  and  Chinese,  by  whom  it 
is  made  into  talismans. 

NEPHRITIC.    Relating  to  the  kidneys. 

NE  PLUS  ULTRA,  i.  e.  no  farther.  The 
extremity,  or  utmost  extent  to  which  any 
thing  can  go. 


NEW 


261 


NEPTUNE.  The  god  of  the  sea,  broth- 
er of  Jupiter,  in  the  heathen  mythology, 
who  is  known  by  his  trident. 


NERITA.  A  sort  of  testaceous  worms, 
whose  shells  are  adorned  with  a  beautiful 
painting  in  miniature. 

NERVES  (in  Anatomy).  Long  white 
cords,  the  medullary  prolongations  of  the 
brain  which  serve  for  sensation. 

NERVES  (in  Botany).  Long  tough 
strings,  which  run  lengthv.ays  in  the  leaf 
of  a  plant. 

NERVOUS.  An  epithet  for  what  re- 
lates to  the  nerves,  as  the  nervous  system, 
nervous  disorders,  &c. 

NEST.  The  lodging  prepared  by  birds 
for  incubation  and  receiving  their  young. 

NET.  A  device  for  catching  either  fish 
or  fowl,  formed  by  threads  interlaced. 

NETTINGS,  "small  ropes  seized  to- 
gether gratewise  with  rope-yarn,  to  stretch 
in  ditferent  parts  of  a  ship. 

NETTLE.     A  stincins  herb. 

NET  WEIGHT.     See  Neat  Weight. 

NEUROPTERA.  An  order  of  insects 
in  the  Linnrean  system,  including  those 
which  have  the  wings  reticulate,  as  the 
dragon  fly,  the  day  fly,  the  lion  ant,  &c. 

NEUTRALlZATIOxN  (in  Chymistry). 
The  process  by  which  an  acid  and  an  al- 
kali are  so  combined  as  to  disguise  each 
other's  properties. 

NEUTRAL  SALTS.  Salts  which  par- 
take of  tlie  nature  of  both  an  acid  and  an 
alkali. 

NEWFOUNDLAND  DOG.  A  very  sa- 
gacious kind  of  spaniel  that  is  web-footed, 
and  an  excellent  swimmer. 

NEWSPAPER.  A  periodical  publica- 
tion, which  appears  once  or  oftener  in  the 
week,  containing  an  account  of  the  politi- 
cal and  domestic  occurrences  of  the  time. 

NEW  STYLE,  abbreviated  N.  S.  The 
Gregorian  method  of  reckoning  the  days 
of  the  year,  so  as  to  adjust  the  odd  hours 
and  minutes  in  the  period  of  the  sun's 
revolution. 


262 


NIG 


NIS 


NEWT.  A  small  animal  of  the  lizard 
tribe. 

NEWTONIAN  PHILOSOPHY.  The 
doctrine  of  the  universe  as  explained  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  respecting  the  proper- 
ties, laws,  affections,  forces,  motions,  &c. 
of  bodies,  both  celestial  and  terrestrial. 
The  chief  parts  of  the  Newtonian  philoso- 
phy are  explained  by  the  author  in  his 
Principia,  or  Principles  of  Natural  Philo- 
sophy. 

NICENE  CREED.  A  particular  creed 
formed  at  the  first  general  council  assem- 
bled at  the  city  of  Nice  by  Constantino 
the  Great,  a.  d.  315.  This  creed  has  since 
been  adopted  by  the  church  of  England. 

NICKEL.  A  metallic  substance,  most- 
ly fourid  in  a  metallic  state,  but  sometimes 
in  that  of  an  oxide.  Its  ores  have  a  cop- 
pery red  color. 

NICKEL  KUPFER,  or  the  Sulphuret 
OF  Nickel,  is  a  compound  of  nickel, 
arsenic,  and  a  sulphuret  of  iron, 

NICTITANT  MEMBRANE  (in  Com- 
parative Anatomy).  A  thin  membrane 
chiefly  found  in  birds  and  fishes,  which 
covers  the  eyes  of  these  animals,  so  as  to 
shelter  them  from  the  dust  and  excess  of 
Jight. 

NIGHT  (in  Law).  The  period  of  dark- 
ness, when  a  man's  face  cannot  be  dis- 
cerned. 

NIGHTHAWK.  An  American  bird, 
that  makes  its  appearance  at  evening, 
and  is  seen  high  in  the  air,  flying  about 
in  pursuit  of  insects.  It  has  been  erro- 
neously supposed  that  it  was  the  wliip- 
poorwill. 


NIGHTINGALE.  A  small  brown  Eu- 
ropean bird,  that  sings  beautifully  during 
the  night. 


NIGHTSHADE,  or  Deadlv  Night- 
shade. A  poisonous  plant,  bearing  a  bell- 
shaped  corolla,  from  the  leaves  of  which 
painters  extract  a  fine  green. 

NIHIL  DIGIT  (in  Law).  A  failure  on 
the  part  of  the  defendant  to  put  in  an  an- 
swer to  the  plaintiff's  declaration,  &c.,  by 
which  omission,  judgment  is  of  course 
had  against  him. 

NILGHAU,  or  NYLGHAU.  The  Per- 
sian name  for  a  species  of  antelope,  the 
antilope  picta  of  Linnteus,  having  short 
horns  bent  forward,  and  the  upper  and 
under  parts  of  the  neck  maned. 


NIGPITM  ARE.  A  heavy,  pressing  sen- 
sation on  the  breast  during  the  night,  to 
which  nervous  persons  are  subject. 


NIMBUS  (among  Antiquarians).  A 
circle  observed  on  some  medals,  or  round 
the  head  of  some  emperors,  answering  to 
the  circles  of  light  drawn  around  the  ima- 
ges of  saints. 

NISI  PRIUS.  In  England,  a  com- 
mission directed  to  the  judges  of  assize, 
empowering  them  to  try  all  questions  of 
fact  issuing  out  of  the  courts  of  Westmin- 
ster, that  are  then  ready  for  trial  ;  and 
as,  by  the  course  of  the  court,  all  causes  are 
heard  at  Westminster,  the  clause  is  added 
in  such  writs.  Nisi  prius  justiciarii  ad  capi- 
endasassisas  venerint ;  that  is,  Unless  be- 
fore the  day  fixed  the  justices  come  into 
the  county  in  question ;  whence  the  writ, 


NOC 


NOR 


263 


as  well  as  the  commission,  have  received 
the  name. 

NITRATES.  Salts  formed  of  nitric 
acid  with  salifiable  bases,  as  the  nitrate  of 
potash,  soda,  &:c. 

NITRE,  vulgarly  called  Saltpetre. 
A  neutral  salt,  being  a  crystallized,  pel- 
lucid, and  whitish  substance,  of  an  acrid 
and  bitterish  taste,  impressing  a  strong 
sense  of  coldness  on  the  tongue.  It  is 
found  ready  formed  in  the  East  Indies  and 
in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  but  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  nitre  in  common 
use  is  produced  by  the  combination  of 
substances  in  suitable  situations,  which 
tend  to  produce  nitric  acid,  particularly 
where  animal  matter  becomes  decompos- 
ed by  the  air,  such  as  slaughter-houses, 
drains,  and  the  like. 

NITRIC  ACID.  A  heavy,  yellow  li- 
quid, procured  by  the  chymical  combina- 
tion of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  gas.  Diluted 
with  the  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids,  it 
forms  the  well  known  liquid  aquafortis. 

NITROGEN,  or  Azote.  The  principle 
of  nitre  in  its  gaseous  state,  which  consti- 
tutes four  fifths  of  the  volume  of  atmos- 
pheric air.  It  has  neither  smell  nor  taste, 
and  is  not  to  be  procured  in  a  separate 
state  ;  but  is  renrarkable  for  the  properties 
of  extinguishing  flame  and  animal  life. 

NITRO  MURIATIC  ACID.  A  com- 
pound of  nitric  and  muriatic  acids,  for- 
merly called  aqua  regia. 

NITROUS  ACID.  An  acid  which  has 
less  of  oxygen  than  the  nitric  acid. 

NITROUS  OXIDE  OF  AZOTE.  A 
gaseous  substance,  best  procured  from  ni- 
trate of  ammonia,  which  if  inhaled  produ- 
ces an  exhilarating  and  intoxicating  effect. 

NOBILITY.  In  England,  those  who 
hold  a  rank  above  the  degree  of  a  knight, 
and  are  distinguished  from  the  commonal- 
ty by  titles  and  privileges. 

NOBLE.  A  coin,  value  6.?.  8d.,  which 
was  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 


NOCTANTER.     By  night. 

NOCTURNAL.  An  epithet  for  what 
belongs  to  the  night,  as  a  nocturnal  arch, 
the  arch  described  by  the  sun  or  a  star  in 
the  night. 


NOCTURNAL, or  NocTURLABiUM.  An 
instrument  used  at  sea  for  finding  the  lat- 
itude and  hour  of  the  night. 

NODDY.     A  sea  fowl  of  the  tern  kind. 

NODE  (in  Surgery).  A  hard  tumour 
rising  out  of  a  bone. 

NODE  (in  Dialling).  The  axis  or  cock 
of  a  dial. 

NODES  (in  Astronomy).  Two  points 
where  the  orbit  of  a  planet  intersects  the 
ecliptic  :  the  Northern  or  Ascending  Node, 
called  the  dragon's  head,  is  marked  thus 
Q,  the  Southern  or  Descending  Node,  the 
dragon's  tail,  marked  thus  y. 

NOLLE  PROSEauI.  An  agreement 
on  the  part  of  the  plaintiff  not  to  prose- 
cute his  suit. 

NO  MAN'S  LAND.  A  sea  term  for 
the  space  in  midships,  between  the  after 
part  of  the  belfry,  and  the  fore  part  of  a 
ship's  boat,  when  she  is  stowed  upon  the 
boom. 

NOMENCLATURE.  A  catalogue  of 
the  most  useful  and  significant  words  in 
any  lanjuage  or  in  any  particular  science. 

NOMINATIVE  (in  Grammar).  The 
first  case  of  a  noun,  or  the  name  itself. 

NONAGESIMAL.  The  ninetieth  de- 
gree of  the  ecliptic. 

NONCHALANCE.  An  affected  indif- 
ference. 

NON  COMPOS  MENTIS  (in  Law). 
Not  of  sound  mind. 

NON  CONDUCTORS  (in  Electricity). 
Bodies  which  do  not  become  electric  by 
being  placed  in  the  neighborhood  of  an 
excited  body. 

NONCONFORMIST.  In  England,  a 
person  not  conforming  to  the  church  of 
England. 

NON  EST  INVENTUS,  i.  e.  literally. 
He  has  not  been  found.  The  answer  made 
by  the  sheriff  in  the  return  of  the  writ, 
when  the  defendant  is  not  to  be  found  in 
his  bailiwick. 

NONPLUS.  A  difficulty  or  embarrass- 
ment, when  one  cannot  proceed  any  way. 

NON  PROS.  i.  e.  Non  prosequitur.  He 
does  not  prosecute.  A  nonsuit,  or  the 
form  of  renouncing  or  letting  fall  a  suit  by 
the  plaintiff. 

NOi\RESIDENCE  (in  Law).  In  Eng- 
land, the  not  residing  on  their  benefices, 
as  applied  to  sp'ritual  persons. 

NONSUIT.  The  letting  fall  or  renounc- 
ing a  suit. 

NORMAL.     A  perpendicular. 

NORROY  KING  AT  ARMS.  In  Eng- 
land, the  third  king  at  arms. 

NORTH  POLE.  A  point  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  ninety  degrees  distant 
from  the  equator. 


264 


NUC 


NUT 


NOSOLOGY.  A  systematic  arrange- 
ment and  description  of  diseases. 

NOSTRUM,  i.  e.  Ours.  Tiie  name  giv- 
en to  the  medicines  offered  by  quacks  as 
universal  remedies. 

NOTARY  (in  Law^).  A  scrivener  who 
takes  notes  and  draughts  of  contracts. 

NOTARY  PUBLIC  (in  Commerce).  A 
scrivener  who  witnesses  deeds,  in  order  to 
make  tliem  authentic  in  foreign  courts. 

NOTATION  (in  Arithmetic  and  Alge- 
bra). The  method  of  expressing  numbers 
or  quantities  by  signs  or  characters  ap- 
propriated for  that  purpose.  The  Jews, 
Greeks,  and  Romans  expressed  their  num- 
bers by  the  letters  of  their  alphabet ;  the 
Arabians  had  particular  characters  called 
figures,  Avhich  have  been  universally 
adopted  in  Europe  in  all  arithmetical  ope- 
rations. The  Roman  mode  of  notation  is 
also  still  in  use  in  marking  dates,  or  num- 
bering chapters,  &c. 

NOTATION  (in  Music).  The  manner 
of  expressing  sounds  by  characters. 

NOTE.  Any  short  writing  or  memo- 
randum. 

NOTE  (in  fliusic).  A  character  to  dis- 
tinguish the  pitch  and  time  of  a  sound. 

NOTE  OF  HAND.  A  writing  under  a 
man's  hand,  by  which  one  person  engages 
to  pay  another  a  sum  of  money  on  a  cer- 
tain day,  or  on  demand  :  this  may  either  be 
in  the  form  of  a  bill  or  of  a  promissory 
note. 

NOT  GUILTY  (in  Law).  The  general 
issue  or  plea  of  the  defendant  in  a  criminal 
action. 

NOTICE  (in  Law).  The  making  some- 
thing known  that  a  man  was  or  might  be 
ignorant  of,  and  which  it  was  proper  he 
should  be  made  acquainted  with. 
NOV.  An  abbreviation  for  November. 
NOVEL.  A  narrative  of  fictitious  events 
and  characters.  When  the  incidents  and 
persons  are  not  probable,  it  is  called  a 
romance ;  and  if  only  a  short  story,  a 
novelette. 

NOVEMBER.  The  eleventh  month  of 
the  Julian  year.  It  was  called  November 
because  it  was  the  ninth  of  Romulus's 
year. 

NOVICE  (in  the  Romish  Church).  One 
who  has  entered  his  novitiate  or  year  of 
probation,  before  he  takes  his  vow  ;  in  a 
general  sense,  a  learner  in  any  profession, 
an  unskilful  person. 

N.  S  An  abbreviation  for  new  style,  or 
the  new  mode  of  forming  the  calendar. 

NOUN  (in  Grammar).  A  part  of  speech, 
the  name  of  the  thing  itself,  as  horse,  dog, 
&c. 
NUCLEUS.  The  kernel  of  a  nut,  &c. 


NUCLEUS  (in  Astronomy).  The  body 
of  the  comet,  otherwise  called  the  head. 

NUDE  CONTRACT.  A  bare,  naked 
contract,  without  a  consideration,  v/hich  ig 
void  in  law, 

NUISANCE  (in  Law).  Any  annoyance 
which  tends  to  the  hurt  or  inconvenience 
of  another. 

NUMBER  (in  Arithmetic).  An  assem- 
blage of  several  units  or  of  several  things 
of  the  same  kind.  Whole  numbers  are 
otherwise  called  integers,  as  1, 2, 3.  Broken 
numbers  are  fractions,  as  \.  Cardinal  num^ 
bers  express  the  number  of  things,  as  1,  2, 
3.  Ordinal  numbers  denote  the  order  of 
things,  as  1st,  2d,  3d,  &c.  Even  numbers 
are  those  which  may  be  divided  into  tvi^o 
equal  parts,  without  a  fraction,  as  6,  19, 
&c.  Uneven  numbers  are  such  as  leave  a 
remainder  after  being  divided,  as  5,  13, 
&c.  A  square  number  is  the  product  of 
any  number  multiplied  by  itself,  as  4,  the 
product  of  2  multiplied  by  2. 

NUMBER  (in  Grammar).  An  inflection 
or  change  of  ending  in  nouns  and  verbs, 
to  denote  number.  Numbers  are  singular 
to  denote  one,  dual  to  denote  two,  or  plural 
to  denote  more  than  one. 

NUMBERS  (in  Poetry).  Measures  or 
cadences  which  render  a  verse  agreeable 
to  the  ear. 

NUMERAL,  Any  character  which  ex- 
presses a  number,  as,  1,  2,  3. 

NUMERAL  LETTERS.  The  Roman 
letters  I.  II.  III.  IV.  &;c.  which  denote 
numbers, 

NUMERATION.  The  art  of  expressing 
in  figures  any  number  proposed  in  words, 
or  expressing  in  words  any  number  pro- 
posed in  figures. 

NUMERATOR.  The  number  in  the 
upper  line  of  a  fraction,  denoting  the  num- 
ber of  the  given  parts  taken,  as  3  in  5,  that 
is,  three  out  of  the  four  parts  of  an  integer. 

NUMERICAL.  Relating  to  numbers, 
as  numerical  algebra,  that  which  is  per- 
formed by  the  help  of  numbers. 

NUMISMATICS.  The  science  of  medals 
and  coins. 

NUNCIO,  The  pope's  ambassador. 

NUNCUPATIVE  WILL.  A  will  made 
by  word  of  mouth. 

NUNNERY  (in  the  Romish  Church). 
A  religious  house  for  nuns,  or  females  who 
have  bound  themselves  by  vow  to  a  single 
life. 

NURSERY.  A  chamber  for  young  chil- 
dren. 

NURSERY.  A  place  set  apart  for  young 
trees  and  shrubs. 

NUTATION  (in  Astronomy).  A  tremu- 
lous motion  of  the  earth's  axis. 


OAT 

NUTGALLS.  Excrescences  on  the  leaf 
of  the  oak  The  Aleppo  galls  are  imported 
for  the  use  of  dyers,  calico  printers,  &c. 

NUT  HATCH.  A  small  species  of 
Woodpecker. 

NUTMEG.  A  spice,  the  fruit  of  a  tree 
as  hig  as  a  pear  tree,  growing  on  the  island 


OBL 


265 


of  Banda,  in  the  Eastern  Ocean.  It  is  one 
of  the  finest  of  spices,  and  is  carried  to  all 
parts  of  the  world  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce. The  nutmeg  is  the  kernel  of 
the  fi-uit,  not  unlike  the  peach,  the  rind  or 
coat  of  which  is  called  mace. 

NUX  VOMICA.  A  flat,  compressed, 
round  fruit,  about  the  breadth  of  a  shilling, 
brought  from  the  East  Indies  ;  it  is  a  cer- 
tain poison  for  dogs,  cats,  &c.,  and  is  one 
of  the  ingi-edients  unlawfully  infused  into 
beer,  to  give  it  a  stupifying  quality. 

NYL  GHAU.     See  Nil  Ghau. 

NYMPHS.  The  chrysalis,  or  third  stag6 
of  insects,  between  the  grub  and  the  fly. 

NYMPHS.  The  goddesses  of  the  woods, 
according  to  the  poets.  They  were  ce- 
lestial and  terrestrial,  the  former  guiding 
tl>e  heavenly  bodies,  the  latter  i)residing 
over  the  woods.  They  are  represented  as 
beautiful  creatur-es,  inhabiting  every  forest 
and  glen. 


O. 


O,  the  fourteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
used  as  a  numeral  for  eleven,  and  with  a 
stroke  over  it,  thus  o,  for  eleven  thou- 
sand. 

OAK.  A  tree  celebrated  for  its  timber, 
which  is  so  tough  that  the  sharpest  tools 
will  scarcely  penetrate  it.  It  is  also  re- 
markable for  its  slowness  of  gi-owth,  bulk, 
and  longevity.  Oaks  have  been  found  to 
grow  only  from  fourteen  to  twenty  inches 
in  diameter  in  the  space  of  eighty  years. 
The  live  oak  is  a  species  particularly  val- 
uable for  ship-building.  Great  quantities 
are  obtained  in  Florida. 

OAKUM.  Old  ropes  untwisted  and  made 
into  loose  hemp  for  cajking  ships. 

OAR.  A  long  pole  with  a  flat,  thin  end, 
by  which  boats  are  driven  along  in  the 
water. 

OATH  (in  Law).  A  solemn  affirmation 
or  denial  of  a  thing,  accompanied  with 
an  appeal  to  God. 

OATH  OF  ALLEGIANCE.  In  Eng- 
land, the  oath  which  the  subject  takes 
v/hen  required  to  bear  true  allegiance  to 
the  king. 

OATH  OP  SUPREMACY.  In  Eng- 
land, the  oath  which  establishes  the  supre- 
macy of  the  king  over  every  other  power, 
temporal  or  spiritual,  within  the  realm, 
whereby  the  supremacy  of  the  pope  was 
renounced  at  the  Reformation. 

OATH  OF  ABJURATION.  An  oath 
which  expressly  establishes  the  succession 
23 


of  the  reigning  family  to  the  throne  of 
England,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Stuart 
family  or  anj-  other. 

OATS.  A  grain,  the  peculiar  food  of 
horses,  and  in  Scotland  and  the  north  of 
England,  also  the  food  of  man.  Oatmeal, 
the  flour  of  the  oats,  is  also  much  used 
medicinally. 

OBELISK  (in  Architecture).  A  square 
stone  glowing  smaller  from  the  base  to  the 
summit. 

OBELISK  (among  Printers).  A  mark 
of  reference,  thus  (f). 

OBJECT  GLASS.  A  glass  hi  a  tele- 
scope or  microscope,  at  the  end  of  the  tube 
next  to  the  object. 

OBIT  (in  the  Romish  Church).  An 
annual  service  for  the  dead. 

OBITUARY.     A  register  of  the  deaths. 

OBLATE.  Flattened,  an  epithet  for  a 
sphere  or  spheroid. 

OBLATION.  What  is  laid  on  an  altar 
or  given  at  the  altar  by  way  of  offering. 

OBLIGATION  (in  Law).  A  bond  con- 
taining a  penalty  on  condition  of  not  per- 
forming certain  covenants  annexed. 

OBLIQ,UE.  Deviating  from  a  perpen- 
dicular line  or  direction,  as  an  oblique 
angle,  &c.  that  which  is  not  a  right  one. 

OBLiaUE  CASES  (in  Grammar).  Tha 
cases  of  nouns  declined  from  the  nomina- 
tive. 

OBLiaUITY  OF  THE  ECLIPTIC. 
The  angle  which  the  ecliptic  makes  with 


266 


OCC 


OES 


the  equator,  being  now  estimated  at  some- 
thing less  than  23  degrees  28  minutes,  as 
the  ecliptic  approaches  nearer  to  a  paral- 
lelism with  the  equator  at  the  rate  of 
about  42  seconds  in  100  years. 

OBOLUS.  A  small  Grecian  coin,  equal 
to  one  penny  farthing. 

OBSERVATION.  The  observing  the 
phenomena  of  the  heavenly  bodies  by 
means  of  any  instrument, 

OBSERVATORY.  A  place  erected  in 
Some  lofty  situation,  and  fitted  up  with 
telescopes,  quadrants,  &c.  for  the  purpose 
of  making  astronomical  observations,  such 
as  the  observatories  at  Greenwich,  Paris, 
Munich  and  Palermo,  which  are  the  most 
celebrated  among  the  modern  observato- 
ries. The  ancient  Chaldeans  had  also  simi- 
lar places. 

OBSERVATORY,  EQUATORIAL,  or 
Portable.  An  instrument  for  solving  ma- 
ny problems  in  astronomy,  as  finding  the 
meridian,  pointing  the  telescope  on  a  star. 
thcfugh  not  in  the  meridian,  in  full  da}^- 
light,  &:c. 

OBSIDIONAL  CROWN.  A  crown 
made  of  the  grass  that  grew  in  a  besieged 
place,  which  the  Romans  gave  to  the 
general  by  whom  the  town  was  taken. 


OBT.    An  abbreviation  for  obedient. 

OBTUSE  ANGLE.  Any  angle  greater 
than  a  right  angle.     See  Angle. 

OCCIDENT.  Westward,  as  the  Occident 
equinoctial,  &c. 

OCCIPUT.    The  back  part  of  the  head. 

OCCULT ATION.  The  obscuration  of 
any  star  or  planet  by  the  interposition  of 
any  other  body,  as  the  moon,  &c. 

OCCULT  ATION,  Circle  OF.  An  ima- 
ginaiy  circle  round  the  poles,  which  con- 
tains those  stars  that  are  not  visible  in  our 
hemisphere. 

OCCULT  DISEASES.  Diseases,  the 
causes  and  treatment  of  which  are  not 
understood. 

OCCULT  aUALITIES.     Qualities  in 


bodies  which  do  not  admit  of  any  rational 
explanation. 

OCCUPATION  (in  Law).  The  posses- 
sion and  use  of  lands  or  tenements. 

OCEAN.  A  vast  collection  of  salt  and 
navigable  waters,  enclosing  the  continents 
or  quarters  of  the  globe,  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  and  comprehended 
under  the  several  divisions  of  the  Atlantic, 
the  Pacific,  Indian,  Northern,  and  South- 
ern Oceans. 

OCELOT.  A  very  fierce,  but  beautiful 
animal  of  the  cat  kind,  found  in  South 
America. 

OCHRE.  A  sort  of  earth  consisting  of 
alumina  and  red  oxide  of  iron. 

OCTAGON.  A  figure  ofeight  sides  and 
angles. 


OCTAHEDRON.  One  of  the  five  regu^ 
lar  bodies,  consisting  of  eight  equal  and 
equilateral  triangles. 

OCTANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linnaean  classes,  consistingof  plants  hav- 
ing eight  stamina  to  each  flower. 


OCTANT.  An  aspect  of  two  planets 
when  they  are  distant  from  each  other  45 
degrees,  or  the  eighth  part  of  a  circle. 

OCTAVE  (in  Music).  The  eighth  inter- 
val in  a  scale  of  sounds, 

OCTAVO,  i.  e.  in  eight,  expressed  by 
printers  thus,  8vo.  The  form  of  a  page 
by  folding  a  sheet  into  eight  leaves,  so  as 
to  make  it  consist  of  sixteen  pages. 

OCTOBER.  The  eighth  month  in  the 
year,  containing  thirty-one  days. 

OCULIST.  One  who  cures  the  disorders 
of  the  eyes. 

ODD.  An  epithet  for  any  number  in  the 
series  of  1,  3,  5,  7,  &c. 

ODE.  A  poem  written  to  be  sung  to 
music. 

ODOUR.  The  scent  or  smell. 

OEDEMA.  Any  tumour  or  swelling. 

CESOPHAGUS.  The  gullet,  a  mem- 
branaceous canal,  reaching  from  the  faueea 
to  the  stomach. 


OIL 

OFFENCE  (in  Law).  The  violation  of 
any  law ;  this  is  capital,  if  punished  with 
death,  and  not  capital,  if  visited  with  any 
other  punishment. 

OFFERINGS  (in  Law).  In  England, 
Church  dues,  payable  by  custom,  as  the 
Easter  offeringSj  or  the  oiSerings  at  mar- 
riages, &c. 

OFFICE.  That  function  by  virtue 
whereof  a  man  hath  some  employment, 
either  in  the  public  affairs  or  those  of  a 
private  individual. 

OFFICER  (in  Law).  One  filling  an 
office  or  post  under  government. 

OFFICER  (in  Military  and  Naval  Af- 
fairs). One  acting  under  government  in 
a  military  or  naval  capacity. 

OFFICERS,  Commissioned  (in  the  Ar- 
my).    Appointed  by  commission. 

OFFICERS,  CoMMissioxED  (in  the  Eng- 
lish Navy),  hold  their  commissions  from 
the  Lord  High  Admiral  or  Lords  of  the 
Admiralty, 

OFFICERS  OF  THE  CROWN.  The 
great  officers  of  the  crown  in  England  are 
the  Lord  High  Chancellor,  the  Lord  High 
Steward,  the  Lord  High  Treasurer,  the 
Lord  President  of  tJie  Council,  tlie  Lord 
Privy  Seal,  the  Lord  Chamljerlain,  the 
Lord  High  Constable,  and  the  Earl  Mar- 
shal. 

OFFICIAL  (in  Law).  A  deputy  ap- 
pointed by  the  archdeacon  for  the  execu- 
tion of  his  office. 

OFFICINAL.  An  epithet  for  what  is 
sold  in  shops,  as  officinal  plants,  lierbs, 
medicines,  &c. 

OFFIiVG.  The  open  sea,  or  that  part 
of  the  sea  at  a  distance  from  the  shore, 
where  there  is  deep  water. 

OFFSETS  (in  Botany).  Young  shoots 
that  spring  and  grow  from  shoots. 

OFFSETS  (in  Surveying).  Perpendic- 
ulars let  fa!!,  and  measuring  from  the 
stationary  lines  to  the  hedge,  fence,  or  ex- 
tremity of  an  enclosure. 

OGEE  (in  Architecture).  A  moulding 
formed  like  tlie  letter  S. 


OMN 


267 


OIL.  A  fat,  unctuous  substance,  which 
derives  its  name  from  olea,  the  olive,  be- 
cause it  was  at  first  principally  known  as 
the  produce  of  the  olive.  Oils  are  distin- 
guished by  chymistry  into  volatile  or  es- 
sential oils,  which  have  a  strong,  acrid 
taste,  and  a  strong,  fragrant  smell,  being 
obtained  from  smelling  plants  ;  and  fixed 


oils,  which  are  thick  and  viscid,  insoluble 
in  water,  and  do  not  boil  under  600  de- 
grees :  these  latter  oils  are  obtained  from 
both  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  aa 
train  oil,  olive  oil,  linseed  oil,  &c. 

OIL  GAS.  A  gas  extracted  from  fish 
oil,  vrhich  is  more  expensive  and  not  reck- 
oned so  good  as  that  procured  from  coals. 

OLERACE^.  One  of  the  Linnoean 
natural  orders  of  plants,  containing  pot- 
herbs, as  spinage,  thyme,  mint,  &c. 

OLERON,  Laws  of.  A  code  of  mari- 
time law,  so  called  because  it  was  framed 
by  king  Richard  I.  on  an  island  off'  the 
coast  of  France. 

OLFACTORY  NERVES.  The  nerves 
which  give  the  sense  of  smelling. 

OLIGARCHY.  A  form  of  government 
wherein  the  administration  of  aflairs  is 
lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  few  persons. 

OLIVE  TREE.  A  tree,  native  of  tlie 
southern  parts  of  Europe,  which  rises  with 
solid  upright  stems,  and  branches  numer- 
ously on  every  side.  The  olive,  which  is 
the  fruit  of  this  tree,  yields  an  oil  that  ia 
of  an  emollient  and  solvent  nature. 


OLYMPIAD.  The  space  of  four  years, 
wliereby  the  Greeks  reckoned  their  time, 
from  tlie  circumstance  of  the  Olympic 
games  having  lieen  celebrated  once  in  four 
years.  The  first  Olympiad  is  dated,  ac- 
cording to  some,  774  years  before  Christ. 

OLYiMPIC  GAJIES.  Solemn  games 
among  the  Greeks,  In  honour  of  Jupiter 
Olympus,  at  which  five  kinds  of  exercises 
were  exhibited,  namely,  leaping,  running, 
wrestling,  quoiting,  and  whirlbats. 

OiMEGA,  The  last  letter  of  the  Greek 
alphabet. 

OMENTUM.  A  double  netlike  mem- 
brane spread  over  the  entrails. 

OMER.  A  Hebrew  measure,  about 
three  pints  and  a  half  English. 

OMNIUM.  A  term  among  stock  bro- 
kers for  all  the  kinds  of  stock,  as  3  per 
cents,  4  per  cents,  fcC;,  which  are  sold 


268 


OPO 


OPT 


together  as  they  were  bonght  by  the  con- 
tractors from  government. 

ONION,  A  bulbous  edible  root,  grow- 
ing in  gardens,  and  used  for  various  culi- 
nary purposes. 

ONYX.  A  precious  stone,  accounted  a 
species  of  opaque  agate.  It  is  a  semipel- 
lucid  gem  of  different  colours,  but  the  blu- 
ish wJiite  kind  is  looked  upon  as  the  true 
onyx  of  the  ancients. 

OPACITY.  That  property  in  bodies  by 
which  they  are  rendered  impervious  to  the 
rays  of  tlie  sun,  owing  probably  to  the 
density  of  the  parts. 

OPAL.  A  precious  stone  of  various 
colours,  which  comes  under  the  class  of 
pellucid  gems.  It  is  found  in  many  parts 
of  Europe,  especially  in  Hungary,  When 
first  dug  out  of  the  earth,  it  is  soft,  but 
it  hardens  and  diminishes  in  bulk  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  The  substance  in  which 
it  is  found  is  a  ferruginous  sand  stone. 

OPERA.  A  dramatic  composition  set 
to  music.  It  is  sung  on  the  stage,  accom- 
panied and  interspersed  with  dialogue. 

OPERA-GLASS,  A  kind  of  glass  con- 
structed in  a  small  wooden  tube,  so  as  to 
view  a  person  in  a  theatre,  and,  as  the 
glass  is  made  to  point  at  a  different  object 
from  that  which  is  viewed,  it  may  be  used 
without  any  one  knowing  exactly  who  is 
observed, 

OPERATION  (in  Surgery).  Any  exer- 
cise of  the  surgical  art  which  is  performed 
by  the  use  of  instruments. 

0PERAT10x\  (in  Chymistry).  Any 
process  that  leads  to  a  given  result, 

OPERATION  (in  Military  Affairs), 
Any  movement  of  an  army  for  the  attain- 
ment of  a  particular  object, 

OPHTHALMIA,  An  inflammation  of 
the  membranes  of  the  eye,  a  disease  which 
particularly  affected  the  English  soldiers 
during  their  stay  in  Egypt, 

OPIATE,     A  medicine  made  of  opium, 

OPIUM,  An  inspissated  gummy  juice 
obtained  from  the  head  of  the  poppy.  It 
is  imported  in  cakes  from  Persia,  Arabia, 
and  other  warm  climates  ;  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  colour,  and  of  a  nauseous  bitter 
taste ;  and  has  a  powerfully  narcotic 
property. 

OPOBALSAMUM,  Balm  of  Gilead. 
A  gummy  juice  of  the  balsam  tree. 

OPOPONAX.  A  gummy,  resinous  juice 
obtained  from  the  root  of  an  umbelliferous 
plant  growing  in  warm  climates. 

OPOSSUM.  An  American  animal 
that  lives  in  holes  and  woody  places. 
The  female  is  remarkable  for  having 
two  or  three  pouches,  wherein  the 
young  conceal  themselves  in  time  of  dan- 


ger.   It  is  found  only  in  Virginia,  and  the 

vicinity. 


OPPOSITION  (in  Astronomy),  One  of 
the  aspects  of  the  planets,  when  they  are 
180  degrees  distant  from  each  other,  that 
is,  in  a  diametrically  opposite  relation  to 
each  other, 

OPTATIVE  (in  Grammar).  A  mode 
or  form  of  a  verb  by  which  is  expressed 
the  wish  or  desire  to  do  a  thing, 

OPTIC.  Pertaining  to  the  sight  ;  as 
Optic  Glasses,  glasses  contrived  for  view- 
ing objects  which  cannot  otherwise  be  seen, 
as  spectacles,  telescopes,  microscopes,  &c. 

OPTICIAN.  A  dealer  in  or  maker  of 
optical  instruments. 

OPTIC  NERVES.  The  second  pair  of 
nerves  of  the  brain,  which  perforate  the 
bulb  of  the  eye,  and  serve  for  the  sense  of 
sight. 

OPTIC  PLACE  OF  A  STAR.  That 
point  of  its  orbit  in  which  it  appears  to  be 
to  our  eye. 

OPTIC  PYRAMID.  A  pyramid  form- 
ed by  rays  drawn  from  the  several  points 
of  the  perimeter  to  the  eye. 

OPTICS,  That  branch  of  natural  phi- 
losophy which  treats  of  the  nature  of  light 
and  colours,  or  of  the  general  doctrine  of 
vision.  It  is  distinguished  into  three 
kinds  :  namely,  optics,  properly  so  called, 
which  treats  of  direct  vision  ;  catoptrics, 
which  treats  of  reflected  vision,  or  that 
which  is  performed  by  means  of  rays  re- 
flected from  speculums  or  mirrors ;  and 
dioptrics,  which  treats  of  refracted  vision, 
or  that  which  is  performed  by  means  of 
rays  refracted  or  turned  out  of  their  course 
by  passing  through  mediums  of  different 
densities,  chiefly  through  glasses  or  lenses. 

OPTICS,  History  of.  The  properties 
of  light  naturally  attracted,  at  an  early 
period,  the  attention  of  philosophers  who 
made  nature  their  study,  Empedocles, 
who  flourished  upwards  of  four  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  is  said  to  have  written 
a  treatise  on  liglit;  and  the  works  of  Aris- 
totle present  us  with  a  number  of  ques- 


OPTICS. 


269 


tions  and  observations  concerning  optical 
appearances.  This  pliilosopiier  was  aware 
that  it  is  the  reflection  of  the  liglit  from 
the  atmosphere  which  prevents  total  dark- 
ness after  the  sun  sets,  and  in  those  pla- 
ces wliere  he  does  not  shine  in  the  day- 
time. He  also  considered  that  rainbows, 
halos,  and  mock  suns  were  all  occasioned 
by  the  reflection  of  the  sunbeams  ia  difler- 
ent  cu-cumstances,  by  which  an  imperfect 
image  of  his  body  was  produced,  the  col- 
our only,  and  not  his  proper  figure,  being 
exhibited.  Euclid  wrote  a  treatise  on  op- 
tics and  catoptrics,  in  which  he  shows  the 
chief  properties  of  reflected  rays  in  plane, 
convex,  and  concave  surfaces,  in  a  geo- 
metrical manner,  beginning  with  that  con- 
cerning the  equality  of  the  angles  of  inci- 
dence and  reflection.  He  also  takes  some 
notice  of  dioptrics,  and  remarks  on  the 
effect  of  refraction  in  regard  to  an  object 
at  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  which,  when 
water  is  poured  in,  is  brought  to  view, 
that  was  not  to  be  seen  above  the  edge  of 
the  vessel  before  the  water  was  poured  in. 
As  to  the  eflect  of  burning  glasses,  both  by 
reflection  and  refraction,  this  is  noticed 
not  only  by  Euclid,  but  by  many  other  of 
the  ancients  ;  and,  if  we  give  credit  to  his- 
torians, the  exploits  performed  by  Archi- 
medes in  setting  fire  to  the  vessels  of  the 
Romans  before  Syracuse,  by  means  of 
burning  mirrors,  prove  that  his  practical 
knowledge  exceeded  that  of  modern  times. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  he  wrote  a  treatise 
on  burning  glasses,  as  also  concerning  the 
appearance  of  a  ring  or  circle  under  the 
water,  which  shows  that  this  phenomenon 
had  not  escaped  his  notice.  The  ancients 
were  also  acquainted  with  the  production 
of  colours  by  means  of  refracted  light.  Se- 
neca observes  that  when  the  light  of  the 
sun  shines  through  an  angular  piece  of 
glass,  it  shows  all  the  colours  of  the  rain- 
bow ;  also  that  the  colours  seen  in  a  pi- 
geon's neck  wlien  it  changes  its  position, 
are  the  effect  of  refraction,  and  on  the 
same  principle  that  a  speculum,  not  hav- 
ing any  colour  of  its  own,  will  assume 
that  of  any  other  body. 

Besides,  the  ancients  were  not  unac- 
quainted with  the  magnifying  power  of 
glass  globes  filled  with  water,  for  the  an- 
cient engravers  used  to  employ  such  a 
glass  globe,  in  order,  as  is  supposed,  to 
magnify  the  figures,  that  they  might  exe- 
cute their  work  with  more  correctness. 
Ptolemy,  who  wrote  a  considerable  trea- 
tise on  optics,  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  refraction  of  light,  and  determined  the 
ratio  of  the  angles  of  refraction,  as  compar- 
ed with  that  of  the  angles  of  incidence, 
23* 


with  such  accuracy,  that  there  is  but  a 
trifling  difference  between  the  results  of 
his  observations  and  those  of  Newton  ;  not 
more  than  might  arise  from  his  having 
used  glass  and  water  of  specific  gravities 
something  diflerent  from  those  employed 
by  iVewton.  It  appears  also  from  this 
work  of  Ptolemy,  as  also  from  Iiis  Alma- 
gest, that  he  employed  his  knowledge  of 
optics  in  his  astronomical  observations, 
for  he  was  fully  aware  that  refraction  de- 
creases from  the  Iiorizon  to  the  zenith, 
and  that,  by-means  of  this  refraction,-  the 
intervals  between  the  stare  appear  less 
when  near  the  horizon  than  in  the  merid- 
ian. He  also  accounts  for  the  remarkably 
great  apparent  size  of  the  sun  and  moon 
when  seen  near  the  horizon,  by  ascribing 
the  appearance  to  tJie  refraction  of  the 
rays  by  vapours,  which  actually  enlarge 
the  angle  under  which  the  luminaries  ap- 
pear, just  as  the  angle  is  enlarged  by 
which  an  object  is  seen  from  underwater. 
The  next  writer  of  any  importance  on 
the  science  of  optics  was  Alhazen,  an 
Arabian  philosopher,  who  flourished  in 
the  twelfth  century.  He  made  many  ob- 
servations and  experiments  on  the  effects 
of  refraction  at  the  surface  between  air 
and  water,  air  and  glass,  and  water  and 
glass,  from  which  he  deduced  that  atmos- 
pherical refraction  increases  the  altitudes 
of  all  objects  in  the  heavens.  He  also 
first  observed  that  the  stars  are  sometimes 
seen  above  the  horizon  by  means  of  re- 
fraction, when  they  are  really  below  it ; 
an  observation  confirmed  by  Vitellio  and 
other  opticians.  He  likewise  maintained 
that  refraction  contracts  the  diameters 
and  distances  of  heavenly  bodies,  and  that 
it  is  the  cause  of  the  twinkling  of  the 
stars.  Besides,  Alhazen  treats  largely  on 
the  m.agnifying  power  of  glasses,  so  that 
probably  his  observations  led  to  the  inven- 
tion of  spectacles.  In  the  next  century 
follov^'ed  Vitellio,  a  Pole,  who  digested 
the  contents  of  Alhazen's  work,  and 
made  many  additional  observations  on  the 
power  of  refraction.  He  gave  a  table  of 
the  results  of  his  experiments  on  the  re- 
fracting power  of  air,  water,  and  glass, 
corresponding  to  different  angles  of  inci- 
dence. Roger  Bacon,  a  contemporary 
with  Vitellio,  also  wrote  on  this  science, 
and  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  in- 
ventor of  the  magic  lantern.  Maurolycus, 
who  followed  these  two  at  the  distance  of 
nearly  two  centuries,  explains,  in  his 
treatise  De  Lumine  et  Umbrsi,  the  process 
of  vision,  showing  that  the  crystalline  hu- 
mour of  the  eye  is  a  lens  which  collects 
the  rays  of  light  issuing  from  the  objectF, 


f70 


ORA 


and  throws  them  on  the  retina,  where  the 
focus  of  each  pencil  is  formed.     From  this 
principle  he  discovered  the  reason  why 
some  people  have  a  short  sight  and  others 
a  long  one  ;  also  why  the  former  are  as- 
sisted by  concave  glasses,  and  the  latter 
fey  convex  ones.    John  Baptista  Porta,  his 
contemporary,  discovered  the  camera  ob- 
scura,  and  took  the  first  public  notice  of 
the  magic  lantern,  the  original  invention 
of  which  has  been  ascribed  to  Roger  Bacon. 
Kircher,  who  followed  Baptista,  enlarged 
on  his  hints,  and  put  them  into  execution. 
He  also  made  many  experiments  with  the 
camera    obscura,  by  which    he  satisfied 
himself  that  vision  is  performed  by  the 
intromission  of  something  into  the  eye, 
and  not  by  visual  rays  proceeding  from  it, 
as  had  been  formerly  imagined.     He  con- 
sidered the  eye  as  a  camera  obscura,  the 
pupil  to  be  the  hole  in,  the  win<low  shut- 
ter, and  the  crystalline  humour  to  corre- 
spond to  the  wall  which  receives  the  im- 
ages 5  but  in  this  latter  point  his  idea  has 
been  proved,  by  closer  observations,  to  be 
incorrect,  for  it  is  now  known  that  this 
office  is  performed  by  the  retina.    The  ob- 
servations and  experiments  of  this  writer 
on  the  science  of  optics,  and  on  the  nature 
of  vision,  appear  to  have  led  the  way  to 
the  discovery  of  telescopes,  which  was 
doubtless  made  very  soon  after  his  time. 
After  this  the  writei's  on  optics  became 
very  numerous,  and  their  labours  contrib- 
uted to  the  confirmation  and  improvement 
of  those  who  had  preceded  them.     Among 
the  works  entitled  to  particular  notice  are 
Barrow's  Optical  Lectures,  Huygen's  Di- 
optrics,  Hartsoeker's  Essaie    Dioptrique, 
David  Gregory's    Elements  of  Dioptrics 
and  Catoptrics,  Dr.  Smith's  Optics,  Wol- 
fius's   Dioptrics   and  Catoptrics,  Harris's 
Optics,  but  above  all,  Newton's  Treatise 
on  Optics,  and  his  Optical  Lectures. 

OPTIME.     In  England,   a  scholar  in 

the  first  clafss  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge. 

OR  (in  Heraldry).     The  yellow  or  gold 

colour,  represented  on  the  escutcheon  by 

small  dots. 


ORD 

biguous  answers,  which  the  priests  pre- 
tended to  deliver  by  the  inspiration  of 
their  gods,  such  as  the  oracles  of  Apollc> 
at  Delphi,  and  those  of  Jupiter  Ammon 
in  Thebes. 

ORANG-OUTANG.  One  of  the  tailless 
species  of  ape,  which  the  most  resembles 
man  in  its  figure. 


ORANGE-TREE.  An  evergreen,  re- 
sembling the  laurel  in  its  leaf.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  warm  climates,  and  yields  a  well 
knovv'n  juicy  fruit  of  the  same  name. 


ORA.    A  Saxon  coin,  equal  to  from  16d. 

toaod. 

ORACLES  f  among  the  Heathens).   Am- 


ORATORY.    The  same  as  Rhetoric: 

ORB.  A  hollow  sphere  or  space  con- 
tained between  two  concentric  spherical 
surfaces,  as  the  orb  of  the  heavens. 

ORBIT.  The  path  of  a  planet  or  a  com- 
et described  by  its  centre  in  its  proper  mo- 
tion in  tlte  heavens. 

ORBITS  (in  Anatomy).  The  two  large 
cavities  in  which  the  eyes  are  placed. 

ORCHARD.  A  piece  of  ground  planted 
with  fruit  trees. 

ORCHESTRA.  The  stage  or  middle  of 
the  theatre  among  the  Greeks,  where  the 
chorus  used  to  dance,  and  the  performers 
used  to  sit.  It  is  now  the  place  set  apart 
for  the  musicians,  as  the  front  of  the  stage 
in  a  theatre,  a  gallery  in  an  assembly- 
room,  &c. 

ORCHEDE^.  One  of  Linnrous's  nat- 
ural orders  of  plants,  containing  the  orchis 
I  and  other  Rowers  allied  to  it. 


ORD 

ORDEAL.  A  Saxon  mode  of  trial, 
which  consisted  in  trying  the  guilt  or  in- 
nocence of  persons  by  appeals  to  Heaven, 
as  in  the  ordeal  by  fire,  when  the  party 
accused  undertook  to  walk  blindfold  be- 
tween nine  red-hot  ploughshares ;  and  if 
he  or  she  escaped  unhurt,  it  was  looked 
upon  as  a  proof  of  innocence ;  so,  in  the 
ordeal  by  water,  wlien  a  person  was  thrown 
bound  into  a  river,  or  put  his  hands  or  feet 
into  scalding  water,  and  the  like. 

ORDER  (in  Military  Affairs),  as  Order 
of  Battle,  the  disposition  of  troops  for  bat- 
tle 5  open  order,  close  order,  &c.;  also 
in  the  sense  of  command,  as  the  com- 
mander in  chief's  orders,  which  issue  im- 
mediately from  the  commander  in  chief's 
office ;  so  brigade  orders,  general  orders, 
standing  orders,  &C. 

ORDER  (in  Naval  Affairs).  Command, 
as  sailing  orders,  &:c. 

ORDER  (in  Natural  History).  A  partic- 
ular division  of  animals,  plants,  or  miner- 
als, comprehended  under  a  class  iu  the 
Linnaean  and  other  systems. 

ORDER  (in  Architecture).  The  rule  of 
proportion  to  be  observed  in  the  construc- 
tion, of  any  building,  which  is  applied 
mostly  to  the  column  and  the  entabla- 
ture, from  the  diversity  in  which  have 
sprung  the  five  several  orders — the  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  Tuscan,  and  Composite. 

ORDER  (in  Geometry).  A  rank  or  sit- 
uation in  a  series  of  curves,  lines,  &c. ; 
thus  the  first  order  of  curve  lines  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  simple  equation,  or  the  first 
power ;  those  of  the  second  order,  by  a 
quadratic  equation,  or  the  second  power ; 
and  so  on, 

ORDERS  (in  Law).  In  England,  rules 
made  by  the  court  in  causes  there  depend- 
ing. These  orders  are  made  by  different 
courts,  as  the  Chancery,  King's  Bench, 
&c. ;  and  also,  on  particular  occasions, 
orders  are  made  by  magistrates    at  the 


ORG 


271 


ORDERS  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs). 
Congregations  or  societies  of  religious  per- 
sons, who  bind  themselves  by  a  vow  to 
live  under  a  superior,  according  to  certain 
rules  prescribed  to  them  by  their  founder, 
such  as  the  monks  and  nuns  in  the  Romish 
church  ;  likewise  the  character  and  office 
by  which  ecclesiastics  are  distinguished, 
that  are  set  apart  for  the  ministry.  Since 
the  Reformation,  there  are  three  orders  of 
the  clergy  acknowledged  in  England, 
namely,  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons ; 
whence  the  phrase, '  to  be  in  orders,'  is  the 
same  as  to  be  of  the  clerical  order. 

ORDERS  OF  KNIGHTHOOD  (in  Her- 
aldry).   Societies  of  knights  instituted  by 


princes,  as  marks  of  distinction  for  such 
as  have  distinguished  themselves  in  war 
The  British  orders  are  the  order  of  the 
Garter,  and  the  order  of  the  Bath,  belong- 
ing to  England  5  the  Irish  order  of  St. 
Patrick;  and  the  Scotch  order  of  the 
Thistle. 

ORDINANCE.     A  law  or  decree. 

ORDINARY  (in  the  Common  Law). 
In  England,  one  who  has  ordinary,  or  ex- 
empt and  immediate  jurisdiction  in  causes 
ecclesiastical,  as  an  archbishop  or  a  bishop. 
The  ordinary  in  Newgate  is  the  clerg>-man 
who  attends  in  ordinary  upon  condemned 
malefactors;  also  a  term  for  the  officers 
and  servants  of  the  king's  household  who 
attend  on  common  occasions,  as  physicians 
in  ordinary. 

ORDINARY  (in  the  Navy).  The  esta- 
blishment of  persons  employed  by  govern- 
ment to  take  charge  of  the  ships  of  war 
which  are  laid  up  in  the  harbours. 

ORDINARY  (in  Heraldry).  Any  charge 
in  coats  of  arms  which  is  proper  to  the- 
art,  and  in  ordinary  use  therein ;  as  the 
chief,  pale,  bend,  fesse,bar,  chevron,  cross, 
and  saltire,  in  distinction  from  the  com- 
mon charges,  or  such  things  as  it  has  in 
common  with  the  other  arts,  as  animals, 
implements,  crosses,  &c. 

ORDINATES  (in  Conic  Sections).  Geo- 
metrical lines  drawn  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  cutting  the  curve  in  a  certain  number 
of  points. 

ORDINATION  (in  Ecclesiastical  Af- 
fairs). The  act  of  ordaining,  or  putting 
into  holy  orders.  The  age  of  ordination 
for  a  deacon,  in  England,  is  twenty-three, 
and  for  a  priest  twenty-four. 

ORDNANCE.  A  general  name  for  aU 
sorts  of  great  gims. 

ORDNANCE,  Office  of.  An  office 
kept  within  the  Tower  of  London,  which 
superintends  and  disposes  of  all  the  arms 
and  implements  of  war. 

ORE.  A  general  name  for  metals  in  an 
unrefined  state,  as  they  are  dug  out  of  the 
earth,  where  they  are  found  in  the  four 
following  states:  namely,  I.  Pure,  that  is, 
by  themselves,  in  a  pure  metallic  state,  or 
as  alloys,  in  combination  with  other  met- 
als. 2.  As  sulphurets,  or  in  combination 
with  sulphur.  3.  As  oxides,  or  in  combi- 
nation with  oxygen :  and  4.  As  salts,  that 
is,  in  combination  with  acids. 

ORGAN  (in  Physiology).  An  instru- 
ment by  which  any  natural  faculty  in  an 
animal  body  is  exercised,  as  the  ear,  which 
is  the  organ  of  hearing ;  the  eye,  which  is 
the  organ  of  sight. 

ORGAN  (in  Music).  A  wind  instru- 
ment blown  by  bellows, and  containing 


272 


ORN 


numerous  pipes  of  various  kinds  and  di- 
mensions, which,  for  its  solemnity,  gi-an- 
deur,  and  rich  volume  of  tone,  is  peculiar- 
ly fitted  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
commonly  employed.  Organs  are  some- 
times of  an  immense  size :  the  organ  in 
the  cathedral  church  at  Ulm,  in  Germany, 
is  said  to  be  93  feet  high  and  28  broad,  its 
largest  pipe  being  13  inches  in  diameter, 
and  it  having  sixteen  pair  of  bellows. 

ORGANIC  REMAINS.  A  name  ap- 
plied to  all  those  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  which  have  been  dug  out  of 
the  earth  in  a  mineralized  state,  and  serve 
as  strong  evidences  of  the  universal  del- 
uge, and  the  changes  which  ensued.  They 
also  afford  reason  to  believe  that  the  mat- 
ter composing  the  solid  parts  of  the  globe, 
has  undergone  violent  and  extensive  rev- 
olutions, and  that  whole  classes  of  vege- 
tables and  animals  now  extinct  have  exist- 
ed on  the  globe,  anterior  to  the  present 
constitution  of  things.     See  Geology. 

ORIENT.     The  east  or  rising  point. 

ORIFICE.  The  mouth  or  entrance  to 
any  cavity  in  the  animal  body. 

ORIGINAL.  The  first  copy,  or  that 
from  which  any  thing  is  first  transcribed 
or  translated. 

ORIOLE.  A  species  of  birds,  of  which 
the  Baltimore  oriole,  or  hang-bird,  is  a 
beautiful  variety,  well  known  in  the  U. 
States. 


ORION.  A  constellation  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere,  containing  from  thirty- 
eight  to  seventy-eight  stars,  according  to 
diiFerent  writers. 

ORNAMENTS  (in  Architecture). 
Leaves,  roses,  channellings,  and  the  like, 
which  ornament  the  different  parts  of  a 
column. 

ORNITHOLOGY.  That  branch  of  Na- 
tural History  which  treats  of  Birds,  and 
their  natures,  habits,  form,  economy,  and 
uses.  Birds,  in  the  Linnsean  system,  are 
divided,  under  the  class  Aves,  into  six 
orders,  according  to  the  form  of  their  bills  : 
as  the  Accipitres,  including  the  eagle,  vul- 


ORN 

ture,  hawk,  &c. ;  Picae,  including  the 
crow,  jackdaw,  parrot,  &:c. ;  Anseres,  in- 
cluding the  duck,  goose,  swan,  gull,  &;c. ; 
Grallae,  as  the  heron,  woodcock,  ostrich, 
&c. ;  Gallinae,  including  the  peacock, 
pheasant,  turkey,  domestic  fowl,  &c. ; 
Passeres,  including  the  sparrow,  lark, 
swallow,  &:c. 

ORNITHOLOGY,  Histort  of.  The 
only  scientific  writers  on  the  subject  of 
birds  among  the  ancients  were  Aristotle 
and  Pliny.  The  former  of  these  writers 
speaks  of  the  different  kinds  of  food 
adapted  to  the  different  species,  of  which 
he  gives  an  imperfect  nomenclature,  and 
adds  some  remarks  on  their  various  peri- 
ods of  building  their  nests.  Pliny's  re- 
marks on  birds  are  very  desultory,  and  not 
very  extended.  The  first  writer  among 
the  moderns,  who  has  treated  of  birds  me- 
thodically, is  Peter  Belon,  who  has  classed 
them  principally  according  to  their  food 
and  habitation.  He  has  likewise  added 
many  observations  on  their  external  form 
and  character.  Conrad  Gesner,  his  cotem- 
porary,  has  displayed  much  learning  in 
his  work,  having  given  alphabetical  tables 
of  the  names  of  birds  in  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
Arabic,  Greek,  and  Latin,  and  numerous 
references  to  the  writers  from  whom  he 
collected  his  materials.  Aldrovandus,  the 
celebrated  naturalist,  followed  in  th-e  steps 
of  Belon  and  Gesner,  and  added  much  to 
their  store  of  learning  and  research ;  at  the 
same  time  illustrating  the  subject  with 
numerous  wood  cuts.  The  next  ornithol- 
ogists of  any  distinction,  after  these  three, 
were  Willoughby  and  Ray,  the  latter  of 
whom  published  the  works  of  the  former, 
his  friend,  with  many  additions  of  his  own, 
in  1678.  In  this  work,  the  external  and 
internal  structure  of  birds  is  described, 
Jacob  Theodore  Klein,  in  his  History  of 
Birds,  divides  them  into  families,  orders, 
and  tribes  ;  the  families  distinguished  ac- 
cording to  their  feet,  the  orders  by  the  form 
of  the  bill,  and  the  tribes  by  the  form  of 
the  head,  &c.  In  the  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  Moehring,  the  classes,  orders,  and 
genera  of  birds  are  distinguished  by  the 
form'of  the  feet  and  bill.  The  system  of 
Linna;us,  which  follows  here  in  order  of 
time,  is  dated  from  the  year  1766.  It  is 
formed  from  the  manners  and  habits  of  the 
birds,  as  well  as  their  external  form  (see 
ZooLocy).  Brisson,  in  his  system  of 
Ornithology,  has  distributed  birds  into 
twenty-six  orders,  from  the  form  of  the 
bill  and  feet,  &;c.,  including  under  these  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  genera,  and  thirteen 
hundred  species.  The  work,  which  is  in 
six  volumes  4to.,  is  illustrated  with  more 


ORR 

than  two  hundred  and  twenty  excellent 
engravings.  The  work  of  Buflbn,  though 
popular,  has  but  few  claims  to  notice  in  a 
scientific  point  of  view.  Mv.  Pennant,  in 
his  distribution  of  birds,  prefers  Ray  to 
Linnaeus  ;  but  Mr.  Latham,  in  his  Synop- 
sis of  Birds,  adheres  to  the  latter  with 
very  few  exceptions,  as  does  also  Mr. 
Shaw,  in  his  General  Zoologj'. 

Among  the  writers  who  have  treated  of 
the  birds  of  particular  places,  the  most 
distinguished  are  Juan  Hernandez  on  the 
birds  of  Mexico,  jNIarcp-ave  on  the  birds 
of  Brazil,  Sir  Hans  Sloane  on  the  birds  of 
Jamaica,  Mr.  Mark  Catesby  on  the  birds 
of  Carolina,  Florida,  &c.,  Schwenckfel  on 
those  of  Siberia,  Brunnick  on  those  of  Den- 
mark, Sonnerat  on  those  of  New  Guinea, 
Frisch  on  those  of  Germany,  Vaillant  on 
those  of  the  Cape,  and  Edwards  on  those 
of  the  West  Lidies.  Wilson's  Ornitholo- 
gy of  the  U.  States  deservedly  places  him 
among  the  first  writers  on  this  subject. 

ORNITHORUNCUS  PARADOXUS. 
A  singular  quadruped  from  New  South 
Wales,  not  yet  properly  classed  in  the 
Linnaean  system.  Its  great  peculiarity  is 
that  the  structure  of  its  head,  externally 
and  internally,  bears  a  greater  resemblance 
to  that  of  a  duck  than  to  that  of  any  ani- 
mal of  the  mammalia  tribe. 

ORPHAN.  One  bereaved  of  either  fa- 
ther or  mother,  or  of  both  parents. 

ORPIMENT.  A  fine  yellow  powder ; 
a  mineral  composed  of  sulphur  and  arsen- 
ic ;  one  of  the  ores  of  arsenic. 

ORRERY.  An  astronomical  instrument 
for  exhibiting  the  several  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  The  first  machine  of 
this  kind  was  constructed  by  Mr.  Graham, 
but  it  derives  its  name  from  the  Earl  of 
Orrery,  for  whom  one  was  made  by  flir. 
Rowley;  and  Sir  Richard  Steele  suppos- 
ing this  to  be  the  first  ever  constructed,  he 
gave  it  the  above  name  in  honour  of  the 
earl.  Orreries  are  constructed  so  as  to  be 
more  or  less  complete.  That  given  in  the 
accompanying  figure  has  all  the  planets 
represented  upon  it ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
sun,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem ;  next  to  the  sun  is  the  orbit  of  Mer- 
cury ;  and  next  to  that,  the  orbit  of  Venus. 
Next  to  the  orbit  of  Venus,  is  the  orbit  of 
our  earth,  represented  by  a  silver  plate,  on 
which  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  the  degi-ees 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  days  of  each 
month  are  drawn  ;  and  the  earth  is  repre- 
sented by  an  ivory  ball  placed  upon  an 
axis,  so  as  to  make  an  angle  with  the 
plane  of  the  horizon  of  66  degrees  and  a 
half.  About  the  ivory  ball  there  is  a  silver 
circle,  which  is  placed  so  as  to  incline  to 


ORT 


273 


the  earth's  orbit  in  an  angle  of  8  degrees  : 
this  represents  the  orbit  of  the  moon,  the 
moon  itself  being  represented  by  a  silver 
ball.  The  superior  planets  are  Mars,  Ju- 
piter, and  Saturn,  in  this  order:  Mara 
stands  next  without  our  earth ;  next  to 
that,  Jupiter  ;  and  outermost  of  all,  Saturn. 
By  the  handle,  the  revolutions  of  these 
planets  are  represented.  While  the  earth 
is  carried  round  the  sun  by  365  turns  and 
a  quarter,  of  the  handle,  JMercury  is  carri- 
ed round  the  sun  in  88  turns,  and  Venus 
in  224 ;  which  represents  that  the  length 
of  the  year  in  Mercury  is  88  of  our  days, 
and  the  length  of  the  year  in  Venus  is 
equal  to  224  of  our  days.  Mars  performs 
his  revolution  about  the  sun  in  687  turns 
of  the  handle,  Jupiter  in  4332  turns,  which 
answers  to  4332  revolutions  of  our  earth 
about  its  own  axis  ;  and  last  of  all,  Saturn^ 
in  10759  turns,  completes  his  revolution, 
which  is  the  length  of  the  Saturnian  year, 
and  is  equal  to  about  30  of  our  years* 


ORTHODROMICS.  The  art  of  saitmg 
in  the  arc  of  a  great  circle. 

ORTHOEPY.    Correct  enunciation. 

ORTHOGRAPHIC  PROJECTION  OF 
THE  SPHERE.  That  projection  which 
is  made  upon  a  plane  passing  through  the 
middle  of  the  sphere,  by  an  eye  placed 
vertically  at  an  infinite  distance. 

ORTHOGRAPHY.  That  part  of  gi-am- 
mar  which  teaches  the  nature  and  affec- 
tions of  letters,  and  the  proper  spelling  or 
writing  of  words. 

ORTHOGRAPHY  (in  Geometiy).  The 
art  of  drawing  or  delineating  the  fore  right 
plan  of  any  object,  and  of  expressing  the 
heights  or  elevations  of  each  part ;  so  call- 
ed from  its  determining  things  by  perpen- 
dicular lines  falling  on  the  geometrical 
plan. 

ORTHOGRAPHY    (in    Architecture). 


274 


OST 


The  elevation  or  representation  of  the  front 
of  a  building. 

ORTOLAN.  A  delicate  bird  of  the 
bunting  tribe,  which  visits  England  before 
the  setting  in  of  frost  and  snow. 

ORYcf  OLOGY.  The  science  of  or- 
ganic remains. 

OSCILLATION.  The  vibration  of  a 
clock. 

OSCULATION.  The  contact  between 
any  curve  and  its  osculatory  circle. 

OSIER.  The  red  water-willow,  of 
which  wicker  baskets  are  made. 

OSIRIS.     An  Egyptian  deity. 

OSPREY.  The  h^h  liawk,  common 
!h  Europe  and  Amencd. 


'■'<wms 


OSSIFICATION.  The  formation  of 
bones,  or  the  hardening  into  a  bony  state. 

OSTEOLOGY.  The  description  of  the 
bones. 

OSTRACISM.  A  mode  of  passing  the 
sentence  of  banishment  among  tlie  Athe- 
nians by  means  of  tiles,  on  which  the 
name  of  the  person  to  be  banished  was 
written. 

OSTRACITIS.  A  kind  of  crust  sticlc- 
ing  to  furnaces  where  the  brass  ore  is 
melted. 

OSTRICH.  The  largest  of  all  birds,  be- 
ing usually  seven  feet  high  from  the  top 
of  the  head  to  the  ground,  but  from  the 


back  only  four.     It  is    a  native  of  Africa 
and  Arabia,  and  lays  forty  or  fifty  eggs 


OUT 

which  are  as  large  as  the  head  of  a  child. 
There  are  three  birds  allied  to  the  ostrich, 
which  are  sometimes  confounded  with  it  j 
the  cassowary  of  the  Asiatic  Islands,  the 
emeu  of  New  Holland,  and  the  rhea  of 
Patagonia. 

OTTER.  A  sagacious  animal,  that  in- 
habits the  banks  of  rivers,  and  feeds  prin- 
cipally on  fish.  Its  fur  is  much  esteemed. 
It  is  fierce  and  crafty  when  attacked,  but 
may  easily  be  tamed  when  young,  and 
taught  to  catch  fish.  The  sea  otter,  which 
inhabits  the  northern  seas,  is  the  largest 
of  the  species. 


OVAL.  An  oblong  curvilinear  figure, 
in  the  shape  of  an  egg.  The  matliemati- 
cal  oval,  which  is  a  regular  figure,  equally 
broad  at  each  end,  is  called  an  ellipsis. 

OVERSEERS  (in  Law).  Parish  offi- 
cers who  take  charge  of  the  poor  that  re- 
ceive parish  relief, 

OVERT  ACT  (in  Law).  A  plain  and 
open  matter  of  fact,  serving  to  prove  a 
design. 

OUNCE.  In  Avoirdupois  weight,  the 
sixteenth  part  of  a  pound  \  in  Troy  weight, 
the  twelfth  part  ;  in  Apothecaries'  weight, 
equal  to  eight  drams. 

OUNCE  (in  Zoology).  An  animal  of 
the  leopard  kind,  but  smaller  and  milder 
than  the  other  species.  It  is  trained  to 
hunting  in  the  East  Indies. 


OVOLO  (in  Architecture).  A  convex 
moulding,  the  section  of  which  is  usually 
the  quarter  of  a  circle. 


OUTLAWRY.    In  England,  the  being 
put  out  of  the  law,  or  out  of  the  king's  pro= 


PAC 


PAG 


275 


tection.  Outlaws  were  anciently  called 
Friendless  Men,  no  one  being  permitted 
to  take  them  in,  or  atTord  them  any  relief. 

OUTRE.     Extravagant,  out  of  the  way. 

OUTllIDERS.  Servants  attached  to 
any  travelling  equipage,  who  ride  forward 
for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  tolls,  occ. 

OUTWORKS.  Works  made  on  the 
outside  of  the  ditch  in  a  fortress. 

OWL.  A  bird  which,  on  account  of 
its  weak  sight,  flies  about  in  the  dark,  and 
lives  principally  on  vermin.  Some  of  the 
species  liave  great  horns,  or  long  ears,  that 
look  like  horns.  There  are  at  least  fifty 
varieties  of  this  bird. 


-"V/J^ry- 


OX.  A  well  known  domestic  animal, 
of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  as  the 
Abyssinian  ox,  having  the  horns  pendu- 
lous, adhering  only  to  the  skin,  and  the 
African  ox,  having  the  body  snowy,  and 
hoofs  black,  &c. 

OXALIC  ACID.  An  acid  extracted 
from  wood-sorrel,  and  also  from  sugar  com- 
bined with  potash.  It  forms  the  juice  sold 
under  the  name  of  Salt  of  Lemons,  which 
is  used  for  taking  out  ink  spots.    Oxalic 


acid  is  a  violent  poison,  and  has  in  some 
cases  been  taken  by  mistake  for  Epsom 
salts. 

OXIDATION,  or  OXYDIZEMENT. 
The  process  of  converting  metals  or  other 
substances  into  oxides,  by  combining  with 
them  a  certain  portion  of  oxygen. 

OXIDES,  or  OXYDES.  Substances 
combined  with  oxygen,  without  being  in 
the  state  of  an  acid. 

OXYGEX.  One  of  the  constituent  and 
essential  parts  of  atmospheric  or  common 
air,  which  is  necessary  to  the  support  of 
life  and  combustion.  In  its  gaseous  state, 
it  is  a  colourless  and  aerial  tiuid.  Oxygen 
forms  about  a  fifth  of  our  atmosphere,  and 
exists  in  most  vegetable  and  animal  pro- 
ducts, acids,  salts,  and  oxides. 

OXYMEL.  A  sirup  made  of  honey 
vinegar,  and  water,  boiled  together. 

OYER  AND  TERMINER  (in  Law) 
A  court  to  hear  and  determine  all  treasons 
felonies,  and  misdemeanours. 

O  YES  (in  Lau').  Corrupted  from  the 
French  '  oyez,  hear  ye,'  the  expression 
used  by  the  crier  of  a  court,  in  order  to 
enjoin  silence  when  any  proclamation  is 
made. 

OYSTER.  A  shell-fish  which  abounds 
on  the  coast  of  England  and  the  U.  States, 
and  is  much  esteemed  as  food.  In  the 
East  Indies,  the  oysters  grow  to  an  extraoi^ 
dinary  size,  some  of  the  shells  being  two 
feet  in  width  ;  and  it  is  said  that,  on  the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  an  oyster  will  fur- 
nish a  meal  for  several  men.  At  the  same 
time,  it  is  universally  agreed,  that  this 
large  sort  falls  veiy  far  short  of  the  Europe- 
an and  American  oyster,  in  delicacy  of 
flavour.  The  English  oyster  has  a  strong 
copper  taste,  which  at  first  is  very  disa- 
greeable. 


P,  the  fifteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
stands  as  an  abbreviation,  in  Music,  for 
piano ;  in  Astronomy,  for  post,  as  P.  M., 
Post  Meridiem,  after  noon  ;  among  phy- 
sicians, for  partes,  as  P.  M.  Partes  Equa- 
tes, &c. ;  in  Law,  for  parliament,  as  M.  P. 
Member  of  Parliament. 

PACE.  A  measure  of  two  feet  and  a 
half;  with  Geometricians,  five  feet. 

PACHA.  The  chief  admiral  in  the 
Turkish  marine. 

PACIFICATION.  A  negotiation  for 
peace ;  an  Edict  of  Pacification  is  a  de- 
cree published  by  a  prince  for  the  pacify- 
ing all  parties. 


PACK.  A  horse's  load,  or  seventeen 
stone  and  two  pounds  of  wool. 

PACKERS.  In  England,  persons  ap- 
pointed and  duly  sw:\t\i  to  pack  herrings, 
&c. 

PADDLE.    A  sort  of  oar 

PADDOCK.  A  small  enclosed  meadow 
attached  to  a  dwelling. 

PADLOCK.  Akindoflocktohangon 
the  outside  of  a  door. 

PAGANS.  Those  who  adhered  to  idol- 
atry after  the  establishment  of  Christiani- 
ty ;  idolaters,  or  the  worshippers  of  false 
gods. 

PAGE.     In  Europe,  a  youth  retained 


276 


PAINTING. 


as  an  honourable  attendant  on  a  prince,  to 
bear  up  trains,  robes,  &c. 

PAGODA.  A  Chinese  or  Hindoo  tem- 
ple ;  also  an  Indian  coin  worth  about 
eight  shillings. 

PAINS  AND  PENALTIES.  In  Eng- 
land, an  act  of  parliament  to  inflict  pains 
and  penalties,  beyond  or  contrary  to  the 
common  law,  in  the  particular  cases  of 
great  public  offenders. 

PAINTED  LADY.  A  beautifully  va- 
riegated pea. 

PAINTER.  An  artist  who  represents 
objects  by  colours,  as  a  portrait  painter ; 
also  an  artisan  who  lays  colours  on  wood 
or  stone,  &c.,  as  a  house  painter.  The 
company  of  painters  in  London  is  of  great 
antiquity,  but  was  not  incorporated  before 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

PAINTER  (a  Sea  Term).  A  rope  for 
hauling  a  boat  on  shore. 

PAINTER-STAINER.  A  painter  of 
coats  of  arms.  They  were  incorporated 
with  the  painters, 

PAINTING.  The  art  of  representing 
all  objects  of  nature  by  lines  and  colours 
on  a  plain  surface.  In  the  exercise  of  this 
art,  the  powers  of  imagination,  imitation, 
and  invention,  are  required  for  making  a 
choice  of  the  subject,  and  of  the  several 
figures  and  subordinate  parts  of  a  picture, 
which  are  comprehended  under  the  name 
of  design.  In  the  execution  of  the  work, 
there  is  likewise  required  a  due  regard 
to  the  efl:ects  of  light  and  shade,  and  col- 
ours, which  is  termed  composition  ;  and 
also  a  nice  choice  of  the  colours  to  be  em- 
ployed, which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
colouring.  Painting,  as  regards  the  sub- 
jects, is  distinguished  into  historical  paint- 
ing, portrait  paiuting,  landscape  painting, 
&c. ;  as  regards  the  form  and  the  materi- 
als, into  painting  in  oil,  water  colours, 
fresco,  miniature,  distemper,  mosaic,  &c. 

PAINTING,  HisTORv  of.  It  is  to  be 
supposed  that  painting  was  among  the  ear- 
liest efforts  of  human  ingenuity,  for  the 
love  of  imitation  would  naturally  suggest 
the  idea  of  representing  the  surrounding 
objects  which  engaged  the  attention  and 
Interested  the  affections.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  savages  painted  their  own  bodies,  by 
means  of  puncturing  the  skin,  and  infus- 
ing different  colours  into  the-  punctures, 
and  that  they  painted  on  their  shields  dif- 
ferent figures  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
bearer.  So,  likewise,  we  find  that  the 
Mexicans  were  in  the  habit  of  represent- 
ing their  warlike  exploits  by  means  of 
picture-writing,  which  was  something 
similar  to  the  hieroglyphics  of  the  Egj'p- 
tians,  that  served  to  represent  sacred  ob- 


jects for  religious  purposes.  The  first  step 
beyond  the  rude  outline  was  an  attempt 
to  complete  the  imitation  by  applying  col- 
ours, which  at  first  was  effected  by  cover- 
ing the  different  parts  of  the  figure  with 
different  colours,  after  the  manner  of  oui 
coloured  maps,  as  was  done  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  is  still  practised  by  the  Indiana 
and  Chinese. 

Painting  was  partially  cultivated  by  the 
Egyptians,  but  was  not  carried  to  any  per- 
fection, because  they  principally  employed 
themselves  in  the  representation  of  the 
monstrous  objects  of  their  worship,  rather 
than  in  depicturing  natural  or  real  objects  ^ 
in  consequence,  their  natural  figures  were 
very  stiff  and  unseemly,  the  legs  being 
drawn  together,  and  the  arms  pasted  to 
the  sides,  like  the  mummies  which  they 
copied.  Their  painters  were  likewise 
very  much  employed  on  earthen  vessels 
or  drinking  cups,  or  in  ornamenting  bar 
ges,  and  covering  with  figures  the  chests 
of  mummies.  Pliny  also  informs  us  that 
the  Egyptians  painted  the  precious  metals, 
which  doubtless  consisted  in  covering  gold 
or  silver  with  a  single  colour.  The  Per- 
sians, as  well  as  the  Arabians,  had  some 
idea  of  mosaic  ;  but  tlie  art  was  cultivated 
by  those  people  principally  for  domestic 
purposes.  Among  the  Indians,  painting 
is  confined  principally  to  the  representa- 
tion of  their  idols  and  monstrous  objects 
of  worship ;  but  the  painters  of  Thibet 
are  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  of  their 
strokes,  in  which  they  might  vie  with  the 
Greeks,  although  deficient  in  every  other 
particular.  The  Chinese  are  remarkable 
for  the  brightness  of  their  colours,  but  this 
is  the  only  perfection  they  can  boast  of. 
Their  figures  are  as  unlike  nature  as  pos- 
sible, devoid  of  expression  and  of  propor- 
tion. The  Etrurians  were  the  first  people 
who  appear  to  have  excelled  in  this  art.  Ma- 
ny specimens  of  Etruscan  painting  have 
been  preserved,  which  consist  of  long  paint- 
ed frizes,  and  pilasters  adorned  with  huge 
figures.  The  paintings  are  executed  on  a 
gi-ound  of  thick  mortar,  and  many  of  them 
are  said  to  be  in  a  high  state  of  preserva- 
tion. '  There  are  likewise  many  Campa- 
nian  vases  extant,  which  are  wonderful 
proofs  of  the  perfection  of  the  art  at  a  very 
early  period  among  these  people.  As  to 
the  origin  of  painting  among  the  Greeks, 
it  is  not  easy  to  define  the  period  of  its 
commencement.  The  Greeks  themselves, 
according  to  Pliny,  speak  of  Polygnote  as 
their  first  painter  of  eminence,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  90th  Olympiad,  or  424  years 
before  Christ.  That  painting  in  dry  col- 
ours existed  in  the  time  of  Ilomerj  Is  cer- 


PAI 

tain  from  several  descriptions  to  be  found 
in  his  Iliad  and  Odyssey  ;  from  the  same 
source  we  also  learn  that  they  were  then 
acquainted  with  basso  relievo,  of  which 
the  buckler  of  Achilles  was  a  specimen. 
Polygnote  was  followed  by  Xeuxis  and 
Parrhasias,  whose  skill  in  imitation  is 
said  to  have  been  such,  that  the  first  de- 
ceived the  birds  by  painting  cherries  so 
exactly,  and  the  latter  deceived  his  rival. 
Apelles,  Protogenes,  and  Euphranor  con- 
tributed to  raise  the  art  to  its  highest  per- 
fection. 

The  Romans  derived  their  skill  in  paint- 
ing from  Etruria ;  but  the  art  remained 
very  long  neglected,  while  the  people 
were  engaged  in  conquests,  and  struggles 
for  liberty.  From  the  building  of  the  city 
to  the  time  of  the  emperors,  there  is  men- 
tion only  of  two  who  excelled  in  painting, 
namely,  Fabius,  surnamed  Pictor,  and 
Pacivius,  the  nephew  of  the  tragic  poet 
Ennius.  In  the  time  of  the  emperors, 
painting,  as  well  as  the  other  arts,  flour- 
ished. A  colossean  figure,  120  feet  long, 
was  painted  by  order  of  the  emperor  Nero, 
which  is  the  first  painting  on  cloth  men- 
tioned among  the  ancients. 

The  artists  who  painted  movable  pic- 
tures were  superior  to  those  who  painted 
on  ceilings,  or  compartments  of  buildings. 
They  painted  their  movable  pictures  on 
tire  wood  of  the  fir,  larch,  or  box  ;  or  on 
canvass,  as  above-mentioned.  The  old 
Greek  and  Roman  paintings  on  walls  are 
supposed  to  have  been  done  in  distemper 
or  in  fresco  :  they  made  use  of  oil  in  var- 
nishing, for  the  preservation  of  their  paint- 
ings, but  they  do  not  appear  to  have  ex- 
pressly used  it  in  their  colours. 

After  an  interval,  during  which  all  the 
arts  languished,  imperfect  efforts  were 
made  to  represent  religious  subjects,  which 
paved  the  way  for  the  revival  of  painting 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  A  noble  Flo- 
rentine, named  Cimabuc,  first  learned  the 
art  from  a  Greek,  and  cultivated  it  with 
success,  so  that  he  may  be  reckoned  the 
founder  of  the  Florentine  school,  of  which 
Michael  Angelo  was  the  great  ornament, 
Raphael  was  the  founder  of  the  Roman 
school ;  Titian,  that  of  Venice.  Corregio 
was  the  father  and  greatest  ornament  of 
the  Lombard  "school,  but  the  Caracci, 
Lewis,  Augustin,  and  Hannibal,  who 
were  natives  of  Bologna,  also  formed  a 
school,  which  has  been  called  the  second 
Lombard  school. 

Among  the  French,  miniature  painting, 

and  painting  on  glass,  were  cultivated  at 

an  early  period  ;  but  other  branches  of  the 

art  were  at  a  low  ebb  until  the  age  of  Lou- 

24 


PAL 


277 


is  XIII.,  when  Poussin  arrived  at  such 
eminence  as  to  be  called  the  Raphael  of 
France  ;  but  he  had  no  pupils,  nor  any  in- 
fluence in  forming  the  French  school,  the 
honour  of  which  was  divided  between 
Vouet,  who  laid  the  foundation,  and  Le 
Brnn,  who  raised  the  edifice.  The  Ger- 
mans have  never  cultivated  painting  so  as 
to  form  a  school,  but  Albert  Durer  and 
John  Holbein  have  secured  this  nation 
from  being  forgotten  in  a  history  of  paint- 
ing. The  Flemish  school  is  remarkable 
for  having  introduced  oil  painting,  which 
was  first  attempted,  or  at  least  brought 
into  general  practice,  by  John  de  Bi-uges  ; 
but  the  master  of  the  art  was  Rubens,  the 
founder  of  the  Flemish  school.  The 
Dutch  have  distinguished  themselves  in 
miniature  painting,  of  which  Rembrandt 
was  their  great  master,  and  also  as  history 
painters,  among  whom  Lucas,  of  Ley  den, 
holds  the  first  rank,  and  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  founder  of  the  Dutch  school. 
The  English  school  is  comparatively  of 
modern  date,  and  owns  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds as  its  founder.  It  is  principally 
known  by  its  correct  observance  of  the 
great  masters  of  the  Italian  and  Flemish 
schools. 

PALACE.  A  royal  dwelling,  so  called 
from  the  Mount  Palatine  in  Rome,  where 
stood  the  royal  mansion. 

PAL.'EOGRAPHY.  A  description  of 
ancient  Avritings,  inscriptions,  characters, 

&CC. 

PALiESTRx\.  A  building  where  the 
Grecian  youth  exercised  themselves  in 
wrestling,  running,  quoits,  &;c. 

PALANQUIN.  An  Indian  covered 
chair,  borne  on  men's  shoulders. 

PALATE.  The  roof  of  the  mouth,  and 
organ  of  taste. 

PALATINE.  Invested  with  regal  pre- 
rogatives, as  the  counties  palatine  of  Lan- 
caster, Chester,  and  Durham,  in  Eng- 
land, which  have  particular  jurisdictions, 

PALE  (in  Heraldry).  One  of  tlie  hon- 
ourable ordinaries  in  a  coat  of  arms  re- 
sembling a  palisade,  used  in  fortifications. 


PALE.    A  flat,  pointed  stake  or  board, 
which  is  used  in  making  enclosures. 


278 


PAL 


PALISADE.  A  finer  kind  of  paling  in 
gardens. 

PALISADOES,  or  PALISADES  (in 
Fortification).  An  enclosure  of  stakes, 
used  to  fortify  the  avenues  of  open  forts, 
&c.  They  were  sometimes  so  ordered, 
that  they  would  turn  up  and  down  as  oc- 
casion required,  and  might  be  hidden  from 
the  view  of  the  enemy  until  he  came  to 
the  attack. 

PALLADIUM.  A  sort  of  metal  drawn 
from  crude  platina. 

PALLAS.  A  small,  newly  discovered 
planet,  situated  between  the  orbits  of  Mars 
and  Jupiter. 

PALLET.    A  painter's  colour  board. 

PALLET  (among  Gilders).  A  tool  for 
taking  up  the  gold  leaf. 

PALLET  (among  Mariners).  A  parti- 
tion in  a  hold. 

PALLET  (in  Heraldry).  The  diminu- 
tive of  the  pale,  being  one  half  of  its 
breadth. 

PALLET-BED.    A  small,  low  bed. 

PALLETS.  Levers  in  clocks  and 
watches,  connected  with  the  pendulum  or 
balance,  which- receive  the  immediate  im- 
pulse of  the  wheel. 

PALL-MALL.  An  ancient  game,  in 
which  an  iron  ball  was  struck  with  a  mal- 
let through  a  ring  or  arch  of  iron,  as  was 
once  practised  in  St.  James's  Park,  and 
gave  its  name  to  the  street  called  Pali-Mall, 
pronounced  Pell-Mell. 

PALM.  A  tree  of  different  kinds,  the 
branches  of  which  were  carried  in  token 
of  victory.  The  cocoa-nut  tree,  date  tree, 
bread-fruit  tree,  and  many  others,  are  va- 
rieties of  the  Palm.  Some  of  these  vari- 
eties are  found  in'  nearly  all  tropical  cli- 
mates. 

PALM  (in  Commerce).  A  measure  of 
three  inches. 

PALM.  A  sea  term  for  the  broad  part 
of  an  anchor. 

PALM  (in  Anatomy).  The  inner  part 
of  the  hand. 

PALM^.  Palms;  one  of  the  seven 
families  into  which  Linnasus  divided 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  including  such 
trees  and  shrubs  with  simple  stems 
as  bear  leaves  resembling  those  of  the 
ferns. 

PALMER.    A  pilgrim  bearing  a  staff. 

PALMISTRY.  A  mode  of  telling  for- 
tunes by  the  lines  of  the  hand. 

PALM  SUNDAY.  The  sixth  Sunday 
in  Lent,  the  next  before  Easter,  com- 
memorative of  our  Saviour's  triumphal 
entrance  into  Jerusalem,  when  palm  bran- 
ches were  strewed  in  the  way. 

PALM  WORM.    A  poisonous  insect  of 


PAN 

America.  This  insect  is  extremely  swift 
in  its  motions. 

PALSY,  or  Paraltsis.  A  privation  of 
motion  or  sense  of  feeling  ;  a  nervous  dis- 
order arising  from  an  afiection  of  the  ce- 
rebellum. 

PAN.  The  god  of  mountains,  woods, 
and  shepherds,  who  was  said  to  be  the  son 
of  Mercury,  and  the  inventor  of  the  Pan- 
dean pipes.  He  is  represented  as  a  mon- 
ster, with  horns  on  his  head,  and  the  legs 
and  feet  of  a  goat.     . 


PANACEA.  A  universal  remedy  for 
the  cure  of  all  disorders. 

PANADA.    Bread  pap. 

PANATHEN^A.  A  festival  celebra- 
ted at  Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva. 

PANCRATIUM.  An  exercise  among 
the  ancients,  which  consisted  in  wrestling, 
boxing,  and  kicking  at  the  same  time. 

PANCREAS  (in  Anatomy).  A  flat 
glandular  viscus  of  the  abdomen  3  in  ani- 
mals called  the  sweetbread. 

PANCREATIC.  Belonging  to  the  pan- 
creas, as  the  pancreatic  duct  and  juice. 

PANDECTS.  The  name  of  a  volume 
of  the  civil  law,  digested  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Justinian. 

PANDORA.  The  first  woman,  accord- 
ing to  the  poets,  made  by  Jupiter.  She 
presented  her  husband  Epimetheus  with  a 
box,  the  gift  of  Jupiter,  and  on  his  opening 
it,  there  flew  out  all  kinds  of  evils  on  the 
earth. 

PANE.    A  square  of  glass. 

PANEGYRIC.  A  set  speech  among  the 
ancients  in  praise  of  any  one ;  in  the  Greek 
Church,  a  book  of  praises  of  Jesus  Chriat 
and  the  saints. 

PANEL,  or  PANNEL.  A  schedule  ot 
roll  of  parchment  on  which  are  written 
the  names  of  the  jurors  returned  by  the 
sheriff. 

PANICLE  (in  Botany).  A  sort  of  in- 
florescence or  flowering,  in  which  the 
flowers  and  fruits  are  scattered  on  pedun- 


PAP 

des  variously  subdivided,  as  in  oats,  and 
some  grasses. 


PAP 


279 


PANNADE.  The  curvetting  or  pran- 
cing of  a  mettlesome  horse. 

PANNAGE.  The  feeding  of  swine  up- 
on mast  in  woods. 

PANNEL  (among  Joiners).  A  square 
piece  of  wood  grooved  in  a  larger  or  thick- 
er piece,  as  in  wainscots,  &c. 

PANNEL  (among  Masons) .  One  of  the 
faces  of  a  hewn  stone. 

PANNEL  (in  the  Manege).  A  saddle 
used  in  carrying  burdens. 

PxlNNEL  (in  the  Scotch  Law).  'Ihe 
prisoner  at  the  bar. 

PANNIER.  A  basket  for  carrying 
bread  on  horseback. 

PANORAMA.  A  circular  picture  on  a 
large  scale,  fixed  around  a  room  particular- 
ly constructed  for  the  purpose. 

PANOPLY.    Complete  armour. 

PANTALOONS.  A  garment  consisting 
of  breeches  and  stockings  of  the  same  stuff 
fastened  together. 

PANTHEON.  A  temple  at  Rome,  ded- 
icated to  all  the  heathen  deities ;  a  book 
containing  an  account  of  all  the  heathen 
gods  and  goddesses,  &c. 

PANTHER.  A  fierce  beast  nearly  al- 
lied to  the  tiger,  a  native  of  Africa.  It  is 
of  a  tawny  yellow  colour,  marked  with 
black  spots.  It  has  been  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  untameable,  but  Mrs.  Bow- 
ditch  has  given  an  account  of  a  recent 
instance  in  which  a  panther  became  so 
gentle  as  to  go  at  large  among  the  peo- 
ple. 

PANTOMIME  (among  the  Ancients). 
Antic  dances  and  mimic  gestures  ;  among 
the  Moderns,  a  sort  of  drama  represented 
by  gestures,  actions,  and  various  kinds  of 
tricks  performed  by  Harlequin  and  Colum- 
bine as  the  hero  and  heroine,  assisted  by 
Pantaloon  and  his  clown. 

PANTRY.  A  bread  closet,  or,  properly, 
a  small  room  in  which  the  daily  provis- 
ions of  the  table  are  kept. 

PAPAL  CROWN.  The  pope's  tiara  or 
crown,  otherwise  called  the  Triple  Crown, 


because  it  is  a  cap  of  silk  environed  with 
three  crowns  of  gold,  as  in  the  subjoined 
figure. 


PAPER.  A  vegetable  substance  manu- 
factured so  as  to  be  fit  for  writing  upon. 
The  Egj'ptian  paper  was  made  of  the  rush 
papyrus,  wliich  gave  its  name  to  the  sub- 
stance. Paper  is  likewise  made  of  bark  or 
the  inner  rind  of  trees,  of  cotton  and  other 
materials,  but  more  particularly  of  linen 
and  other  rags  prepared  by  a  particular 
process  at  the  paper  mills.  Paper  is  distin- 
guished as  to  its  use  into  writing  paper, 
printing  paper,  drawing  paper,  cartridge 
paper,  copy,  chancery,  &c. ;  as  to  its  size 
into  pot,  foolscap,  crown,  demy,  medium, 
royal,  imperial,  &c. 

PAPER  (among  Bankers.)  A  name 
given  to  money  of  credit  by  means  of  any 
written  paper,  as  bills  of  exchange,  prom- 
issory notes,  &c. 

PAPER  CURRENCY,  or  Paper  Mo- 
ney. A  substitute  for  coin  issued  on  the 
credit  of  government  in  the  shape  of  Bank 
notes,  of  which  there  was  as  much  as 
twenty-five  millions  in  circulation  at  one 
time. 

PAPIER  MACHE.  A  substance  made 
of  paper  boiled  into  a  paste,  of  which  toys 
are  formed. 

PAPILIONACEiE  (in  Botany).  One 
of  LinnjBus's  natural  orders  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  such  as  have  papilionaceous  or 
butterfly-shaped  flowers,  as  the  pea,  &c. 

PAPIST,  One  professing  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion.  Severe  laws  were  made 
in  England,  after  the  Reformation,  against 
the  Papists,  as  they  were  technically 
termed,  but  they  have  since  been  repealed, 
as  the  necessity  for  them  ceased. 

PAPYRUS.  An  Egyptian  reed  grass, 
the  leaves  of  which  were  made  into  paper. 
It  grows  in  the  marshes  of  Egypt,  or  in  the 
stagnant  places  of  the  Nile.  Its  roots  are 
tortuous,  and  in  thickness  about  four  or 
five  inches ;  its  stem,  which  is  triangular 
and  tapering,  rises  to  the  height  of  ten 


280 


PAR 


cubits,  and  carries  a  top  or  plume  of  small 
hairs. 


PAR.  An  equality  between  the  ex- 
changes of  different  countries. 

PARABLE.  An  allegorical  instruction, 
founded  on  something  real  or  apparent  in 
nature  or  histoiy,  from  which  a  moral  is 
drawn. 

PARABOLA  (in  Conic  Sections).  A 
curve  made  by  cutting  a  cone  by  a  plane, 
parallel  to  one  oT  its  sides,  or  parallel 
to  aplane  that  touches  one  side  of  the 
cone. 


PARACHUTE.  An  instrument  in  the 
shape  of  an  umbrella,  which  serves  to 
break  the  fall  in  descending  from  an  air 
balloon. 

PARADE.  The  place  where  troops 
draw  up,  to  do  duty  and  mount  guard. 

PARADIGM  (in  Grammar).  An  exam- 
ple of  a  Greek  or  Hebrew  verb,  conjugated 
through  all  its  moods  and  tenses. 

PARADISE.  The  garden  of  Eden, 
where  Adam  and  Eve  dwelt  in  their  state 
of  innocence. 

PARADISE,  Bird  of.  A  bird  of  a 
beautiful  plumage,  that  chiefly  inhabits  the 
Asiatic  islands.  Its  feathers  are  much 
used  as  ornaments  for  the  head  among  the 
Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Persians,  from 
Whom  they  are  obtained,  and  imported 
into  Europe.  Its  name  was  given  it  by 
the  sailors,  who,  seeing  it  on  the  wing, 
far  out  to  sea,  fancifully  imagined  it  to  be 


PAR 

an  inhabitant  of  the  air,  and  not  of  the 
land. 


PARADISE,  Grains  OF.  Thehotber- 
ries  or  seeds  of  the  cardamum. 

PARADOX.  An  opinion  apparently 
absurd  or  contradictory,  although  some- 
times true  in  fact. 

PARAGRAPH.  A  collection  of  senten- 
ces comprehended  between  one  break  and 
another. 

PARALLAX.  A  change  in  the  appa- 
rent place  of  any  heavenly  body  when  seen 
from  different  points  of  view. 

PARALLEL  (in  Mathematics).  The 
name  for  lines,  surfaces,  or  bodies  every 
where  at  an  equal  distance  from  each  other. 

PARALLELOGRAM.  Aplane  figure, 
bounded  by  four  right  lines,  whereof  the 
opposite  are  parallel  and  equal  to  one 
another. 


PARALLEL  SPHERE  (in  Astronomy). 
The  situation  of  the  sphere  when  the 
equator  coincides  with  the  horizon,  and 
the  poles  with  the  zenith  and  nadir. 

PARALYSIS.    The  palsy. 

PARAPET.  A  wall  breast  high,  that 
serves  to  hide  the  roof  of  a  house. 

PARAPHRASE.  An  explanation  of 
any  text  in  plainer  and  more  ample  terms. 

PARASANG.  A  Persian  measure  equal 
to  from  30  to  50  stadia  or  furlongs. 

PARASELENE.  A  mock  moon,  or  a 
meteor  in  the  form  of  a  luminous  ring 
round  the  moon. 

PARASITE  (among  the  Ancients).  A 
guest  invited  by  the  priest  to  eat  of  the 
sacrifice  ;  a  trencher  friend,  or  hanger  on  at 
he  tables  of  the  great,  who  lives  by  flattery. 

PARASITICAL    PLANTS.     Such    as 


PAR 


PAR 


281 


grow  upon  others,  like  the  mosa  or  mis- 
seltoe. 

PARASOL.  A  little  movable  ma- 
chine, or  small  umbrella,  fitted  for  keep- 
ing off  the  sun. 

PARC^,  the  Fates.  Three  sisters 
among  the  heathens,  who  presided  over, 
or  spun  the  lives  of  men  ;  Clotho  held  the 
distaff  and  spun  the  thread,  Lachesis  turn- 
ed the  wheel,  and  Atropos  cut  the  thread. 

PARCHMENT.  The  skin  of  sheep  or 
goats,  prepared  for  writing  upon. 

PARDON  (in  Law).  The  remitting  the 
punishment  for  any  felony  committed 
against  the  law. 

PARENTHESIS  (in  Grammar).  A 
clause  inserted  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence, 
and  marked  thus  [],  or  thus  (). 

PARHELION.    A  mock  sun. 

PARIAN  MARBLE.  A  sort  of  white 
marble,  so  called  from  the  island  of  Paros, 
where  it  was  first  found. 

PARIS.  The  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy, 
who,  carrying  away  Helen,  the  wife  of  Me- 
nelaus,  was  the  author  of  the  Trojan  war. 

PARIS,  Plaster  op.  A  composition 
of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid,  used  in  making 
casts  and  moulds.  It  is  also  used  in  a 
pulverized  state  as  a  manure. 

PARISH  (in  Law).  In  England,  a  dis- 
trict or  division  of  a  city,  hundred,  &c., 
which  has  particular  ofiicers,  and,  in  eccle- 
Biastical  affairs,  is  under  a  parson,  that  is 
either  a  rector  or  vicar,  &c.  In  England, 
there  are  about  9913  parishes. 

PARISH  CLERK.  In  England,  the 
lowest  ofiicer  in  the  church,  acting  under 
the  parson  of  the  parish. 

PARK.  In  England,  an  enclosure 
Btocked  with  wild  beasts  of  chase,  which 
a  man  might  have  by  prescription,  or  the 
king's  grant. 

,  PARK  OF  ARTILLERY.  A  place  in 
a  camp  appointed  for  the  artillery,  as  the 
guns,  powder,  &c. 

PARK  (among  Fishermen).  A  large 
net  disposed  on  the  bank  of  the  sea. 

PARLIAMENT.  In  England,  the  great 
council  of  the  nation,  consisting  of  the 
King,  Lords,  and  Commons,  which  forma 
the  legislative  branch  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment or  constitution.  The  parliament 
is  assembled  annually  by  summons  from 
the  crown,  to  make  laws,  impose  taxes, 
and  deliberate  on  other  public  affairs,  either 
of  domestic  or  foreign  policy.  The  Par- 
liament is  also  styled  the  High  Court  of 
Parliament,  because  the  upper  house  as- 
sists in  the  administration  as  well  as  in 
the  making  of  laws. 

PARMESAN.  A  sort  of  cheese  made 
at  Parma  in  Italy. 

24* 


PARNASSUS.  A  mountain  of  Phocis 
in  Greece,  on  which  stood  the  temple  and 
town  of  Delphi.  It  was  sacred  to  Apollo 
and  the  Muses. 

PARODY.  A  poetical  pleasantry,  which 
consists  in  applying  the  verses  of  some 
person,  by  way  of  ridicule,  to  another  ob- 
ject, or  in  turning  a  serious  work  into  bur- 
lesque, by  affecting  to  observe  the  same 
rhymes,  words,  and  cadences. 

PAROL  (in  Law).  By  word  of  mouth, 
as  parol  evidence. 

PAROLE  (in  Militaiy  Affairs).  Word 
of  honour,  a  promise  given  by  a  prisoner 
of  war,  when  suffered  to  be  at  large,  that 
he  will  return  at  a  time  appointed. 

PARRICIDE.  A  murderer  of  father  or 
mother. 

PARROaUET.  A  sort  of  parrot  easily 
taught  to  speak.  It  inhabits  tropical  re- 
gions ;  one  species  is  found  in  the  Southern 
States. 


PARROT.  A  noisy,  imitative,  gregari- 
ous kind  of  bird,  of  wliich  there  are  at 
least  fifty  varieties.  It  is  a  native  of  th» 
tropical  climates,  and  easily  tamed. 


PARRYING  (among  Fencers).  The 
warding  a  push  or  blow  from  an  adver- 
sary. 

PARSING  (in  Grammar).  Expounding 
words  and  sentences  so  as  to  apply  the 
rules  of  grammar  to  them. 


28? 


PAR 


PAS 


PARSLEY,  A  potherb,  and  a  peren- 
nial, which  gi-ows  in  gardens. 

PARSNEP.    An  edible  root. 

PARSON.  In  England,  the  person 
holding  the  office  of  rector  or  vicar  in  a 
parish. 

Pii.RT  (in  Arithmetic).  A  quantity  con- 
tained in  a  whole. 

PART  (in  Music).  A  piece  of  the  score 
or  partition,  written  by  itself,  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  musician. 

PART  (in  the  Drama).  The  character 
or  portion  of  a  piece  assigned  to  a  per- 
former. 

PARTERRE.  An  open  part  of  a  garden 
in  the  front  of  a  house,  commonly  orna- 
mented with  flowers. 

PARTHENON.  A  temple  at  Athens, 
sacred  to  Minei-va. 

PARTICIPLE  (in  Grammar).  One  of 
the  parts  of  speech,  so  called  because  it 
partakes  both  of  the  noun  and  the  verb. 

PARTICLE  (in  Physiology) .  A  minute 
part  of  any  body  which  enters  into  its 
composition. 

PARTICLE  (in  Grammar).  Small  in- 
declinable words,'that  serve  to  unite  or 
connect  others  together. 

PARTIES  (in  Law) .  The  persons  nam- 
ed in  a  deed. 

PARTING.  Separating  gold  and  silver 
by  aquafortis. 

PARTITION  (in  Law).  Dividing  lands 
or  tenements  among  coheirs  or  partners. 

PARTNER.  One  who  joins  with  anoth- 
er in  some  concern  or  affair. 

PART  OWNERS.  Partners  possessed 
of  a  certain  share  in  a  ship. 

PARTRIDGE.  A  bird  of  game  which 
abounds  in  ail  parts  of  Europe,  and  is 
highly  esteemed  for  its  flesh.  It  resem- 
bles the  quail  of  the  United  States,  but  is 
larger. 


The  bird  called  partridge  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  pheasant  at  the  South,  is  a  spe- 
cies of  grouse. 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH,  The  grammat- 
ical divisions  of  words  according  to  their 
connexion  with  or  dependence  upon  each 
other ;  they  are  commonly  reckoned  nine 


in  number,  namely,  the  article,  noun,  pro- 
noun, verb,  participle,  adverb,  conjunction, 
preposition,  and  interjection 

PARTY  (in  Military  Affairs).  A  small 
detachment  or  number  of  men  sent  upon 
any  particular  duty,  as  a  recruiting  party, 
&c. 

PARTY(  in  Public  Afl"airs).  Any  number 
of  men  combining  together  to  follow  their 
own  particular  views,  either  in  politics  or 
religion. 

PARTY- WALLS.  Partitions  of  bricb 
made  between  buildings  separately  occu- 
pied, to  prevent  the  spreading  of  fire. 

PASaUINADE.  A  short  satirical  libel 
that  is  generally  stuck  up  to  be  read  by 
the  passers  by. 

PASS  (in  Military  Affairs).  A  strait 
or  narrow  passage,  which  renders  the  en- 
trance into  acountiy  difficult  for  an  army. 

PASS  (among  Miners).  A  frame  of  thin 
boards,  set  sloping  for  the  ore  to  slide 
down. 

PASS  (in  Fencing).  A  push  or  thrust 
at  the  adversary. 

PASSAGE  (in  Music).  A  succession  of 
sounds  forming  a  member  or  phrase  in  a 
composition. 

PASSAGE  (in  Military  Affairs).  The 
passing  over  bridges,  mountains,  &c. 

PASSAGE  (in  Navigation) .  The  course 
pursued  at  sea,  particularly  that  which  has 
been  attempted  to  be  taken  by  the  north 
pole  in  going  to  India.  This  attempt  has 
been  made  in  two  ways,  namely,  by  coast-, 
ing  along  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  called  the  north-east  passage  j  and 
another  by  sailing  round  the  northern  part 
of  the  American  continent,  called  the  north- 
west passage ;  besides  v/hich,  an  attempt 
has  also  been  made  to  sail  over  the  pole 
itself. 

PASSENGER.  Any  one  travelling  by  a 
coach,  vessel,  or  other  mode  of  convey- 
ance ;  also  any  one  passing  by. 

PASSERES.  An  order  of  birds  in  the 
LinnjEan  system,  comprehending  such  ag 
have  the  bill  conic  and  pointed,  as  the 
pigeon,  the  lark,  the  thrush,  &;c. 

PASSION  WEEK.  The  week  Imme- 
diately before  Easter. 

PASSIVE.  Suffering,  an  epithet  for 
verbs  which  express  the  suffering  or  being 
acted  upon,  as  '  to  be  loved.' 

PASSIVE  PRINCIPLES  (in  Chymis^ 
try).  Earth  and  water,  so  called  because 
their  parts  are  not  so  swiftly  moved  M 
those  of  spirits,  oil,  and  salt. 

PASSOVER.  A  festival  of  the  Jews, 
commemorative  of  the  angels  passing  the 
doors  of  the  Israelites  when  they  slew  all 
the  first  born  of  the  Egyptians. 


PAT 

PASSPORT,  or  Pass.  In  Europe,  a 
license  or  letter  from  a  prince  or  governor, 
granting  liberty  to  a  person  to  pass  through 
the  country. 

PASSPORT  (in  Commerce).  A  license 
to  export  or  import  goods. 

PASS  WORD.  A  secret  word  or  coun- 
tersign which  enables  any  person  to  go 
through  militarj'  stations. 

PASTE  (in  the  Glass  Trade).  A  kind 
of  coloured  glass  made  of  calcined  crystal, 
lead,  and  metallic  preparations,  so  as  to 
imitate  gems. 

PASTEBOARD.  A  thick  kind  of  pa- 
per, formed  of  several  sheets  pasted  one 
over  the  other. 

PASTIL.  A  sweet  ball  or  perfumed 
composition. 

PASTIL  (among  Painters).  A  roll  of 
paste  made  up  of  various  colours,  with  gum  3 
a  crayon. 

Px\STORAL.  A  shepherd's  song  or 
poem,  by  way  of  dialogue  between  shep- 
herds. 

PASTURE  LAND.  Land  reserved  for 
the  feeding  of  cattle. 

PATENTS,  or  Letters  Patent.  In 
England,  writings  sealed  with  the  great 
seal,  authorizing  a  man  to  do  or  enjoy 
Uiat  which  he  could  not  of  himself.  In 
the  United  States,  the  term  is  aj^plied  to 
certificates  issued  from  the  patent  oflfice, 
which  give"  to  the  inventor  of  any  use- 
ful machine  the  exclusive  advantage  of 
his  invention. 

PATERNOSTER.  The  Lord's  prayer ; 
also  the  repetition  of  the  Lord's  prayer  in 
the  Romish  church. 

PATHOLOGY.  That  branch  of  medi- 
cine which  explains  the  symptoms  of  dis- 


PEA 


283 


PATHOS.  An  emotion  which  an  ora- 
tor displays  in  his  speech  or  excites  in  his 
hearers. 

PATIENT.  One  who  is  under  the  di- 
rection, of  a  physician,  for  the  cure  of  any 
disorder. 

PATIENT  (in  Physiology).  That  which 
receives  impressions  from  any  other  thing, 
called  the  agent. 

PATRIARCH.  The  father  or  ruler  of 
a  family,  such  as  Abraham,  and  the  patri- 
archs of  old. 

PATRIARCH  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs). 
In  England,  a  bishop  that  is  superior  to  an 
archbishop. 

PATRIMONY  (in  Law).  A  right  de- 
scended from  ancestors. 

PATRIOT.     A  father  of  his  country. 

PATROL.  Any  party  goingtheir  rounds 
at  stated  hours,  to  see  that  the  watchmen 
do  their  dutv. 


PATRON  (In  Law).  In  England,  a 
friend  of  interest  or  power ;  he  who  has 
the  disposal  of  a  benefice. 

PATRON.  In  England,  a  sea  term  fof 
one  who  commands  a  ship  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

PATRONYMIC.  A  name  derived  from 
one's  father  or  ancestors. 

PAVEMENT.  A  layer  of  stone  or 
bricks,  which  serves  to  cover  the  ground 
and  form  a  path  or  road.  In  London,  the 
pavement  for  coachways  is  principally  a 
kind  of  granite  from  Scotland  ;  for  the  foot- 
path, Yorkshire  paving  stone  is  used. 
Courts,  stables,  kitchens,  halls,  churches, 
are  commonly  paved  with  tiles,  bricks,  or 
freestone.  In  France,  they  mostly  use 
freestone ;  in  Venice  and  Holland,  and  oth- 
er countries,  they  use  for  tlie  most  part 
bricks. 

PAVILION.  A  large  tent  raised  on 
posts  to  lodge  under  in  summer  time. 

PAUPER.    One  receiving  parish  relief. 

PAUPERIS  IN  FORMA.     See  Forma 

PAUSE.  A  stop  or  cessation  of  speak- 
ing, singing,  playing,  &c. 

PAUSE  (in  Music).  A  character  of 
time,  denoting  that  the  note  must  be 
drawn  out  to  a  greater  length. 

PAWN  (in  Commerce) .  A  pledge  giv 
en  by  way  of  security  for  the  payment  of 
a  sum  of  money. 

PAWN  (in  Chess).  One  of  the  com- 
mon men. 

PAWNBROKER.  One  who  lends  mo- 
ney upon  goods  left  in  pledge. 

PAY.  What  is  allowed  to  each  indi- 
vidual in  the  army.  Full  pay  is  the  full 
allowance  ;  half  pay,  that  which  is  allow- 
ed to  ofiicers  on  their  retiring  from  the 
service. 

PAYING.  A  sea  term  for  anointing  a 
mast,  yard,  &c.,  with  tar,  pitch,  turpen- 
tine, &c. 

PAYING  OFF.  A  sea  term  for  letting 
a  ship's  head  fall  to  leeward  of  the  point, 
whither  it  was  previously  directed. 

PAYING  OFF  A  SHIP.  Discharging 
the  crew  from  actual  service,  that  the  ship 
may  be  laid  up  in  ordinary. 

PAYMASTER.  He  who  has  the  charge 
of  paying  a  regiment. 

PAYMENT.  The  discharge  of  a  debt, 
also  the  time  and  measure  of  paying. 
Prompt  payment,  the  payment  of  a  bill  or 
debt  before  it  becomes  due. 

PEA.  A  kind  of  pulse,  that  la  either 
planted  in  gardens  for  the  food  of  man,^  or 
in  the  fields  as  a  food  for  cattle. 

PEACE  (in  Law).  A  quiet  and  Inof- 
fensive behaviour  towards  the  government 
and  the  people. 


f84 


PEA 


PEACE  ESTABLISHMENT.  The 
number  of  effective  men  required  in  the 
army  and  navy  during  peace. 

PEACE  OF  GOD  AND  THE  CHURCH. 

In  England,  the  time  of  vacation  between 
terms,  when  there  is  a  cessation  from 
lawsuits. 

PEACE  OF  THE  KING.  In  England, 
that  peace  and  security,  both  for  life  and 
goods,  which  the  king  affords  to  all  his 
subjects. 

PEACE  OF  THE  KING'S  HIGH- 
WAY. In  England,  the  immunity  that 
the  king's  highway  has  to  be  free  from  all 
molestation. 

PEACH.  A  delicious,  juicy  fruit,  that,  in 
England,  grows  against  garden  walls,  and 
in  America,  is  produced  abundantly  in  or- 
chards. 

PEACOCK.  A  well  known  domestic 
bird,  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  tail 
and  the  harshness  of  its  cry. 

PEAK  (in  Geography).  A  mountain  or 
elevation  with  a  sharp  sujnmit,  as  the  Peak 
ofTeneriffe. 

PEAK  (among  Mariners).  The  upper 
corner  of  sails  which  are  extended  by  a 
gaff  or  by  a  yard,  which  crosses  the  mast 
obliquely. 

PEAR.  A  well  known  class  of  trees 
which  yields  a  great  variety  of  fruit,  as 
the  musk,  muscadelle,  rose,  bergamot, 
bury  pear,  sickle,  St.  Michael's,  &;c. 

PEARL.  A  concretion  found  in  several 
shells,  as  in  some  species  of  the  oyster  and 
muscle.  Pearls  are  of  a  silvery  or  bluish 
white  colour,  and  very  brDliant.  They 
are  supposed  to  be  produced  by  a  distem- 
per in  the  animal,  similar  to  the  stone  in 
man ;  they  are  formed,  however,  of  the 
same  matter  as  the  inner  shell,  and  consist 
of  layers  one  over  another,  after  the  man- 
ner of  an  onion. 

PEARL,  Mother  of.  The  shell  of 
another  species  of  oyster,  not  the  pearl 
oyster.  It  is  extremely  smooth,  and  as 
white  as  the  pearl. 

PEARLASH.  Potash  calcined  or  clear- 
ed of  its  impurities  by  fire. 

PEARL  BARLEY.  The  seed  of  com- 
mon barley  rubbed  into  small  round  grains 
like  pearl,  of  which  a  cooling  drink  is  made. 

PEAT.  A  sort  of  fuel  dug  out  of  the 
earth.  It  is  the  remains  of  decayed  vege- 
tables, as  leaves,  stringy  fibres,  the  wood 
of  decayed  trunks  of  trees,  &;c.  It  is  found 
in  low  valleys  and  bogs  in  Great  Britain 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  America. 

PEAT  MOSS.  The  bed  in  which  peat 
is  found,  either  on  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
or  covered  over  with  sand  or  earth  to  a 
Bhort  depth. 


PEL 

PEBBLES.  A  sort  of  fossils  distin- 
guished from  flints  by  having  a  variety  of 
colours. 

PECCARY.  An  animal  of  the  hog  kind, 
found  in  Mexico. 

PECK.  A  dry  measure,  the  fourth  part 
of  a  bushel. 

PECORA.  An  order  of  animals  in  the 
LinnaEan  system,  under  the  class  mam- 
malia, comprehending  such  as  have  the 
feet  hoofed  and  cloven,  and  live  on  grass, 
and  chew  the  cud,  and  have  four  stom- 
achs, as  the  antelope,  the  camel,  camelo 
pard,  stag,  musk,  sheep,  ox,  cow,  &c. 

PECTORAL.  Relating  to  the  breast, 
as  pectoral  medicines,  medicines  good  for 
curing  diseases  in  the  breast. 

PECULIAR  (in  Law).  In  England,  a 
church  or  parish  having  a  jurisdiction 
within  itself. 

PECULIARS,  Court  of.  In  England, 
a  court  belonging  to  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  which  takes  cognizance  of 
matters  relating  to  parishes  that  have  a  pe- 
culiar jurisdiction. 

PEDANTRY.  A  needless  or  ill-timed 
display  of  learning. 

PEDESTAL.  The  lowest  part  of  a 
column. 

PEDIMENT.  A  low  pinnacle,  serving 
to  crown  a  frontispiece,  &;c. 

PEDOMETER,    See  Perambulator. 

PEER  (in  Law).  An  equal,  or  one  of 
the  same  rank  and  condition;  formerly 
applied,  in  England,  to  the  vassals  or  ten- 
ants of  the  same  lord  ;  and  now  applied  to 
those  who  are  impannelled  in  an  inquest 
upon  a  man  accused  of  any  offence,  who, 
by  the  criminal  law,  ought  to  be  peers  ox 
equals  of  the  person  accused. 

PEERESS.    The  lady  of  a  peer. 

PEERS  OF  THE  REALM.  In  Eng- 
land, the  nobility  of  the  kingdom,  who, 
though  distinguished  by  the  different  titles 
of  duke,  marquis,  earl,  viscount,  and 
baron,  are  nevertheless  all  peers  or  equals 
in  their  political  character  as  lords  of  par- 
liament. 

PEEWIT,  or  Lapwing.  An  Euro- 
pean bird  that  frequents  marshes,  and  the 
banks  of  streams,  about  the  size  of  a  pi- 
geon, and  resembling  the  plover.  Asimilaf 
bird,  but  much  smaller  in  size,  bears  the 
same  name  in  the  United  States. 

PEGASUS  (in  the  Heathen  Mythol- 
ogy). A  winged  horse,  on  which  Bellero- 
phon  is  fabled  to  have  ridden. 

PEGASUS  (in  Astronomy).  A  constel- 
lation in  the  northern  hemisphere,  con- 
taining from  20  to  89  stars,  according  to 
different  writers. 

PELICAN.    A  large  bird  found  in  all 


PEN 

warm  countries,  the  bill  of  which  is 
straight,  except  at  the  point.  It  has  a  skin 
reaching  down  the  neck,  which  forms  a 
poucli  capable  of  holding  many  quarts  of 
water.  The  pelican  has  a  peculiar  ten- 
derness for  its  young,  and  has  been  sup- 
posed to  draw  blood  from  its  breast  for 
their  support.  In  South  America,  this 
bird  is  tamed,  and  taught  to  catch  fish,  and 
bring  them  to  its  owner  in  its  pouch. 


PEN 


285 


PELICANUS.  The  generic  term  In  the 
Linnasan  system  for  the  sort  of  birds  of 
which  the  pelican  is  the  principal  species. 
It  comprehends  also  the  cormorant  or  cor- 
vorant,  man  of  war  bird,  and  the  gannet. 

PELLICLE.  A  thin  film  or  fragment 
of  a  membrane. 

PELLITORY  OF  THE  WALL.  An 
herb  that  is  used  in  medicine. 

PELT.    The  skin  or  hide  of  an  animal. 

PELVJS  (in  Anatomy).  The  lower 
part  of  the  abdomen. 

PEN.    An  instrument  for  writing. 

PEN  (in  Husbandry).  A  fold  or  enclo- 
Bure  for  sheep,  &c. 

PENAL  LAWS.  Laws  made  for  the 
punishment  of  criminal  offences, 

PENALTY  (in  Law).  A  fine  or  for- 
feiture by  way  of  punishment. 

PENANCE  (in  Ecclesiastical  Law). 
An  infliction  of  some  pain  or  bodily  suf- 
fering, as  an  exercise  of  repentance  for 
some  sin,  either  voluntary  or  imposed  by 
the  priest  in  the  Romish  church. 

PENATES.  The  household  gods  of  the 
Romans. 

PENCIL.  An  instrument  used  in 
drawing  and  painting. 


PENCIL   OF   RAYS   (in  Optics).     A 
number  of  rays  diverging  from  some  lu- 


minous point,  which,  after  falling  upon 
and  passing  through  a  lens,  converge  again 
on  entering  the  eye. 


PENDANT.  A  sea  term  for  a  narrow 
banner  or  streamer.  The  broad  pendant 
is  a  flag  that  serves  to  distinguish  the  chief 
of  a  squadron. 

PENDULUM.  A  heavy  body  so  sus- 
pended that  it  may  vibrate  or  swing  back- 
wards and  forwards. 

PENDULUxAI  CLOCKS.  Clocks  that 
have  their  movements  regulated  by  the 
vibration  of  a  pendulum. 

PENDULUM  ROYAL.  A  clock  whose 
pendulum  sways  seconds,  and  goes  eiglit 
days  without  winding  up. 

PENETRATION  OF  BODIES.  A 
term  in  physiology,  denoting  that  the 
parts  of  one  body  occupy  tlie  interstices 
between  the  parts  of  the  other. 

PENGUIN.   See  Auk. 

PENINSULA.  A  place  almost  sur- 
rounded with  water,  except  where  it  ia 
joined  with  the  continent  by  a  neck  of 
land. 

PENITENTIARY,  The  name  of  soma 
prisons  in  England  where  felons  are  kept 
to  hard  labour. 

PENMAN.  One  skilled  in  tlje  use  of 
the  pen,  particularly  in  fine  kinds  of  wri- 
ting. 

PENNY.  One  of  the  earliest  coins  in 
England,  the  twelfth  part  of  a  shilling ;  it 
was  formerly  a  silver,  now  a  copper  coin  ; 
it  is  marked  by  the  letter  d  in  accounts. 

PENNY  POST.  A  post  formerly  in 
London  for  conveying  letters  to  diflierent 
parts  of  the  metropolis  for  a  penny.  The 
price  being  raised  to  twopence,  it  ia  now 
called  the  twopenny  post. 

PENNYROYAL.  An  herb  used  in 
medicine,  something  like  the  mint. 

PENNYWEIGHT.  An  English  troy 
weight,  marked  thus,  dwt,,  containing  24 
grains. 

PENSION  (in  Law).  An  annual  allow- 
ance made  to  a  person  by  a  prince  or  gov- 
ernment without  any  equivalent  in  return. 

PENSIONER-  One  who  receives  a 
pension ;  also  one  maintained  at  the 
charge  of  the  king,  government,  company 
or  hospital. 

PENSIONERS,  Gentlemen,  or  King's 
Pensioners.  In  England,  a  band  of  gen- 
tlemen, to  the  number  of  40,  first  set  on 


286  PEN 

foot  by  King  Henry  VII.,  whose  office  it 
Is  to  guard  the  king's  person  in  his  palace. 
PENTAGON.     A   geometrical,    figure, 
having  five  sides  and  five  angles. 


PENTAGRAPH.  A  copying  machine, 
by  which  designs  may  be  copied  in  any 
proportion  by  persons  who  are  not  skilled 
in  drawing.  It  consists  of  four  jointed  le- 
vers, as  in  the  subjoined  figure. 


PENTAGYNIA  (in  Botany).  An  order 
of  plants  in  the  Linnsan  system,  compre- 
hending such  as  have  five  pistils  in  an 
hermaphrodite  flower. 

PENTAMETER.  A  sort  of  verse  In 
Latin  and  Greek,  consisting  of  five  feet  or 


PENTANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
the  Linnsean  classes,  comprehending 
plants  which  have  flowers  with  five 
stamens. 


PENTATEUCH.     The  five  books  of 


PENTHOUSE.  A  shed  hanging  for- 
ward. 

PENUMBRA  (in  Astronomy).  A  par- 
tial shade  observed  between  the  perfect 
shadow  and  the  full  light  in  an  eclipse. 


PER 

PEPPER.  An  aromatic  fruit  or  beny 
brought  from  India.  It  is  of  three  kinds, 
namely,  black,  white,  and  long.  The 
black  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree  that  grows  in 
the  Spice  Islands. 

PER.  A  Latin  preposition,  signifying 
by,  used  in  many  phrases ;  as,  per  force,  pr. 
or  per  annum,  per  cent,  or  per  centum,  &c. 

PERAMBULATOR.  An  instrument 
for  measuring  distances,  otherwise  called 
a  pedometer,  or  surveying  wheel. 


PER  CENTUM,  or  Pr.  Cewt.  Rate 
of  interest,  so  much  for  each  hundred ;  as, 
five  percent.,  that  is,  five  pounds  for  every 
hundred  pounds. 

PERCH.  A  kind  of  fish  with  sharp,  in- 
cur vate  teeth,  that  prey  upon  other  fish ; 
the  flesh  of  this  fish  is  very  delicate. 

PERCH  (in  Commerce).  A  measure  of 
five  yards  and  a  half,  or  sixteen  feet  and 
a  half. 

PER  CHANCE.    Accidentally. 

PERCUSSION.  The  impression  a 
body  makes  in  falling  or  striking  upon 
another.  It  is  either  direct  or  oblique ; 
direct  when  the  impulse  is  made  in  the 
direction  of  a  line  perpendicular  at  the 
point  of  impact,  and  oblique  when  it  is 
given  in  a  line  oblique  to  the  place  of  im- 
pact, or  that  does  not  pass  through  the 
common  centre  of  gravity  of  the  two  strik- 
ing bodies. 

PEREMPTORY  (in  Law).  Absolute 
or  determinate,  as  peremptory  writ,  &.c. 

PERENNIAL.  A  plant  the  root  of 
which  continues  for  more  than  two  years. 

PERFORATION.  Boring  or  making  a 
hole  through. 

PER  FORCE.  Against  one's  inclina- 
tion. 

PERIANTH.  The  calyx  or  cup  of  a 
flower  when  it  is  contiguous  to  the  flower, 
in  distinction  from  the  calyx  or  outer  cov- 
ering of  the  flower. 

PERICARDIUM.  A  double  membrane, 
which  surrounds  the  whole  compass  of 
the  heart. 

PERICARP.  A  viscous  bag  with  seeds, 
or  a  vessel  producing  seeds. 

PERICRANIUM.  A  membrane  which 
encloses  the  bones  of  the  skull. 

PERIGEE  (in  Ancient  Astronomy). 
That  point  in  the  heaven  in  which  the 
sun  or  any  planet  is  least  distant  from  the 
centre  of  the  earth. 


PER 

PERIHELION  (in  Modern  Astronomy). 
That  point  of  a  planet's  orbit  in  wlaich  it 
is  nearest  to  the  sun. 

PERIMETER.  The  ambit  or  extent 
which  bounds  a  figure  or  bodj',  whether 
rectilinear  or  mixed. 

PERIOD  (in  Astronomy).  The  entire 
revolution  of  a  planet. 

PERIOD  (in  Chronology).  The  revolu- 
tion of  a  certain  number  of  years,  as  the 
Julian  period. 

PERIOD  (in  Grammar).  A  full  stop  at 
the  end  of  any  sentence,  marked  thus  (.) 

PERIOD  (in  Arithmetic).  A  point  or 
comma  after  every  third  place  in  a  series 
of  figures ;  also  in  the  extraction  of  roots,  to 
pomt  off  the  figures  into  given  numbers  or 
parcels. 

PERIOD  (in  Medicine).  The  interval 
between  the  coming  of  fits  in  intermitting 
disorders. 

PERIOECI  (in  Geography).  Inhabit- 
ants of  the  earth  who  live  under  the  same 
parallel  of  latitude,  but  opposite  parallels  of 
longitude. 

PERIPHERY.  The  circumference  of 
any  circle  or  curve,  &c. 

PERIPATETICS.  The  followers  of 
Aristotle,  whose  doctrines  are  distinguish- 
ed by  the  name  of  the  Peripatetic  philos- 
ophy. He  also  was  called  the  Peripa- 
tetic because  he  delivered  his  lectures 
walking. 

PERIPHRASIS.  Circumlocution,  or 
expressing  any  thing  by  many  words 
which  might  be  expressed  by  a  few. 

PERISCII.  Inhabitants  of  the  earth 
whose  shadow  goes  round  them  in  a  day. 

PERISTALTIC  MOTION.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  intestines,  which  resembles  the 
motion  of  a  worm. 

PERISTYLE.  A  piazza,  as  in  the 
middle  of  the  gA^mnasium  at  Athens. 

PERJURY.  Taking  a  false  oath  know- 
ingly and  wilfully. 

PERIWINKLE.    A  kind  of  sea  snail. 

PERMIT  (in  Law).  A  license  or  war- 
rant for  persons  to  pass  with  or  sell  goods. 

PERMUTATION.  The  same  as  com- 
bination. 

PERORATION.  The  epilogue  or  con- 
cluding part  of  an  oration. 

PERPENDER,  or  Perpend  Stone.  A 
etone  fitted  to  the  thickness  of  a  wall. 

PERPENDICULAR  (in  Geometry).  A 
line,'  which,  when  it  falls  upon  another 
line,  makes  the  angles  on  each  side  equal 
and  right  angles. 

PERPENDICULAR  (in  Gunnery).  A 
Email  instrument  used  for  the  finding  the 
centre  line  of  a  piece,  in  the  operation  of 
jointing  it  at  any  ol.iect. 


PER 


287 


PERPETUAL  CURATE.  In  England, 
a  curate  that  is  not  removable  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  any  one. 

PERRY.  A  drink  made  of  the  juice  of 
pears. 

PER  SALTEM.    At  once,  or  at  a  leap. 

PER  SE.  By  or  in  itself;  things  con- 
sidered per  se,  that  is,  in  tbe  abstract,  or 
abstracted  from  all  others. 

PERSECUTION.  The  infliction  of 
pain  on  another  designedly  and  with  force 
and  violence,  in  violation  of  the  laws 
either  of  God  or  man,  such  as  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  primitive  Christian  church ; 
the  first  liappened  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
and  the  last  in  that  of  Diocletian. 

PERSEUS  (in  Heathen  Mythology).  A 
hero,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae,  who 
procured  the  Gorgon's  head,  and  released 
Andromeda. 

PERSEUS  (in  Astronomy).  A  constel- 
lation in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

PERSIAN  LILAC.  A  handsome  shrub, 
having  a  broader  leaf  and  a  finer  flower 
than  the  common  lilac. 

PERSIAN  ORDER  (in  Architecture). 
An  order  wherein  the  entablature  is  sup- 
ported by  the  figures  of  men  instead  of 
columns.  They  were  intended  to  repre- 
sent the  Persians  taken  captive  by  the 
Athenians. 

PERSIAN  WHEEL.  An  engine  for 
wateruig  lands. 

PERSON  (in  Grammar).  A  term  for 
nouns  and  pronouns  which  express  the 
person  of  the  speaker;  also  the  inflection 
of  verbs  answering  to  the  diflferent  persons. 
There  are  three  persons,  namely,  the  first, 
or  the  person  speaking;  the  second,  the 
person  spoken  to ;  and  the  third,  the  per- 
son spoken  of. 

PERSONAL  (in  Law).  Belonging  to 
the  person  and  not  to  the  thing,  as  per- 
sonal goods,  as  opposed  to  real  property  or 
estates ;  personal  actios,  an  action  against 
the  person. 

PERSONAL  VERB  (in  Grammar).  A 
verb  that  has  inflections  or  endings  to  ex- 
press the  persons  of  the  agent. 

PERSONALTY  (in  Law).  Any  thing 
personal,  in  distinction  from  things  real. 

PERSONATE  (in  Botany).  One  of 
Linnasus's  natural  orders  of  plants,  which 
have  a  labiate  corolla  or  flower  with  the 
lips  closed,  as  the  aconite,  &c. 

PERSONATING.  Representing  any 
one  by  a  fictitious  or  assumed  charact«c»L. 
so  as  to  pass  for  the  person  represented. 

PERSONS.    The  three  persons  or  sub- 
sistences in  the  Holy  Trinity ;  namely, 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost. 
PERSONS  (in  Law)  are  distinguished 


288  PER 

into  natural  persons,  whom  God  has 
formed,  and  artificial  persons,  or  those 
formed  by  society,  as  corporations  or  bod- 
ies politic. 

PERSPECTIVE.  A  branch  of  mixed 
mathematics,  which  shows  how  to  repre- 
sent objects  on  a  plain  surface  as  natural- 
ly as  they  would  appear  to  our  sight  if 
seen  through  that  plane,  supposing  it  were 
as  transparent  as  glass.  Perspective  is 
divided  into  Aerial  Perspective,  which 
has  principally  a  reference  to  the  colour- 
ing and  shading  of  distant  objects ;  and 
Lineal  Perspective,  which  relates  to  the 
position,  form,  magnitude,  &c.,  of  the  sev- 
eral lines  or  contours  of  objects,  &c. 

PERSPECTIVE,  History  of.  Per- 
spective, as  a  branch  of  optics,  was  known 
and  practised  at  an  early  period.  It  was 
taught  by  Democritus  and  Anaxagoras, 
and  treated  of  by  Euclid  in  his  Optics. 
Alhazen  likewise,  in  his  optical  treatise, 
speaks  of  this  art,  and  of  its  importance 
for  the  painter  5  but  the  first  writers  who 
professedly  treated  on  perspective,  were 
Bartolemeo  Bramantino,  in  his  Regole  di 
Perspectiva,  &:c.-,  dated  1440,  and  Pietro 
del  Borgo,  who  supposed  objects  to  be 
placed  beyond  a  transparent  tablet,  and  so 
to  trace  the  images  which  rays  of  light 
emitted  from  them  would  make  upon  it. 
Albert  Durer  constructed  a  machine  upon 
the  principles  of  Borgo,  by  which  he  could 
trace  the  perspective  appearance  of  objects. 
Leon  Battista  Alberti,  in  his  treatise  De 
Pictura,  speaks  chiefly  of  perspective  ;  and 
Balthazar  Peruzzi,  of  Siena,  who  died  in 
1506,  wrote  a  system  of  perspective,  which 
appeared  in  1540.  He  is  said  to  have  first 
recommended  points  of  distance,  to  which 
are  drawn  all  lines  that  make  an  angle  of 
45  degrees  with  the  ground  line.  Guido 
Ubaldi,  in  his  Perspective,  published  in 
1600,  showed  that  all  lines  are  parallel  to 
one  another,  if  they  be  inclined  to  the 
ground  line,  and  converge  to  some  point 
in  the  horizontal  line ;  and  that  through 
this  point  also  will  pass  a  line  drawn  from 
the  eye  parallel  to  them.  His  work  con- 
tained the  first  principles,  which  after- 
wards formed  the  groundwork  of  Dr.  Tay- 
lor's. He  was  immediately  followed  by 
Giacomo  Barozzi,  of  Vignola,  whose  Tvv'o 
Rules  of  Perspective  were  published,  with 
-a  commentary,  by  Ignatius  Dante.  Maro- 
lois'  work  was  published  at  the  Hague  in 
1615,  and  that  of  Sirigatti,  which  was  an 
abstract  of  Vignola's,  in  1625.  But  the 
most  celebrated  writer  on  this  subject  was 
Dr.  Brooke  Taylor,  who,  in  his  Linear 
Perspective,  has  laid  down  principles  far 
Diore  general  than  those  of  any  of  his  pre- 


PET 

decessors.  He  does  not  confine  his  rules 
to  the  horizontal  plane  only,  but  he  haa 
made  them  applicable  to  every  species  of 
lines  and  planes.  Likewise,  by  his  meth- 
od, which  is  exceedingly  simple,  the  few- 
est lines  imaginable  are  required  to  pro- 
duce any  perspective  representation.  As 
a  proof  of  the  excellence  of  his  method,  it 
suffices  to  add  that  it  has  been  followed 
by  all  who  have  treated  on  this  subject, 
and  is  universally  adopted  in  practice. 
Mr.  Hamilton  published  his  Stereography 
in  2  vols,  folio,  after  the  manner  of  Dr. 
Taylor ;  besides  which  there  are  some 
good  treatises  on  the  subject  from  Ware, 
Cowley,  Ferguson,  Emerson,  &c. ;  but 
Mr.  Kirby's  system  of  perspective  has  been 
generally  esteemed  for  its  practical  utility. 

PERSPECTIVE.  In  gardens,  or  at  the 
end  of  galleries,  designed  to  deceive  the 
eye  hy  representing  the  continuation  of  an 
alley  or  a  building,  &;c. 

PERSPECTIVE-GLASS.  The  glass  or 
other  transparent  surface,  supposed  to  be 
placed  between  the  eye  and  the  object, 
perpendicularly  to  the  horizon. 

PERSPIRATION.  The  evacuation  of 
the  juices  of  the  body  through  the  pores  of 
the  skin.  This  is  either  sensible,  which 
is  called  sweating ;  or  insensible,  which 
is  not  perceptible  to  the  senses. 

PERUVIAN  BARK.  A  drug,  the  bark 
of  a  tree  growing  in  Peru. 

PESTLE.  An  instrument  for  pounding 
in  a  mortar. 

PETAL.  The  leaf  of  the  corolla  or 
flower. 

PETARD  (in  Fortification).  A  hollow 
engine  shaped  like  a  sugar-loaf,  made  for 
breaking  open  gates,  drawbridges,  &c. 

PETIOLE  (in  Botany).  The  leaf-stalk, 
or  the  stem  which  supports  the  leaf. 

PETITION  (in  Law).  A  supplication 
in  lieu  of  a  writ,  vi^hich,  in  England,  is  al- 
ways made  by  a  subject  to  the  king  when 
the  latter  is  a  party  in  the  suit  3  also  any 
supplication  drawn  up  in  form,  and  ad- 
dressed either  to  the  executive  or  the  legis- 
lature. 

PETITIO  PRINCIPII  (among  Logi- 
cians). Begging  the  question,  or  taking 
for  granted,  that  which  is  the  matter  in 
dispute. 

PETREL.  A  sea-bird,  which  has  the 
faculty  of  spouting  pure  oil  from  its  bill. 
It  is  a  sure  prognostic  of  a  storm  at  sea, 
when  it  hovers  about  a  ship.  The  petrel 
is  about  the  size  of  the  swallow ;  its  legs 
are  long  and  slender,  and  its  colour  is 
black.  It  is  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  ocean 
busily  engaged  in  searching  for  food.  IB 
braves  the  utmost  fury  of  the  storm,  skimp 


PHA 


PHI 


289 


ming  along  the  waves,  sometimes  above 
their  tops,  and  sometimes  screening  it- 
self from  the  blast,  by  sinking  down  into 
the  billows  between  them.  It  does  not 
sit  upon  the  water,  but  often  places  its 
feet  upon  it,  and  sustains  itself  by  the  aid 
of  its  expanded  wings  while  it  picks  up 
some  piece  of  food.  Flocks  of  these  birds 
follow  vessels  for  whole  days,  and  eat 
Buch  things  as  are  thrown  overboard. 
These  birds  are  known  among  sailors, 
under  the  name  of  Mother  Carey's  chick- 
ens. 


PETRIFACTIONS  (among  Mineralo- 
gists). Stony  matters  incrusted  within 
the  cavities  of  organized  bodies,  as  the  in- 
crustations of  limestone  or  selenite,  in  the 
form  of  stalactites  or  dropstones  from  the 
roofs  of  caverns. 

PETRIFICATION.  The  conversion 
of  wood,  bones,  or  any  other  substance, 
into  stone  ;  also  that  which  is  turned  into 
Btone. 

PETROLEUM.  Rock  oil,  a  liquid,  bi- 
tuminous substance,  which  distils  from 
rocks. 

PEWTER.  A  compound  metal,  or  an 
alloy  of  tin  with  copper,  lead,  zinc,  bis- 
muth, or  antimony. 

PHALANX.  A  Macedonian  legion, 
'formed  into  a  square  compact  battalion  of 
pikemen. 

PHANTASMAGORIA.  An  optical  ex- 
hibition very  similar  to  the  magic  lantern. 

PHARAOH.  A  name  common  to  se- 
veral kings  of  Egypt,  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture. The  fourth  of  this  name  was  drown- 
ed in  the  Red  Sea. 

PHARMACOPCEIA.  A  book  of  medi- 
cines. 

PHARMACY.  The  art  of  preparing, 
compounding,  and  preserving  substances 
for  the  purposes  of  medicine. 

PHAROS.  A  watch-tower  among  the 
ancients. 

PHASES.  The  various  appearances  of 
the  moon  at  different  ages,  being  first 
a  crescent,  then  a  semicircle,  then  gibbous, 
and  lastly  full,  when  she  returns  by  the 
same  gradation  to  the  state  of  a  new 
moon.  These  various  appearances  are 
caused  by  the  different  positions  of  the 
25 


moon,  at  different  times,  in  respect  to  the 
sun  and  earth. 


PHEASANT.  A  bird  of  game,  highly 
esteemed  for  its  flesh.  It  is  a  native  of 
India,  but  is  now  common  in  Europe,  par- 
ticularly in  England.    See  Partridge. 


PHEON.  A  kind  of  missile  weapon 
or  dart  with  a  barb,  which  is  sometimes 
borne  in  coats  of  arms. 

PHIAL.  A  little  glass  bottle,  mostly 
used  for  medicine. 

PHILOLOGY.  An  assemblage  of  sci- 
ences, consisting  of  grammar,  rhetoric, 
poetry,  antiquities,  history,  and  criticism, 
called  by  the  French,  belles-letters  ;  also 
the  science  of  languages. 

PHILOSOPHER.  One  who  is  versed 
in,  or  addicts  himself  to  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy. 

PHILOSOPHER'S  STONE.  The  olv 
ject  of  alchymy  by  a  long  sought  for  prepa- 
ration, by  which,  as  the  alchymists  pre- 
tended, the  base  metals  might  be  conver- 
ted into  gold  and  silver. 

PHILOSOPHY.  Properly,  the  love  of 
wisdom,  a  term  applied  either  to  the  study 
of  nature  or  morality,  founded  on  reason 
and  experience,  or  the  systems  which  dif- 
ferent men  have  devised  of  explaining  the 


290 


PHY 


PIL 


various  plienomena  in  the  natural  and 
moral  world  ;  as  the  Pythagorean  philoso- 
phy, which  taught,  among  other  things, 
the  transmigration  of  souls  ;  the  Aristote- 
lian philosophy,  or  the  doctrines  of  Aristo- 
tle, which  are  to  be  found  in  his  works ; 
the  Socratic  philosophy,  which  is  to  be 
found  in  the  writings  of  Xenophon  and 
Plato ;  Epicurean  philosophy,  a  sceptical, 
licentious  scheme  of  morals  ascribed  to 
Epicurus  ;  Stoic  philosophy,  tlie  doctrines 
of  Zeno  the  Stoic,  who  maintained,  among 
other  things,  that  a  man  migiit  be  happy 
in  the  midst  of  the  severest  tortures  ;  the 
Cynic  philosophy,  tlie  followers  of  wliich 
affected  a  great  contempt  of  riches,  and 
of  all  sciences  except  morality  ;  and  the 
Sceptical  philosophy,  broached  by  one 
Pyrrho,  who  affected  to  doubt  every  thing. 

PPlLEBOTOiMY.  The  opening  a  vein, 
for  the  purpose  of  discharging  some  of  the 
blood. 

PHLEGM  (in  Anatomy).  A  thick,  tena- 
cious matter  secreted  in  the  lungs. 

PHLEGM  (in  Chymistry).  A  watery, 
distilled  liquor,  in  distinction  from  a  spir- 
ituous liquor. 

PHOSPHATES.  Salts  formed  by  phos- 
phoric acid,  with  the  alkalies,  earths,  and 
metallic  oxides. 

PHOSPHITES.  Salts  formed  with 
phosphorus  united  to  the  earths,  alkalies, 
and  metallic  oxides. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID.  An  acid  form- 
ed by  the  combination  of  muriatic  acid 
with  oxygen, 

PHOSPHOROUS  ACID.  An  acid 
formed  by  the  combination  of  phosphorus 
with  oxygen.  It  contains  less  of  the  latter 
than  phosphoric  acid. 

PHOSPHORUS.  A  yellow,  semitrans- 
parent  substance,  of  the  consistence  of 
wax,  but  brittle  during  the  frost.  It  is  lu- 
minous in  the  common  temperature  of  the 
air,  of  a  rough,  disagreeable  taste,  and  a 
smell  like  garlic. 

PHOSPHURET.  A  substance  formed 
by  the  union  of  alkalies,  earths,  and  me- 
tallic oxides  with  pliosphorus. 

PHRENOLOGY.  A  newly  invented 
science,  Avhich  professes  to  teach,  from 
the  conformation  of  the  human  skull,  the 
particular  characters  and  propensities  of 
men,  presuming  that  the  faculties  and 
operations  of  the  human  mind  have  their 
particular  seat  in  the  brain,  and  are  to  be 
traced  by  particular  external  marks.  See 
Craniology. 

PHYLACTERY.  A  charm  or  amulet 
among  the  ancients,  wliich,  being  worn, 
was  supposed  to  preserve  people  from  cer- 
tain evils,  diseases,  or  dangers. 


PHYSICIAN.  One  who  professes  med- 
icine, or  the  art  of  healing. 

PHYSICS,  or  Natural  Philosopht. 
The  science  which  explains  the  doctrine 
of  natural  bodies,  their  phenomena,  causes, 
and  effects,  with  their  various  affections, 
motions,  and  operations. 

PH  YSIOGNOxMY.  The  study  of  men's 
particular  characters  and  ruling  passions 
from  tJie  features  of  the  face  and  the  cast 
of  the  countenance. 

PH  Y  S  lOLOG  Y.  The  same  as  Physics  j 
also  that  branch  of  medicine,  which  treats 
of  the  structure  and  constitution  of  the 
human  body,  and  the  functions  of  the  va- 
rious parts,  with  regard  to  the  cure  of 
diseases. 

PHYTOLOGY.  A  treatise  on  the 
forms,  properties,  and  kinds  of  plants. 

PIA  MATER  (in  Anatomy).  The  inte- 
rior membrane,  enclosing  the  brain. 

PIANO  FORTE.  A  well  known  key 
ed  instrument  of  German  invention,  which 
sends  forth  sounds  both  piano  and  forte, 
tliat  is,  soft  and  strong. 

PIAZZA.  A  spacious  place  enclosed 
with  columns. 

FICJE.  An  order  of  birds  in  the  Lin- 
nsan  system,  under  the  class  Aves,  com- 
prehending such  as  have  their  bill  com- 
pressed and  convex,  including  the  parrot, 
crow,  raven,  magpie,  cuckoo,  jay,  bird  of 
paradise,  &c. 

PICKLE.  A  brine  or  liquor,  usually 
composed  of  salt  for  seasoning  meat,  and 
also  of  spice  and  vinegar  for  preserving 
fruits  ;  also  the  fruits  preserved  in  pickle. 

PICaUET  (in  Military  Affairs).  A  cer- 
tain number  of  men,  horse  or  foot,  who  do 
duty  as  an  outguard,  to  prevent  surprises. 

PIE  (in  Printing).  The  composed  mat- 
ter broken  or  thrown  out  of  order. 

PIE-POWDER,  or  Court  of  Pie-Pou- 
DRE.     In  England,  a  court  held  in  fairs. 

PIER.  A  mole  or  rampart  raised  in  a 
harbour  to  break  tlie  force  of  the  sea. 

PIGEON.  A  domestic  bird,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties,  as  the  rock  pi- 
geon, the  carrier  pigeon,  the  powter,  sha- 
ker, tumbler,  &-c.     See  Dove. 

PIGMENTS.  Artificial  preparations  in 
imitation  of  certain  colours. 

PIG  OF  LEAD.  About  two  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  weight. 

PIKE  (in  Ichthyology).  A  fish  which 
abounds  in  most  of  the  lakes  of  Europe 
and  America.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  vo- 
racity, and  also  for  its  longevity. 

PIKE  (in  Military  Affairs).  A  long, 
slender  staff,  with  a  pike  or  spike  at  the 
end. 

PILASTER.    A  square  pillar. 


PIN 

PILE  (in  Artillerj-).  A  heap  of  shot  or 
shells  piled  up  into  a  wedgelike  form. 

PILE-DRIVER.  A  inachine  for  dri- 
ving piles  or  stakes  in  the  beds  of  rivers, 
as  a  foundation  on  which  a  bridge  is  raised. 


PIP 


291 


PILGRIM.  One  who  travels  into  for- 
eign lands  for  purposes  of  devotion. 

PILL.  A  solid  medicine  made  of  seve- 
ral ingredients  into  the  shape  of  a  ball. 

PILLAR.  An  irregular  kind  of  column, 
as  a  butting  pillar,  raised  to  support  a  wall. 

PILLION.  A  sort  of  soft  saddle  for  a 
female  to  sit  on  horseback  behind  a  horse- 
man. 

PILLORY  (in  Law).  A  wooden  ma- 
chine in  which  offenders  are  exposed  to 
the  gaze  of  the  multitude. 

PILLOW.  A  cushion  on  which  the 
head  rests. 

.  PILLOW  (among  Mariners).     A  piece 
of  timber  on  whicli  the  boltsprit  rests. 

PILOT.  One  who  is  employed  to  con- 
duct ships  into  roads  or  harbours,  over 
bars  or  sands,  &c. 

PIMENTO.     See  Allspice. 

PIN.  A  small,  sharp-pointed  piece  of 
wire,  with  a  head  to  it,  used  by  women  in 
fastening  their  clothes  ;  also  any  thing  in 
the  shape  of  a  pin,  which  serves  to  fasten, 
as  the  linchpin,  whicli  locks  the  wheel  to 
the  axle  ;  also  the  screw  of  a  musket  bar- 
rel, and  the  like. 

PINCERS.  A  sort  of  tool  used  by  arti- 
ficers in  drawing  nails. 


PINCHBECK.  An  alloy,  containing 
three  parts  of  zinc,  and  four  of  copper. 

PINEAL  GLAND.  A  small,  heartlike 
substance,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  situated 
at  the  basis  of  the  brain. 


PINE-APPLE.  The  fruit  of  an  herba- 
ceous plant  whicli  has  leaves  something 
similar  to  those  of  the  aloe.  The  fruit  re- 
sembles in  shape  the  cone  of  the  pine-tree, 
whence  it  has  derived  its  name.  Its  bo- 
tanical name  was  Ananas,  and  in  the 
Linnrean  system  Brumelia  Ananas. 

PINE-TREE.   A  large  tree,  the  leaves  of 
which  are  longer  than  those  of  the  fir-tree. 
PINION.     The  joint  of  a  bird's  wing 
remotest  from  the  body. 

PIxVEON  (with  Watchmakers).  ,  The 
nut  or  lesser  wheel  of  a  watch. 

PINION  (with  Mechanics).      A  lesser 
wlieel  which  plays  in  the  teeth  of  a  larger. 
PINK.     A  small  fragrant  flower,  of  di- 
vers rich  colours.     The  superior  sorts  are 
named  cloves  and  cinnamon. 

PINK  (among  Painters).  A  faint  red 
colour. 

PINK  (among  Mariners).  A  small  sail- 
ing sliip. 

PINNACE.  A  small  vessel  having 
sails  and  oars,  and  carrying  three  masts  j 
also  one  of  the  boats  belonging  to  a  man 
of  war. 

PINT.     An  English  beer  measure,  the 
half  of  a  quart  and  eighth  of  a  gallon. 
PINTADO.     See  Guinea-Hen. 
PINXIT,  abbreviated    Pinx,    denotes, 
when  placed  at  the   bottom  of  a  picture 
with  the  painter's  name,  that  he  painted  it. 
PIONEERS  (in  Military  Tactics).    La- 
bourers who  attend  an  army,  in  its  march, 
to  clear  the  way,  by  cutting  down  trees 
and    levelling  roads,   as   also  to  cast  up 
trenches,  make  mines,  and  the  like. 

PIONY.  A  garden  plant,  bearing  a 
large  flower  resembling  a  rose  in  shape. 

PIP.  A  disease  in  young  birds,  which 
consists  of  a  white  skin  or  film  under  the 
tongue. 

PIPE.  A  tube  made  of  clay,  which  is 
used  in  smoking. 

PIPE  (in  Building).  A  conduit  for  the 
conveyance  of  water  and  other  fluids. 

PIPE  (in  Music).  A  musical  wind  in- 
strument, smaller  than  a  flute.  Pan-pipes 
are  a  range  of  short  pipes  bound  together 
side  by  side. 
PIPE  (in  Anatomy).  The  windpipe. 
PIPE  (in  Law),  In  England,  a  roll, 
otherwise  called  the  Great  Roll  of  the 
Exchequer. 

PIPE  (in  Commerce).  A  measure  of 
wine,  containing  162  gallons. 

PIPE  (among  Miners).  The  ore  which 
runs  endwise  in  a  hole. 

PIPE-FISH.     A  fish  so  called  from  the 
length  and  slenderness  of  its  body. 
PIPER.     A  player  on  the  pipe. 
PIPING .    The  slip  of  a  pink . 


292 


PLA 


PLA 


PiaUET.  A  game  of  cards  played  by 
two  persons  with  only  thirty -two  cards, 
rejecting  all  the  deuces,  threes,  fours, 
fives,  and  sixes. 

PIRATE.  A  sea  robber  5  one  who  lives 
by  plunder  at  sea. 

PISCES  (in  Ichthyology).  The  third 
class  into  which  Linnseus  divided  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  consisting  of  five  orders, 
namely,  the  abdominales,  apodes,  cartila- 
ginii,  jugulares,  and  thoracici.  See  Abdo- 
minales, &c. 

PISCES  (in  Astronomy).  The  twelfth 
and  last  sign  in  the  zodiac,  marked  thus 

PISCIS  VOLANS.  A  constellation  in 
the  southern  hemisphere. 

PISTACHIO.  A  nut  of  an  aromatic 
emell,  growing  on  a  tree  in  Syria,  from 
which  an  oil  is  extracted. 

PISTIL,  or  PoiNTAL  (in  Botany).  An 
organ  adhering  to  the  fruit  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  pollen. 

PISTOL.  A  sort  of  small  firearm,  the 
barrel  of  which  is  shorter  and  thicker  than 
that  of  a  common  gun. 

PISTOLE.  A  German  coin,  in  value 
from  17.f.  to  19s.  sterling. 

PISTON.  A  sucker,  or  that  part  which 
acts  as  such  in  all  pumps,  &c. 

PITCH.  A  tenacious,  oily  substance, 
drawn  chiefly  from  pines  and  firs. 

PITCH  (in  Architecture).  The  angle 
to  which  a  gable  end,  and  consequently  a 
whole  building,  is  set. 

PITCH  (in  Husbandry).  An  iron  bar, 
with  a  pointed  end. 

PITCH  (in  Music).  The  acuteness  or 
gravity  of  any  particular  sound. 

PITFALL.  A  gin  or  snare  to  catch  beasts. 

PITH.  The  soft,  spongy  substance  in 
the  stalk  or  stem  of  plants. 

PIVOT.  The  pin  on  which  any  thing 
turns. 

PIX  (in  Law).  The  box  in  the  mint  in 
which  the  pieces  of  coin  are  kept  that  are 
selected  for  trial. 

PIX,  Trial  of  the.  In  England,  the 
trial  of  the  coins,  previous  to  their  being 
issued,  before  a  jury  of  twenty-four  per- 
sons, twelve  of  whom  are  goldsmiths. 

PLACARD.  A  proclamation  in  Hol- 
land, and  in  France  a  table  wherein  laws 
and  ordevs  were  hung  up ;  with  us,  vulgarly , 
any  bill  posted  up  against  a  wall  or  post. 

PLAID.  A  sort  of  stuff"  worn  by  Scotch 
Highlanders. 

PLAGIARY.  A  literary  thief,  who 
purloins  the  works  of  another,  and  pub- 
lishes them  in  his  own  name. 

PLAGUE.  A  contagious  and  malignant 
distemper. 


PLAICE.  A  sort  of  flat  fish,  which  haa 
a  delicate  flesh. 

PLAN.  The  representation  of  some- 
thing drawn  on  a  plane,  as  maps,  and 
charts,  &;c. ;  or,  more  particularly,  the 
draught  of  a  building,  such  as  it  is  intend- 
ed to  appear  on  the  ground. 

PLANE  (in  Geometry).  A  plane  or 
level  surface,  whose  parts  lie  even  be- 
tween its  extremities. 

PLANE  (among  Joiners).  An  edged 
tool  for  paring  and  shaving  wood  smooth. 


PLANE  TABLE.  A  simple  instra- 
ment  whereby  the  draught  of  a  field  is 
taken  on  the  spot. 

PLANETARIUM,  or  Orrery.  An  as- 
tronomical machine,  made  to  represent 
the  motions  of  the  heavens.   See  Orrery. 

PLANE-TREE.  A  tall  tree  resembling 
a  maple,  which  is  a  native  of  America. 

PLANETS.  Wandering  bodies,  or 
such  stars  as  change  their  position,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  fixed  stars.  They  are 
distinguished  into  primary  and  secondary. 
The  primary  are  those  which  are  supposed 
to  revolve  round  the  sun,  as  Jupiter,  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  &c.  ;  and  the  secondary 
are  those  which  revolve  round  a  primary 
planet,  as  the  moon,  the  satellites  of  Jupi- 
ter, Saturn,  and  Uranus.  The  original 
number  of  planets  was  six,  constituting, 
as  was  imagined,  the  whole  planetary 
system.  These  were  Mercury,  Venus, 
the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn, 
which  were  distinguished  by  some  mark 
or  attribute  of  the  deities  of  those  names. 
Thus  the  mark  of  Mercury,  §  ,  represents 
his  caduceus  ;  that  of  Venus,  a  mirror,  $  , 
with  a  handle  to  it ;  that  of  Tellus,  the 
earth,  0,  to  denote  its  form  3  that  of  Mars, 
the  god  of  war,  a  spear,  cf  ;  that  of  Jupiter, 
the  first  letter  of  his  Greek  name,  Tj  ;  and 
that  of  Saturn,  a  scythe,  T^  •  To  the  above 
six  planets  have  been  added  five  others, 
namely,  the  Georgium  Sidus,  or  Uranus, 
ip,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta. 

PLANISPHERE.  A  projection  of  the 
sphere,  and  its  various  circles  on  a  plane, 
such  as  maps,  &c.  ;  but  more  particularly, 
a  projection  of  the  celestial  sphere  upon  a 
plane,  representing  the  stars,  constella- 
tions, &c. 

PLANK.  A  piece  of  timber  sawed  for 
carpenters'  work. 

PLANTAIN.    A  tree  in  the  W^est  In- 


PLA 

dies,  South  America,  and  Mexico,  which 
has  a  beautiful  foliage,  and  bears  an  escu- 
lent fruit. 


PLO 


293 


PLANTATION  (in  Politics).  A  colo- 
ny or  settlement  of  people  in  a  foreign 
countiy. 

PLANTATION  (in  Horticulture).  Any 
place  which  is  planted  with  shrubs  and 
trees. 

PLANTER.  A  proprietor  of  grounds  in 
the  West  Indies. 

PLASHING  HEDGES.  Bending  the 
boughs  and  interweaving  them,  so  as  to 
thicken  the  hedge. 

PLASTER  (in  Medicine).  An  external 
application  to  the  body. 

PLASTER  (in  Masonry).  Mortar  for 
laying  on  walls,  &c. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS.  A  paste  made 
of  gypsum.  In  London,  the  term  is  also 
applied  to  gypsum  itself. 

PLASTERER,  One  who  plasters  walls. 
The  company  of  plasterers  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1500. 

PLATE.  A  broad,  flat  utensil,  as  a 
plate  for  eating  on,  and  a  copper-plate  for 
printing  on  ;  any  flat  piece  of  metal  in  the 
same  form  or  shape. 

PLATE  (in  Commerce).  Vessels  or 
utensils  made  of  gold  or  silver. 

PLATFORM  (fn  Architecture).  A  row 
of  beams  which  support  the  timber  work 
of  a  roof ;  also  any  erection  consisting  of 
boards  raised  above  the  ground  for  an  ex- 
hibition, or  any  other  temporary  purpose. 

PLATFORM  (in  Fortification).  An  ele- 
vation of  earth  on  which  cannon  is  placed. 

PLATFORM  (in  a  Ship  of  War).  A 
place  on  the  lower  deck  5  the  mainmast. 

PLATING.  Covering  baser  metals 
with  a  thin  plate  of  silver. 

PLATINUM.  A  metal,  so  called  from 
the  Spanish  plate-silver,  because  it  resem- 
bles silver.  It  is  reckoned  by  some  to  be 
the  heaviest  of  all  metals.  It  is  malleable 
and  ductile  like  gold. 

25* 


PLATOON.  A  small,  square  body  of 
forty  or  fifty  musketeers,  drawn  out  of  a 
battalion  of  foot,  and  placed  between  the 
squadrons  of  horse  to  sustain  them ;  also 
in  ambuscades  and  narroAV  defiles,  where 
there  is  not  room  for  the  wliole  battalion. 
It  is  also  used  to  signify  a  part  of  a  com- 
pany of  soldiers. 

PLATYPUS.  A  newly  discovered  ani- 
mal, the  mouth  of  which  is  shaped  like 
the  bill  of  a  duck,  and  the  feet  ai-e  webbed. 

PLEx\  (in  Law).  That  which  either 
party  alleges  in  support  of  his  own  cause. 

PLEADER.  A  counsellor,  or  one  who 
argues  in  a  court  of  justice. 

PLEADING.  Putting  in  a  plea  in  law ; 
also  the  form  of  the  pleading. 

PLEAS  OF  THE  CROWN.  In  Eng- 
land, suits  in  the  king's  name,  for  offen- 
ces committed  against  his  crown  and 
dignity. 

PLEBEIAN.  One  of  the  plebs,  or  com- 
mon people  among  the  Romans. 

PLEDGES  (in  Law).  Sureties  which 
the  plamtiff  finds,  that  he  shall  prosecute 
his  suit. 

PLEIADES.  A  cluster  or  assemblage 
of  stars  in  the  constellation  Taurus. 

PLENIPOTENTIARY.  A  commis- 
sioner or  ambassador  from  a  government 
invested  witli  full  power  to  conclude 
peace  with  another  government. 

PLENUM  (in  Ph3sics).  A  term  denot- 
ing that  every  part  of  space  or  extension 
is  full  of  matter,  as  is  maintained  by  the 
Cartesians. 

PLEONx\SM.  A  form  of  expression  in 
which  more  words  are  used  than  are  ne- 
cessary. 

PLETHORA.  A  preternatural  fulness 
of  blood. 

PLEURA.  A  membrane  covering  the 
inside  of  the  chest. 

PLEURISY.  An  inflammation  of  the 
pleura. 

PLEXIS.    A  net-work  of  vessels. 

PLICA  POLONICA.  A  disease  among 
the  Polanders,  Vt'hich  causes  the  hair  to 
be  clotted  together  so  that  it  cannot  be 
separated. 

PLIERS.  An  instrument  by  which 
any  thing  is  laid  hold  of,  so  as  to  bend  it. 


PLOT  (in  Dramatic  Poetrj').  The  fable 
of  a  tragedy,  comedy,  or  any  fictitious 
narrative. 


294 


PLU 


PLOT  (in  Surveying).  The  plan  or 
draught  of  a  field  or  any  piece  of  ground, 
surveyed  with  an  instrument,  and  laid 
down  in  the  proper  figure  and  dimensions. 

PLOTTING.  The  describing  or  laying 
down  on  paper  the  several  lines,  angles, 
&c.,  of  a  piece  of  land. 

PLOVER.  A  sort  of  bird  which  fre- 
quents the  shores  of  England  in  spring, 
and  migrates  in  autumn.  The  golden 
plover,  black-bellied  plover,  and  Wilson's 
plover,  are  the  varieties  of  this  bird  most 
common  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States. 
They  frequent  coasts  and  open  grounds. 

PLOUGH  (in  Agriculture).  A  machine 
for  turning  up  the  soil  in  preparation  for 
receiving  the  seed.  It  consists  of  a  wood- 
en frame,  with  a  handle ;  a  share,  or 
sharpened  piece  of  iron,  fixed  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  plough ;  and  a  coulter,  anoth- 
er cutting  iron,  that  stands  upright  in  the 
plough. 


PLOUGH  (among  Bookbinders).  A 
machine  for  cutting  the  edges  of  books. 

PLOUGHSHARE.  The  cutting  iron 
fixed  at  the  bottom  of  the  wood-work  of 
the  plough,  winch  forms  the  furrows. 


PLUM.  A  well  known  fruit  of  differ- 
ent kinds ;  also  the  dried  raisin,  that  is 
imported. 

PLUMBAGO,  or  Black  Lead.  An 
ore  of  a  shining  black  colour. 

PLUMBER.  A  maker  of  leaden  ves- 
sels, or  worker  in  lead.  The  company  of 
plumbers  in  London  was  incorporated 
in  1611. 

PLUMB-LINE  (among  Artificers).  A 
jjerpendicular  to  the  horizon,  formed  by 
means  of  the  plummet. 

PLUME.  A  set  of  feathers .  for  orna- 
ment, particularly  ostrich  feathers. 

PLUMMET.  A  leaden  weight  attached 
to  a  string,  by  whicli  depths  are  sounded 
perpendicularly,  and  perpendiculars  are 
taken  by  carpenters,  masons,  &c. 

PLURALITY  (in  Law).  In  England, 
a  term  applied  to  any  number  of  benefices 
more  than  one  held  by  a  clergyman. 


PNE 

PLUS,  i.  e.  More.  A  term  in  algebra, 
to  denote  addition,  marked  by  the  sign 
(  -f- ),  as  4-{-6—10,  that  is,  4  plus  6  equal 
to  10. 

PLUSH.  Cloth  made  either  of  silk,  as 
velvet ;  or  of  hair,  as  shag. 

PNEUMATICS.  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  mechanical  properties  of  air 
and  other  compressible  fluids.  The  prin- 
cipal mechanical  properties  of  air  which 
are  treated  of  under  this  science,  are  its 
fluidity,  weight,  and  elasticity. 

PNEUMATICS,  History  of.  Although 
the  ancients  did  not  investigate  the  pro- 
perties of  air  vi'ith  the  same  minuteness  as 
the  moderns  have  done,  yet  tlie  subject 
evidently  engaged  the  attention  of  Aristo- 
tle and  other  Grecian  philosophers.  Aris- 
totle was  aware  of  the  gravity  of  the  air, 
and  observed  that  a  bladder  filled  with  air 
would  weigh  more  than  the  same  bladder 
when  empty ;  and  Empedocles  ascribed 
the  cause  of  respiration  to  the  weight  of 
the  air,  which,  by  its  pressure,  insinuates 
itself  into  the  lungs.  Its  elasticity  also, 
as  well  as  its  gravity,  must  have  been 
known  and  made  the  subject  of  experi- 
ments, if  it  be  true,  as  is  related  by  histo- 
rians, that  Hero  of  Alexandria,  and  Ctesi- 
bius,  his  contemporary,  invented  air-guns. 
The  subject  was,  however,  for  a  longtime 
neglected,  or  treated  superficially  ;  for  the 
effects  whicli  are  now  known  to  arise  from 
the  gravity  and  elasticity  of  the  air  were 
for  a  long  time  attributed  to  the  imaginary 
principle  of  a  Fuga  Vacui,  or  Nature's  ab- 
horrence of  a  vacuum,  a  principle  which 
Galileo  did  not  altogether  discard,  although 
he  was  fully  aware  of  the  gravity  of  the 
air,  and  pointed  out  two  methods  of  de- 
monstrating it  by  weighing  the  air  in  bot- 
tles ;  but  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
was  first  discovered  by  Torricelli,  and 
clearly  demonstrated  by  an  experiment, 
which  terminated  in  the  invention  of  the 
barometer  in  1643.  It  occurred  to  him,  on 
observing  that  a  column  of  water,  34  feet 
high,  is  sustained  above  its  level  in  the 
tube  of  a  common  pump,  that  the  same 
force,  whatever  that  was,  would  sustain  a 
column  of  any  other  fluid  which  weighed 
as  much  as  that  column  of  water  on  the 
same  base  ;  and  hence  he  concluded  that 
quicksilver,  being  about  14  times  as  heavy 
as  water,  would  not  be  sustained  at  a 
greater  height  than  29  or  30  inches.  Ac- 
cordingly he  took  a  glass  tube  of  several 
feet  in  length,  and,  having  sealed  it  herme- 
tically at  one  end,  he  filled  it  with  quick- 
silver; tlien,  inverting  it,  he  held  it  up- 
right, and,  keeping  his  finger  against  the 
open  or  lower  orifice,  he  immersed  that 


POC 


POL 


595 


end  in  a  vessel  of  quicksilver,  and,  on 
withdrawing  his  finger,  he  found  that  the 
quicksilver,  according  to  his  expectation, 
descended  till  the  column  of  it  was  about 
30  inches  above  that  in  the  open  vessel ; 
whence  he  was  led  to  infer  that  it  could 
be  no  other  than  the  weight  of  the  atmos- 
phere incumbent  on  the  external  surface  of 
the  quicksilver,  which  counterbalanced 
the  fluid  in  the  tube,  and  thus  introduced 
the  principle  that  the  air  had  not  only 
weight,  but  that  its  weight  was  the  cause 
of  the  suspension  of  water  in  pumps,  and 
of  the  quicksilver  in  the  tube.  This  prin- 
ciple, after  repeated  experiments  from  the 
philosophers  in  France,  England,  and  Ger- 
many, became  established,  and  tliat  of  the 
vacuum  was  finally  exploded. 

From  this  time  they  proceeded  to  be 
more  minute  in  their  investigations,  and 
Father  Mersenne,  who  was  the  first  phi- 
losopher in  France  that  was  apprized  of 
Torricelli's  experiment,  set  about  deter- 
mining the  specific  gravity  of  air,  which 
he  made  to  be  as  1  to  400  ;  but  Mr.  Boyle, 
by  a  more  accurate  experiment,  came  to 
a  nearer  result,  and  made  it  to  be  to  that 
of  water  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  938  ,  and 
Mr.  Hawksbee  succeeded,  after  repeated 
experiments,  in  obtaining  the  proportion 
of  1  to  885.  Experiments  were  made  by 
others  in  the  winter  as  well  as  the  sum- 
mer, and  the  medium  of  all  is  about  1  to 
833. 

As  to  the  elasticity  of  the  air,  which 
also  became  the  subject  of  experiment,  it 
was  shown  that,  with  moderate  pressure, 
it  is  always  proportional  to  the  density, 
and  that  the  density  is  always  as  tlie  com- 
pressing force  ;  whence  also  the  elasticity 
of  air  is  as  the  force  by  which  it  is  com- 
pressed. 

In  consequence  of  these  investigations 
into  the  mechanical  properties  of  the  air, 
not  only  was  the  barometer  invented,  and 
the  air-gun  revived,  but  other  pneumatic 
machines  were  contrived,  as  the  air-pump, 
air-balloon,  thermometer,  &c.  ;  of  which 
a  more  particular  account  will  be  found 
under  their  respective  heads. 

POACHING  (in  Law).  In  England, 
taking  game  by  unlawful  means,  privately 
and  without  authority. 

POCKET.  A  large  sort  of  bag  in  which 
wool  is  packed.  A  pocket  of  wool  usually 
contains  25  cwt.  A  pocket  of  hops  is  a 
small  bag  in  which  the  best  hops  are  com- 
monly put. 

POCKET-BOOK.  A  small  book  for 
holding  papers  and  memorandums,  which 
la  carried  in  the  pocket. 

POCKET-SHERIFF    (in    Law).      In 


England,  a  sheriff  appointed  by  the  king 
himself,  who  is  not  one  of  the  three  nom- 
inated in  the  Exchequer. 

POETRY,  The  art  of  writing  poems, 
or  fictitious  compositions  drawn  out  in 
measured  language.  As  respects  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  divided  into  pastorals,  satires, 
elegies,  epigrams,  &c.  ;  as  respects  the 
manner  or  form  of  representation,  into 
epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  poetry,  &:c. ;  as 
respects  the  verse,  into  blank  verse  and 
rhyme. 

POINT  (in  Geometry).  That  which 
has  neitlier  length,  breadth,  nor  thickness. 

POINT  (in  Astronomy).  The  name  for 
certain  parts  in  the  heavens,  as  the  cardi- 
nal points,  the  solstitial  points,  &c. 

POINT  (among  Artists).  An  iron  or 
steel  instrument  used  for  tracing  designs 
on  copper,  wood,  stone,  &c. ;  in  com- 
merce, lace  wrought  with  the  needle. 

POINT-BLANK.  The  shot  of  a  gun 
levelled  horizontally. 

POINTER.  A  dog  that  points  out  the 
game. 


POINTERS  (in  Astronomy).  Two  stars 
in  Ursa  Major,  the  hindermost  of  the  Wain, 
so  called  because  they  always  point  near- 
ly in  a  direction  towards  the  North  Pole 
star. 

POINTING  (in  Gunnery).  The  level- 
ling a  gun  towards  an  object. 

POINTING  (in  Grammar).  Dividing  a 
discourse  by  means  of  points. 

POINT  OF  SIGHT  (in  Perspective). 
A  point  on  a  plane  marked  out  by  a  right 
line  drawn  from  the  perpendicular  to  the 
plane. 

POINTS  (in  Grammar).  Hebrew  char- 
acters, to  express  voAvel  sounds ;  also 
characters  for  separating  words  and  sen- 
tences from  each  other,  as  the  comma  (,), 
the  semicolon  (;),  the  colon  (:),  period  or 
full  stop  (.),  note  of  admiration  (!),  note  of 
interrogation  (?). 

POINTS  OF  THE  COMPASS.  Thir- 
ty-two divisions  in  the  mariner's  compass, 
each  of  which  is  11  degrees  and  15  min- 
utes distant  from  each  other. 

POISON.  Any  substance  which  in  a 
particular  manner  deranges  the  vital  func- 
tions, and  terminates  mortally,  if  not  coun- 
teracted. 

POLARITY.    The  property  of  pointing 


296 


POL 


POL 


to  the  poles,  which  is  the  characteristic  of 
the  magnet. 

POLE.  A  long  bar  of  wood,  cut  and 
fitted  for  various  purposes,  as  the  pole  of 
a  carriage,  &:c. 

POLE  (in  Surveying).  A  measure  con- 
taining 16  feet  and  a  half. 

POLE  (in  Mathematics).  A  point  nine- 
ty degrees  distant  from  the  plane  of  any 
circle. 

POLE  (in  Astronomy).  The  extremity 
of  the  axis  of  the  earth,  an  imaginary 
point  on  the  earth's  surface,  of  which 
there  are  two,  namely,  the  Arctic  or  North 
Pole,  and  the  Antarctic  or  South  Pole. 
These  are  so  encompassed  with  ice,  that 
every  attempt  to  approach  them  within  a 
considerable  distance,  has  hitherto  proved 
ineffectual. 

POLECAT.  An  animal  of  the  weasel 
tribe,  which  emits  a  most  fetid  vapour 
when  pursued.  It  inhabits  Europe  and 
Asiatic  Russia. 

POLEMICS.  Treatises  concerning  dis- 
puted points  in  theology. 

POLES  (in  Magnetism).  The  two 
points  of  a  magnet,  corresponding  to  the 
poles  of  the  world,  the  one  pointing  to  the 
north,  and  the  otlier  to  the  south. 

POLE  STAR,  or  Polar  Star.  A  star 
of  the  second  magnitude,  the  last  in  the 
tail  of  Ursa  Minor,  which,  owing  to  its 
proximity,  never  sets,  and  is  therefore  of 
great  use  to  navigators  in  determining  the 
latitudes,  &c. 

POLICE.  The  internal  government  of 
any  town  or  country,  as  far  as  regards  the 
preservation  of  peace. 

POLICY.  The  art  of  government,  prin- 
cipally as  regards  foreign  affairs. 

POLICY  OF  INSURANCE.  An  in- 
strument or  deed  by  which  a  contract  of 
insurance  is  effected. 

POLITICAL  ARITHMETIC.  The 
application  of  arithmetical  calculations  to 
political  uses,  as  in  estimating  the  reve- 
nues, resources,  and  population  of  a 
country. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  The  art  or 
theory  of  managing  the  affairs  of  any  state. 

POLL,  or  Deed  Poll  (in  Law).  A 
deed  that  is  polled  or  shaved  even. 

POLL  (in  Elections).  The  register  of 
those  who  give  their  vote,  containing  their 
name,  place  of  residence,  &.c. 

POLLEN.  A  prolific  powder  contained 
in  the  anther  of  flowers. 

POLLUX.  A  star  of  the  second  mag- 
nitude in  the  constellation  Gemini. 

POLY.  A  prefix  in  many  words,  de- 
noting a  multitude  or  indefinite  number, 
as  polysyllable,  a  word  of  many  syllables  j 


polygon,  a  figure  of  many  angles ;  poly- 
adelphia,  polyandria,  &:c. 

POLYADELPHIA  (in  Botany).  One 
of  the  Linnoean  classes,  including  plants 
that  have  many  stamens  to  each  flower 
united  by  their  filaments  into  three  or 
more  distinct  bundles. 


POLYANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
the  Linnagan  classes,  including  plants,  the 
flowers  of  which  have  many  stamens. 


POLYANTHUS.  A  plant  with  a  per- 
ennial root,  that  yields  many  flowers.  It 
is  much  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  greatly 
esteemed  for  the  richness  and  diversity  of 
its  colours. 

POLYGAMIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linnoean  classes,  including  plants  that 
have  both  male  and  female  flowers,  ast''<9 
fig-tree,  date-tree,  plantain-tree,  &,c. 


t 


!...__- 


POLYGAMY.  The  having  more  than 
one  husband  or  one  wife,  either  at  the 
same  time  or  in  succession. 

POLYGAMY  (in  Law).  The  having 
more' than  one  husband  or  wife  at  the 
same  time,  which  is  felony. 

POLYGLOTT,  i.  e.  Many  languages; 
as  the  Polyglott  Bible,  a  Bible  printed  in 
many  languages. 

POLYGON.  A  figure  of  many  sides 
and  many  angles. 

POLYGYNIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linnnjan  orders,  containing  plants  the 
flowers  of  which  have  many  pistils. 

POLYPE.  An  animal  of  the  worm 
tribe,  inhabiting  the  stagnant  waters  of 


POO 


FOR 


297 


Europe,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  pro- 
perty, that,  if  cut  into  ever  so  many  parts, 
each  part  becomes  a  perfect  animal. 

POLYPUS.  A  sea-fish,  resembling  the 
cuttle-fish,  so  called  because  it  has  numer- 
ous feet. 

POLYPUS  (in  Surgery).  A  fleshy  tu- 
mour, commonly  met  with  in  the  nose, 
that  abounds  in  ramifications,  from  which 
it  has  its  name. 

POLYSYLLABLE.  A  word  of  many 
syllables. 

POLYTHEISM.  The  doctrine  that 
there  are  more  gods  than  one. 

POMACEiE  (in  Botany).  One  of  Lin- 
neeus's  natural  orders,  containing  plants 
tliat  have  a  pulpy  fruit,  as  the  apple,  pear, 
&c. 

POMx\TUM.  A  sweet-scented  oint- 
ment, originally  made  of  the  juice  of  the 
apple,  called  poraewater,  but  now  of  hogs' 
lard,  rose-water,  &c. 

POME-APPLE.  A  small  apple,  of  a 
pleasant  taste  and  grateful  scent. 

POMEGRANATE.  A  round  fruit,  of 
the  pomegranate  tree,  full  of  kernels. 

POMONA.  A  goddess  among  the  Ro- 
mans, worshipped  as  the  patroness  of 
fruits  and  flowers. 


POMPEII.  A  town  of  Campania,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  which  was 
buried  in  an  eruption  that  happened  a.  d. 
79.  The  ruins  were  discovered  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

PONTIFEX.  The  high  priest  among 
the  Romans. 

PONTIFF.  The  high  or  chief  priest  in 
the  Romish  and  Greek  churches,  as  the 
pope  or  patriarch. 

PONTIFICALIA.  The  robes  in  which 
a  bishop  performs  divine  service. 

PONTONS.  A  bridge  made  of  pon- 
toons, or  boats  fitted  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  soldiers. 

POOP.  The  uppermost  part  of  a  ship's 
hull. 


POPE,  or  Papa.  A  title  originally  given 
to  all  bishops,  as  the  fathers  of  the  church  ; 
by  order  of  Gregory  VIL,  it  became  the 
peculiar  title  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  as 
heads  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

POPLAR.  A  tall,  slender  tree,  of  swift 
growth.  The  wood  is  soft,  white,  and 
stringy. 

POPULATION.  The  aggiegate  num- 
ber of  people  in  any  country,,  which,  ow- 
ing to  the  increase  of  births  above  that  of 
the  deaths,  is  continually  increasing  in 
most  parts  of  the  habitable  world. 

PORCELAIN.  A  sort  of  earth  or  clay, 
the  finest  kind  of  which  is  found  in  China ; 
also  the  ware  made  of  porcelain  or  any 
fine  earths.  In  China,  this  earth,  being 
beaten,  and  steeped  in  water,  afl^brds  a 
cream  at  the  top,  and  a  grosser  substance 
at  the  bottom,  the  former  of  which  is  used 
for  the  finest  kind  of  ware,  or  china  5  and 
the  latter  for  the  coarser  sort. 

PORCUPINE.  An  animal,  native  of 
warm  climates,  resembling  a  hedgehog, 
but  considerably  larger.  Its  body  is  fur- 
nished with  bristles  or  spines,  which  it 
erects  when  it  is  frightened. 


"*''^¥t^'^5in^^-'--£- 


rORES.  Cavities  in  the  skin,  which 
serve  as  passages  for  the  perspiration  ;  also 
small  interstices  between  the  particles  of 
matter  which  compose  bodies. 

PORPHYRY.  A  compound  rock,  con- 
sisting most  commonly  of  felspar  and 
quartz. 

PORPOISE.  A  sort  of  dolphin,  having 
a  broad  back  and  a  bluntish  snout.  Mul- 
titudes of  these  fish  are  often  seen  at  sea, 
and  frequently  they  play  about  ships. 


PORT.  A  harbour  or  place  of  shelter, 
where  ships  arrive  with  their  freights,  and 
customs  from  goods  are  taken ;  also  the 
wine  that  comes  from  Oporto. 

PORTCULLIS  (in  Fortification).  A 
machine   like  a  harrow,  hung  over  the 


298 


POS 


gates  of  a  city,  to  be  let  down  to  keep  out 
the  enemy. 

PORTER.  One  who  carries  goods  for 
hire,  and  also  one  who  attends  at  a  gate. 

PORTER.  A  kind  of  malt  liquor  made 
of  high-dried  malt. 

PORTHOLES.  Holes  in  the  sides  of 
the  vessels,  through  which  guns  are  put. 

PORTMANTEAU.  A  cloak-bag,  to 
carry  the  necessary  clothing  on  a  journey. 

POSITION  (in  Arithmetic).  A  rule  in 
which  any  supposed  number  is  taken  at 
pleasure,  to  work  the  question  by. 

POSITIVE  DEGREE.  The  first  de- 
gree of  any  quality  expressed  by  the  word 
itself. 

POSITIVE  ELECTRICITY.  A  term 
applied  to  bodies  supposed  to  contain 
more  than  tlieir  natural  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity. 

POSSE  COMITATUS  (in  Law).  The 
armed  power  of  the  county,  or  the  atten- 
dance of  all  persons  charged  by  the  sheriff 
to  assist  him  in  the  suppression  of  riots, 
&c. 

POSSESSIVE  CASE  (in  Grammar). 
Any  ending  of  nouns  which  denotes  pos- 
session. 

POST  (in  Military  Affairs).  Any  spot 
of  ground  that  is  marked  out  to  be  occu- 
pied by  soldiers. 

POST  (in  Commerce).  A  conveyance 
for  letters  and  despatches. 

POST  (in  Grammar).  A  prefix  to  many 
words,  implying  after,  as  postdiluvian, 
after  the  deluge. 

POSTHUMOUS  CHILD  (in  Law). 
One  born  after  his  father's  death. 

POSTMAN.  One  who  delivers  the  let- 
ters from  the  post-office  to  the  persons  to 
whom  they  are  addressed. 

POSTMASTER.  He  who  has  the 
charge  of  the  letters  received  in,  and  de- 
livered from  tiie  post-ofiice. 

POSTMASTER-GENERAL.  He  Avho 
presides  over  the  whole  business  of  con- 
veying letters  by  the  post-office. 

POST  OBIT.     After  death. 

POST-OFFICE.  The  office  where  the 
business  of  receiving  and  forwarding  let- 
ters is  conducted.  In  London,  there  is  the 
General  Post-Office,  which  takes  charge  of 
all  letters  to  be  conveyed  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  world  ;  and  the  Twopenny 
Post-Office,  whicli  takes  charge  of  letters 
to  be  conveyed  to  different  parts  of  the 
metropolis  and  its  environs.  In  the  Uni- 
ted States,  the  General  Post-Office  is  at 
Washington,  and  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  postmaster- general. 

POSTSCRIPT.  Wljat  is  added  in  a  let- 
ter after  it  has  been  signed  by  the  writer. 


PRA 

POSTULATE.  Any  fundamental  prin- 
ciple in  a  science  that  is  taken  for  granted. 

POTASH.  An  impure  fixed  alkaline 
salt,  procured  by  burning  vegetables.  It 
is  a  brittle,  corrosive  substance,  of  a  white 
colour  and  acrid  taste. 

POTASSIUM.  A  metallic  substance, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  basis  of  potash. 

POTATO.  An  edible  root,  once  pecu- 
liar to  America,  but  now  common  in  most 
countries. 

POTSTONE.  A  mineral  of  a  greenish- 
gray  colour,  found  abundantly  near  the 
lake  Como,  in  Lombardy. 

POTTERY.  The  manufacture  of  earth- 
en pots,  or  earthenware  in  general,  but 
particularly  of  the  coarser  sorts. 

POUxNCE.  The  powder  of  gum  sanda- 
rach,  sifted  very  fine. 

POUND.  A  weight  containing  12  ounces 
Troy,  and  16  avoirdupois  weight. 

POUND  (in  Law).  Any  enclosed  place 
for  the  keeping  of  beasts  in,  particularly 
such  as  are  distrained. 

POUNDER.  The  name  of  a  great  gun, 
from  the  weight  of  the  ball  it  carries,  as  a 
six,  twelve,  and  twenty-four  pounder,  &c. 

POWDER.  Any  thing  as  fine  as  dust, 
as  gunpo\'\'der,  hairpowder,  &c. 

POWDER-CHESTS.  Triangular  chests 
on  board  a  vessel  for  holding  the  gunpow- 
der, &c. 

POWDER-HORN.  A  horn  in  which 
gunpowder  is  kept. 

POWDER-MILL.  A  mill  in  which  the 
ingredients  for  gunpowder  are  ground  and 
mingled. 

POWER  (in  Mechanics).  Any  force 
which,  applied  to  a  machine,  sets  it  in 
motion.  There  are  six  simple  machines, 
which  are  particularly  denominated  the 
six  mechanical  powers,  namely,  the  lever, 
tlie  balance,  the  screw,  the  wheel  and 
axle,  the  wedge,  and  the  pulley. 

POWER  (in  Arithmetic).  The  produce 
of  any  quantity  multiplied  by  itself  any 
number  of  times,  as  the  square,  cube,  bi- 
quadrate,  &c. 

POWER  (in  Law).  The  authority 
which  one  man  gives  another,  to  act  for  him. 

POWER-LOOM.  A  loom  worked  by 
steain  or  water. 

POWER  OF  ATTORNEY  (in  Law) 
An  instrument  or  deed  whereby  a  person 
is  empowered  to  act  for  another. 

POWER  OF  A  GLASS  (in  Optics). 
The  distance  between  the  convexity  and 
the  focus. 

POWTER.  A  sort  of  pigeon,  which 
swells  up  its  neck  when  it  is  displeased. 

PRACTICE  (in  Arithmetic).  An  easy 
and  expeditious  method  of  resolving  quea- 


PRE 

tions  in  the  Rule  of  Three,  as  applied  to 
the  daily  business  of  a  tradesman. 

PRACTICE  (in  Law).  Any  fraudulent, 
underhand  mode  of  proceeding. 

PRACTICE  OF  THE  COURTS  (in 
Law).  The  form  and  manner  of  conduct- 
ing and  carrying  on  suits  at  law  or  in 
equity. 

PR^MUNIRE.     See  Pbemunire. 

PR^TOR.  A  chief  magistrate  among 
the  Romans,  instituted  for  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  in  the  absence  of  the  consuls. 

PRAIRIE,  Literally  a  meadow,  but 
applied  to  the  open  grounds  in  the  west- 
ern country,  which  are  generally  level, 
and  many  of  them  of  vast  extent. 

PRAWN.  A  small  sea-fish  of  the  crab 
kind,  larger  than  a  shrimp. 

PREAMBLE  (in  Law).  The  introduc- 
tory matter  to  a  statute,  which  contains 
the  reasons  for  making  such  an  enactment. 

PREBENDARY.  In  England,  an  ec- 
clesiastic wlio  enjoys  a  prebend. 

PRECARIOUS  (in  Law).  An  epithet 
for  what  is  granted  to  one  upon  entreaty, 
to  use  so  long  as  the  party  thinks  fit. 

PRECEDE'nCE  (in  Heraldry).  The 
right  of  taking  place  before  another,  which 
is  determined  by  authority,  and  followed 
exactly  on  all  public  occasions  of  proces- 
sions and  the  like. 

PRECEDENT  (in  Law).  An  original 
writing  or  deed  to  draw  others  by. 

PRECEPT  (in  Law).  A  command  in 
writing,  sent  out  by  a  magistrate  for  the 
bringing  a  person  or  a  record  before  him. 

PRECESSION  OF  THE  EQUINOX- 
ES. A  slow  motion  of  the  equinoctial 
points,  by  which  they  change  their  place, 
going  from  east  to  west,  or  backward,  in 
antecedentia,  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  contra- 
ry to  the  order  of  the  signs. 

PRECIPITATE  (in  Chymistry).  Any 
substance  in  a  solution  which  separates 
and  falls  to  the  bottom,  particularly  a  cor- 
rosive medicine  made  by  precipitating 
mercury. 

PRECIPITATION.  The  falling  or 
causing  to  descend  the  particles  of  any  me- 
tallic or  mineral  body,  which  are  kept  in 
the  menstruum  that  dissolved  it  by  putting 
in  some  alkali,  &;c. 

PREDICATE  (in  Logic).  That  which 
is  predicated,  that  is,  affirmed  or  denied 
of  a  thing,  as  '  snow  is  white,  ink  is  not 
white ;'  whiteness  is  here  predicated  of 
the  snow  and  the  ink. 

PREFECT.  In  Europe,  the  governor 
of  a  place. 

PRELATE.  An  epithet  applied  to  a 
dignified  clergyman,  as  a  bishop  and  arch- 
bishop. 


PRE 


299 


PREMISES  (in  Logic).    The  two  first 

propositions  of  a  syllogism,  which  are  pre- 
viously supposed  to  be  proved. 

PREMISES  (in  Law).  Things  spoken 
of  or  rehearsed  before,  as  lands,  tenements, 
&c.,  before  mentioned  in  a  lease. 

PREMIUM.  The  sum  of  money  given 
for  the  insuring  of  houses,  goods,  ships,  &c. 

PREMUNIRE  (in  Law).  In  England, 
a  writ  originally  directed  against  those  of- 
fences which  affected  the  king  or  his  gov- 
ernment, which  were  committed  under 
the  sanction  of  the  pope.  It  was  after- 
wards extended  to  all  such  offences,  from 
whatever  cause  they  were  committed  ;  also 
the  offence  itself,  which  subjected  tlie  of- 
fender to  be  put  out  of  the  king's  protection. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  A  sect  of  profess- 
ing Christians,  so  called  from  their  admit- 
ting lay  elders  into  their  church  govern- 
ment. 

PRESCRIPTION  (in  Medicine).  That 
which  is  prescribed  by  a  pliysician  to  be 
taken  by  the  patient. 

PRESCRIPTION  (in  Law).  A  right 
and  title  to  a  thing  grounded  upon  a  con- 
tinued possession  of  it,  beyond  the  mem- 
ory of  man. 

PRESENTATION  (in  Law).  In  Eng- 
land, the  offering  a  clerk  to  the  bishop  by 
his  patron,  to  be  instituted. 

PRESENTMENT  (in  Law).  A  decla- 
ration or  report  made  by  jurors  or  others, 
of  any  offence  to  be  inquired  of  in  the 
court  to  which  it  is  presented. 

PRESERVE.  In  England,  a  small 
enclosed  place  in  gentlemen's  grounds, 
where  game  is  preserved. 

PRESS.  A  machine  by  which  things 
are  compressed.  It  acts  by  means  of  the 
screw,  and  serves  for  different  purposes, 
as  for  pressing  the  juice  out  of  grapes  and 
other  fruits  for  making  wine,  the  pressing 
of  the  curd  in  making  cheeses,  &c. 

PRESS.  The  printing  machine,  and 
also  printing  itself,  as  the  liberty  of  the 
press,  that  is,  the  liberty  of  printing  what- 
ever one  pleases  without  any  restriction 
from  the  government. 

PRESS,  or  Pressgang.  In  England,  a 
number  of  men  lieaded  by  an  officer,  and 
appointed  to  impress  seamen  in  time  of  war, 

PRESUMPTIVE  EVIDENCE  (in  Law). 
That  which  amounts  almost  to  full  proof. 

PRESUMPTIVE  HEIR.  One  who,  if 
the  ancestor  should  die  immediately,  would, 
under  present  circumstances,  be  his  heir, 
as  distinguished  from  the  heir  apparent. 

PREVENTIVE  SERVICE.  In  Eng- 
land, a  number  of  men  employed  on  the 
coast,  to  keep  watch  and  prevent  smug- 
gling- 


soo 


PRI 


PRO 


PRIMA  FACIE.  On  the  first  view  of 
any  question. 

PRIMARY  PLANETS.  Tliose  wliicli 
revolve  round  tlie  sun  as  a  centre,  as  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  the  Eartli,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Sat- 
urn, and  Herscliel. 

PRIMATE.  In  England,  the  first  or 
chief  archbishop. 

PRIMATE  (in  Zoology).  The  first  order 
in  theLinnaean  class  of  mammalia,  includ- 
ing man,  the  ape,  baboon,  monkey,  &c. 

PRIME  FIGURE.  That  which  cannot 
be  divided  by  any  figure  but  itself. 

PRIME  OF  A  GUN.  The  powder  put 
into  the  touchhole. 

PRIMITIVE  (in  Grammar).  The  root 
or  original  word  in  a  language,  from  which 
others  are  derived. 

PRINCE'S  METAL.  A  mixture  of 
copper  and  zinc. 

PRINT.  The  impression  taken  from  a 
copper-plate. 

PRINTING .  The  art  of  taking  impres- 
sions from  characters  or  figures,  movable 
or  immovable,  on  paper,  linen,  silk,  &c. 
Printing  is  of  foiir  kinds,  namely,  one  for 
books,  from  movable  letters  composed 
and  set  in  a  form,  and  another  for  books, 
from  solid  pages  ;  a  third  for  pictures,  from 
copper-plates ;  a  fourth  for  printing  cali- 
coes, linens,  &c.,  from  blocks,  on  which 
are  represented  different  figures.  The 
first  of  these  is  printing,  properly  so  called  j 
the  second  is  stereotype  printing ;  the  third, 
rolling-press  printing, or  copper-plate  print- 
ing ;  and  the  fourth,  calico-printing.  Print- 
ing was  first  introduced  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  at  Mentz  and  Haerlem,  when, 
instead  of  the  present  movable  types  or 
letters,  blocks  of  wood  were  carved,  and 
the  impressions  were  taken  only  on  one 
side. 

PRINTING-PRESS.  The  principal 
machine  employed  in  the  art  of  printing, 
by  which  impressions  are  taken  from  the 
type  after  it  has  been  composed,  and  put 
into  the  form  of  a  sheet. 


been  invented,  and  are  now  extensively  in 
use.  They  perform  that  part  of  printing 
which  is  called  press-work. 

PRISM  (in  Geometry).  An  oblong  sol- 
id contained  under  more  than  four  planes, 
whose  bases  are  equal,  parallel,  and  alike 
situated. 


PRINTING   MACHINES,   carried   by 
Steam,  horse,  or  other  power,  have  lately 


PRISM  (in  Dioptrics),  A  solid  glass  In 
the  form  of  a  prism,  much  used  in  ex- 
periments on  the  nature  of  liglit  and 
colours, 

PRIVATEERS.  Vessels  fitted  out  by 
private  persons,  with  the  license  of  the 
prince  or  state,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
prizes  of  the  enemy's  ships  or  goods. 

PRIVET.  A  shrub  much  used  for 
hedges. 

PRIVY  (in  Law).  One  who  is  partak- 
er of,  or  has  an  interest  in,  any  action,  a3 
privies  in  blood,  that  is,  heirs  to  the  ances- 
tor; privies  in  representation,  as  execu- 
tors or  administrators  to  the  deceased. 

PRIVY  COUNCIL.  In  England,  the 
principal  council  belonging  to  the  king. 

PRIVY  SEAL.  The  king's  seal,  which 
is  first  set  to  such  grants  as  pass  the  Great 
Seal  of  England. 

PRIZE  (in  Naval  Affairs).  A  vessel 
taken  from  the  enemy. 

PROBATE  (in  Law).  In  England,  the 
proving  of  wills  in  the  spiritual  court, 

PROBATE,  Court  of.  In  the  United 
States,  a  court  that  is  charged  with  the 
settling  of  estates. 

PROBATION.  In  England,  the  trial  of 
a  student  who  is  to  take  his  degrees. 

PROBATIONER.  In  England,  aschol' 
ar  who  undergoes  a  probation  at  the  uni- 
versity. 

PROBE.  A  surgeon's  instrument,  for 
searching  the  depth,  &c.,  of  a  wound. 

PROBLEM  (in  Geometry).  A  proposi- 
tion in  which  something  is  proposed  to  be 
done. 

PRO  BONO  PUBLICO.  For  the  pub- 
lic good. 

PROBOSCIS.    An  elephant's  trunk. 

PROCEEDS.  What  proceeds  or  arises 
from  any  mercantile  transaction,  as  the 
net  proceeds  of  a  sale. 

PROCTOR,  In  England,  an  advocate 
in  the  civil  law, 

PRODUCE,  What  any  country  yields 
from  Inbour  and  growth,  which  may 
serve  either  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants, 
or  be  exported  to  foreign  countries.  The 
crops  of  grain,  &c,,  are  the  produce  of  the 
fields. 


PRO 

PRODUCING  (in  Geometry).  The  con- 
tinuing a  line. 

PRODUCT.  The  number  or  quantity 
produced  by  multiplying  two  or  more  num- 
bers together,  as  5x4=20,  the  product  re- 
quired. 

PRODUCTION.  A  work  eitlier  of  na- 
ture or  art,  as  the  productions  of  the  field, 
or  the  productions  of  the  press. 

PROFESSOR.  A  lecturer  or  reader  on 
any  art  or  science ;  one  who  publicly 
teaches  any  art. 

PROFILE  (in  Architecture).  The 
draught  of  a  building,  fortifications,  &c. 

PROFILE  (in  Sculpture  and  Painting). 
A  head  or  portrait  when  represented  side- 
ways, or  in  a  side  view. 

PROFIT.  What  is  gained  by  any  mer- 
cantile transaction. 

PROFIT  AND  LOSS  (in  Commerce.) 
The  profit  or  loss  arising  from  goods  bought 
and  sold ;  the  former  of  which,  in  book- 
keeping, is  placed  on  the  creditor's  side, 
the  latter  on  the  debtor's  side. 

PRO  FORMA.     By  way  of  form. 

PROGRAMMA.  A  bill  or  advertise- 
ment containing  the  notice  of  any  exhibi- 
tion or  ceremony. 

PROGRESSION  (in  Arithmetic  and 
Geometry).  A  series  of  quantities,  keep- 
ing a  certain  ratio  among  themselves ; 
when  they  decrease  or  increase  with  equal 
differences,  it  is  called  aritlimetical  pro- 
gression, as  1,  3,  5,  7,  9  ;  when  they  in- 
crease by  a  common  multiplier,  or  de- 
crease by  a  common  divisor,  it  is  called 
geometrical  progiession,  as  1,  2,4,  8,  16, 
which  increase  by  the  common  multi- 
plier, 2. 

PROHIBITED  GOODS  (in  Law).  Such 
as  are  prohibited  to  be  carried  out  of  or 
brought  into  any  country. 

PROJECTILES.  Bodies  which  are 
thrown  forward  with  any  violent  force,  as 
a  stone  cast  from  a  sling,  or  a  bullet  sliot 
from  a  gun.  The  curve  line  represents  the 
path  of  a  projectile,  or  ball  shot  from  the 
cannon. 


PRO 


301 


PROJECTION.  The  representation  of 
an  object  on  the  perspective  plane. 

PROJECTION  (in  Architecture).  The 
out -jutting  or  prominency  of  columns,  &c., 
beyond  the  naked  wall. 

PROLEGOMENA.  An  introduction  or 
preliminary  discourse. 

PROMISSORY  NOTE.  A  note  of 
26 


hand,  promising  the  payment  of  a  certain 
sum  at  a  certain  time. 

PROMONTORY.  Any  high  ground 
running  out  into  the  sea. 

PROMPTER.  One  who  dictates  to  the 
actors  during  the  performance. 

PRONOUN  (in  Grammar).  A  word 
standing  in  the  place  of  a  noun,  and  mark- 
ing the  different  persons.  They  are  per- 
sonal, when  they  simply  denote  the  per- 
son, as  'I,  thou,  he,'  &c.  5  possessive, 
when  they  also  denote  possession,  as  '  my, 
thine,  his,'  &c. ;  relative,  when  they  ex- 
press a  relation  to  something  going  before, 
as  'which,  what;'  interrogative,  when 
they  serve  to  ask  a  question  ;  demonstra- 
tive, when  they  point  out  things  precisely, 
as  'this,  that;'  indefinite,  when  they 
point  out  things  indefinitely,  as  '  any, 
some.' 

PROOF  (in  Printing).  An  impression 
from  a  copper-plate,  to  show  the  state  of 
the  engraving  ;  also  an  impression  taken 
soon  aftertheengiavingis  finished.  Proofs 
often  sell  at  double  the  price  of  other  im- 
pressions. 

PROOF  OF  A  GUN.  The  trial  to  as- 
certain that  it  is  well  cast. 

PROOF  SHEET.  The  sheet  of  a  book 
taken  off" to  be  corrected. 

PROOF  SPIRITS.  Spirits  which,  on 
proof  or  trial,  are  found  to  be  of  good 
quality. 

PROPER  NAME.  The  name  of  a  par- 
ticular person  or  thing. 

PROPERTY  (in  Law).  The  highest 
right  a  man  has  to  any  thing. 

PROPERTY  (in  Physics).  Any  attri- 
bute of  a  thing  which  is  not  essential  to 
its  existence. 

PROPORTION.  The  equality  or  simi- 
litude of  ratios  ;  thus  the  four  numbers,  4, 
8,  15,  30,  are  proportionals,  or  in  propor- 
tion, because  the  ratio  of  4  to  8  is  equal  or 
similar  to  that  of  15  to  30,  it  being  in  both 
cases  as  1  to  2.  Between  proportion  and 
ratio  there  is  this  difference,  that  the  pro- 
portion consists  always  of  four  terms,  and 
the  ratio  only  of  two. 

PROPOSITION  (in  Mathematics).  A 
thing  proposed  to  be  demonstrated  or  pro- 
vided. 

PROPOSITION  (in  Logic).  Any  sen- 
tence or  speech  which  affirms  or  denies 
any  thing;  consisting  of  the  subject,  or 
that  of  which  any  affirmation  or  denial  is 
made ;  the  predicate,  or  that  which  is  af- 
firmed or  denied  of  the  subject ;  and  tho 
copula,  which  unites  the  two. 

PROROGATION.  In  England,  the  inter- 
ruption or  putting  off"  a  session  of  parlia- 
ment to  a  certain  time  appointed  by  the  king- 


302 


PRO 


PROSECUTION  (in  Law).  The  com- 
mencing a  suit  against  any  one  in  a  court 
of  law. 

PROSODY.  That  branch  of  grammar 
which  teaches  the  pronunciation  of  words 
according  to  a  certain  rule  or  measure. 
PRO  TEMPORE.  For  the  time  being. 
PROTEST.  In  England,  the  declara- 
tion of  any  peer  in  parliament  stating  his 
dissent  from  the  vote  of  the  house,  and 
his  reasons  for  such  dissent,  which  he  has 
a  right  of  entering  on  the  journals  of  the 
house  j  also  a  declaration  against  the  pro- 
ceedings of  a  court. 

PROTEST  (hi  Commerce).  The  act  of 
the  master,  on  his  arrival  with  his  ship 
from  parts  beyond  the  seas,  to  save  him 
and  his  owners  harmless  and  indemnified 
from  damage  sustained  during  a  storm ;  also 
the  declaration  made  by  the  holder  of  a  bill 
of  exchange,  that  the  same  is  dishonoured. 
PROTESTANT.  The  name  first  given 
to  the  followers  of  Luther,  who  protested, 
at  the  diet  of  Spires,  against  a  decree  of 
Charles  V. ;  a  name  since  given  to  all 
members  of  the' reformed  churches. 

PROTEUS.  A  sea  deity,  who  was  said 
to  assume  various  shapes. 

PROTHONOTARY.  In  England,  a 
chief  clerk  of  the  king's  bench  and  com- 
mon pleas. 

PROTOCOL.  The  first  draught  of  a 
deed,  contract,  or  instrument. 

PROTOMARTYR.  The  first  martyr  or 
witness  that  suffered  death  in  testimony 
of  the  truth  ;  a  title  given  to  St.  Stephen. 

PROTOTYPE.  The  first  pattern  or 
model  of  a  thing :  the  original  of  a  copy. 

PROTRACTOR,  (in  Surgery).  An  in- 
strument for  drawing  out  extraneous  bodies 
from  a  wound. 

PROTRACTOR  (in  Surveying).  An 
instrument  for  laying  down  on  paper  the 
angles  in  a  field.  The  protractor  is  a  small 
semicircle  of  brass  or  other  material,  the 
limb  or  circumference  of  which  is  nicely  di- 
vided into  one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees. 
PROV.  An  abbreviation  for  Proverbs. 
PROVISO  (in  Law).  A  condition  in- 
serted in  a  deed. 

PROVOST.  The  mayor  or  chief  magis- 
trate in  Scotch  cities  and  towns. 

PROVOST-MARSHAL.  An  officer  in 
the  army,  whose  concern  it  is  to  appre- 
hend deserters ;  and  in  the  navy,  to  take 
charge  of  the  prisoners,  &c. 

PROW.  The  head  or  fore  part  of  a  ship. 
PROXY.    One  who  acts  or  stands  for 
another  in  his  absence. 

PROXY  (in  the  House  of  Lords  in  Eng- 
land). The  peer  who  is  deputed  by  anoth- 
er to  vote  for  liim  in  his  absence. 


PUL 

PRUNELLA.  A  preparation  of  puri- 
fied saltpetre. 

PRUNING.  Lopping  off  superfluous 
branches  of  trees,  in  order  to  make  them 
bear  fruit  the  better ;  an  important  part  of 
gardening,  which  can  be  learned  only  by 
practice  and  experience. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE.  A  pigment  of  a 
dark  blue  colour,  now  procured  from  bul- 
lock's blood,  carbonate  of  potash,  vitriol 
of  iron,  alum,  and  muriatic  acid. 

PRUSSIC  ACID.  An  acid  procured 
from  Prussian  blue,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  violent  poisons. 

PSEUDO,  i.  e.  False.  A  prefix  used 
to  many  words,  as  pseudo  martyr,  a  coun- 
terfeit martyr. 

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM.  The  system 
of  astronomy  laid  down  by  Ptolemy,  the 
celebrated  astronomer  and  mathematician 
of  Pelusium  in  Egypt.  This  system  is 
founded  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  earth  is 
immovably  fixed  in  the  centre,  not  of  the 
world  only,  but  also  of  the  universe,  round 
which  the  siwi,  moon,  planets,  and  stars  all 
move  from  east  to  west  once  in  24  hours. 

PUBLICAN.  A  taxgatherer,  or  farmer 
of  the  public  revenues  among  the  Romans ; 
now  the  keeper  of  a  public  house  or  com- 
mon place  of  entertainment. 

PUBLICATION.  In  England,  the  giv- 
ing out  copies  of  depositions  in  the  Court 
of  Chancery. 

PUBLICATION  (in  Literature).  The 
editing  and  printing  a  book  ;  also  any  book 
or  pamphlet  offered  to  the  public. 

PUBLISHER.  One  who  puts  forth  any 
printed  book  to  the  world,  particularly  he 
who  prints  and  publishes  the  manuscript 
copies  of  authors. 

PUDDING  STONE.  A  mineral  aggre- 
gate, consisting  of  flint  pebbles  imbedded 
in  a  silicious  cement. 

PUFFIN.    A  sort  of  auk  or  sea-gull. 

PULLET.     A  young  hen. 

PULLEY.  One  of  the  six  mechanical 
powers,  consisting  of  a  small  wheel,  hav- 
ing a  groove  around  it,  and  turning  on  an 
axis,  as  in  the  subjoined  cut. 


PULLEYS,  System  or,  or  Poltspac- 
TON.    An  assemblage  of  several  pulleys 


PUM 

combined  together,  some  of  which  are  in 
a  block  or  case,  which  is  fixed,  and  others 
in  a  movable  block,  that  rises  and  falls 
with  the  weight. 


PULP.  The  soft  part  of  fruits,  roots 
&c. 

PULPIT.  A  stage  among  the  Romans, 
on  wliich  the  actors  performed  their 
parts. 

PULPIT  (in  the  Christian  Church).  An 
elevated  desk,  where  the  sermon  is  de- 
livered, 

PULSATION.  The  beating  of  the 
pulse  ;  also  a  morbid  sensation  in  the  body 
like  the  beating  of  the  pulse. 

PULSE  (in  Anatomy).  The  beating  of 
the  arteries,  or  their  alternate  contraction 
and  dilatation,  by  which  the  blood  is  im- 
pelled forward  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

PULSE  (in  Physics).  The  stroke  with 
which  any  medium  is  effected  by  the  mo- 
tion of  light,  sound,  &c. 

PULSE  (in  Botany).  All  sorts  of  grain 
contained  in  husks  or  shells. 

PULVERIZATION.  The  reducing 
any  solid  substance  to  powder ;  or,  in  re- 
gard to  the  soil,  reducing  it  to  a  state  of 
fineness  fit  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  3 
an  important  part  of  husbandry. 

PUMA.  The  cougar  of  America.  It  is 
found  both  in  the  northern  and  southern 
divisions.  In  North  America  it  is  vul- 
garly called  panther.  It  is  now  seldom 
found  in  the  Atlantic  States,  though 
it  was  formerly  common  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
large  dog,  and  is  of  a  general  ash  colour. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  South  American 
lion  :  it  is  of  sufficient  strength  to  bear 
the  body  of  a  man  up  a  tree. 

PUMICE  STONE.  A  spungy,  light, 
crumbling  stone,  which  is  cast  out  from 
volcanic  mountains. 

PUMP,  A  machine  for  drawing  water 
or  any  other  fluid,  the  invention  of  which 
is  ascribed  to  Ctesibius  ;  pumps  may  either 
be  forcing  pumps,  or  lifting  and  sucking 


PUR 

pumps,  which  latter  are  in 
use. 


303 
general 


PUMPKIN.  A  well  known  vegetable 
that  grows  upon  a  vine,  and  in  New  Eng- 
land is  much  used  for  pies. 


PUN.  A  playing  with  words  which 
agree  in  sound,  but  differ  in  sense. 

PUNCH.  A  liquor  made  with  water, 
sugar,  and  the  juice  of  lemons  or  oranges  ; 
also  an  instrument  of  iron  or  steel,  used  in 
piercing  holes. 

PUNCHEON.  A  block  or  piece  of  steel 
having  figures  engraven  on  it,  from  which 
impressions  are  taken  ;  it  is  used  by  gold- 
smiths, cutlers,  pewterers,  &c. 

PUNCTUATION.  That  branch  of 
grammar  which  teaches  the  right  method 
of  dividing  sentences  by  means  of  points 
or  stops.     See  Points. 

PUNCTUATION  (in  Surgery).  The 
operation  of  making  punctures  or  small 
wounds  in  the  skin  with  a  needle,  for  re- 
lief in  certain  disorders,  as  rheumatism. 

PUNT.     A  sort  of  flat-bottomed  boat. 

PUPA.  The  chrj'salis  or  quiescent  state 
of  an  insect. 

PUPIL  (in  Anatomy).  The  round  aper- 
ture in  the  middle  of  the  iris,  the  ball  or 
apple  of  the  eye,  through  which  the  light 
passes, 

PUPIL  (in  the  Civil  Law).  One  under 
the  care  of  a  tutor. 

PURGATION.  The  clearing  one's  self 
of  a  crime;  a  mode  of  trying  persons  ac- 
cused of  any  crime,  which  was  formerly 
in  practice  in  England. 


304 


QUA 


PURGATORY.  A  place  where,  ac- 
cording to  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  souls 
of  the  faithful  are  purified  by  fire,  from  the 
sins  which  tliey  carry  with  them  out  of 
this  life,  before  they  are  admitted  to  a 
state  of  perfect  bliss. 

PURITAN.  In  England,  a  name  given 
originally  in  derision  to  dissenters,  who 
professed  to  have  a  purer  doctrine  and 
discipline  than  others. 

PURPLE.  A  mixed  colour  ofred  and  blue. 

PURSER.  An  officer  on  board  a  man 
of  war,  who  takes  charge  of  the  provisions. 

PUS.  The  corrupt  matter  issuing  from 
a  sore,  which  usually  precedes  the  heal- 
ing, and  in  such  cases  is  termed  healthy  or 
good  conditioned  pus. 

PUTREFACTION.  The  spontaneous 
decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter,  accompanied  mostly  with  a  fetid 
smell.  V\'ater  and  atmospheric  air  are 
active  agents  in  this  process  of  nature. 

PUTTY.  Whiting  and  linseed  oil 
pounded  together  into  a  paste,  which  is 
used  by  glaziers  in  fastening  the  panes  of 
glass,  and  also  by  painters  in  stopping 
crevices. 

PUZZULANA.  A  gray  kind  of  earth 
used  in  Italy  for  building  under  water. 

PYRAMID  (in  Architecture).  A  solid 
massy  edifice,  constructed  in  the  figure  of 
a  pyramid,  as  described  in  tlie  next  article. 


QUA 

Of  these  edifices  the  Egyptians  have  left 
some  specimens,  as  wonderful  monuments 
of  human  skill.  The  largest  pyramid,  or 
the  great  pyramid,  as  it  is  called,  is  situa- 
ed  with  others,  near  Memphis,  and  is  about 
500  feet  high. 

PYRAMID  (in  Geometry).  A  solid 
standing  on  a  triangular,  square,  or  poly- 
gonal basis,  and  terminating  in  a  vertex  or 
point  at  the  top. 

PYRITES,  A  mineral  composed  of 
iron  and  sulphur. 

PYROLIGNEOUS  ACID.  An  acid 
obtained  from  beech  and  other  woods, 
which  is  a  liquid  of  the  colour  of  white 
wine,  of  a  strong  acid,  and  slightly  astrin- 
gent taste.  It  is  an  antiseptic,  and  serves 
instead  of  wood  smoke,  of  which  it  is 
the  principle,  for  preserving  animal  sub- 
stances. 

PYROMETER.  An  mstrument  for 
measuring  high  temperatures,  particularly 
the  one  invented  by  Mr.  Wedgewood  for 
determining  the  expansion  of  solid  bodies 
by  heat.  This  instrument  is  founded  on 
the  principle  that  clay  progressively  con- 
tracts in  its  dimensions  in  proportion  as  it 
is  exposed  to  higher  degrees  of  hcrat. 

PYROPHORUS.  A  preparation  from 
alum  by  calcination,  which  takes  fire  on 
exposure  to  the  air. 

PYROTECHNY.  The  science  which 
teaches  the  management  and  application 
of  fire  in  several  operations,  particularly 
in  the  construction  of  artificial  fire- 
works. 

PYTHAGOREAN  SYSTEM.  The 
system  of  astronomy  taught  by  Pythagoras, 
which  was  founded  on  the  hypothesis  that 
the  sun  was  a  movable  sphere  situated  in 
the  centre,  round  which  the  other  planets 
revolved.  This  is  now  called  the  Coper- 
nican  system,  because  it  was  revived  by 
Copernicus. 

PYTHIAN  GAMES.  Games  celebrated 
in  Greece  every  five  years,  in  honour  of 
the  Pythian  Apollo  at  Delphi. 


Q. 


Q.,  the  seventeenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
as  a  numeral,  stood  for  500 ;  with  a  dash 
over  it,  thus  Q-,  for  5000  j  as  an  abbrevia- 
tion among  the  Romans  for  Cluintus,  &c. ; 
among  Mathematicians,  Q..  E.  D.,  Quod 
erat  demonstrandum,  i.  e.,  which  was  to 
be  demonstrated,  &c.  ;  among  Physicians, 
Q,.  S.  Quantum  sufficit,  as  much  as  was 
necessary. 
QrUACK.    A  medical  impostor. 


QUADRANGLE  (in  Geometry).  A  fig- 
ure consisting  of  four  sides  and  four  angles. 

QUADRANGLE  (in  Architecture).  Any 
range  of  houses  or  buildings  with  four 
sides  in  the  form  of  a  square. 

QUADRANT  (in  Geometry).  An  arc 
of  a  circle,  containing  the  fourth  part,  or 
ninety  degrees. 

QUADRANT  (in  Astronomy  and  Na- 
vigation).   An  instrument  for  taking  the 


QUA 

altitudes  of  the  sun  and  stars.  Q,uadrants 
are  of  different  forms,  but  the  most  esteem- 
ed is  Hadley's  quadrant,  as  represented 
underneath.  This  consists  of  an  octant, 
or  the  eighth  part  of  a  circle,  the  index, 
the  speculum,  two  horizontal  glasses,  two 
screens,  and  two  sight  vanes. 


QUA 


303 


QUADRATES  (in  Printing).  Square 
pieces  of  metal  for  filling  up  void  spaces 
between  letters,  words,  &cc. 

aUADRATIC  EaUATION  (in  Alge- 
bra). An  equation  in  which  the  unknown 
quantity  is  a  square. 

QUADRATURE.  The  finding  a  square 
equal  to  the  area  of  any  figure  given. 

QUADRATURE  OF  THE  CIRCLE. 
The  finding  some  other  right  lined  figure 
equal  to  tiie  area  of  a  circle,  or  a  right  line 
equal  to  its  circumference,  a  problem 
which  has  employed  tlie  mathematicians 
of  all  ages,  but  as  yet  in  vain.  It  depends 
upon  the  ratio  of  the  diameter  to  the  peri- 
phery, which  was  never  yet  determined 
in  precise  numbers.  Archimedes  showed 
that  the  diameter  of  a  circle  is  to  the  cir- 
cumference as  7  to  22,  and  the  area  of  a 
circle  to  the  square  of  the  diameter  as  11 
to  14  nearly. 
'  QUADRATURE  OF  CURVES.  The 
finding  a  rectilineal  space  equal  to  a  pro- 
posed curvilineal  one. 

QUADRILATERAL.  Four  sided;  an 
epithet  for  a  square,  parallelogram,  and 
other  figures  having  four  sides. 

QUADRILLE, 
by  four  persons. 

QUADRUPED 
mal. 

QUADRUPLE.     Fourfold. 

QU>$:STOR.  An  officer  among  the 
Romans,  who  had  the  charge  of  the  public 
revenues, 

QUAGGA.  A  species  of  wild  ass  in 
Southern  Africa. 

QUAIL.  A  bird  of  game,  about  half 
the  size  of  a  partridge.  The  quail  of  Amer- 
ica is  not  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  Eu- 


A  game  at  cards  played 
Any  four-footed  ani- 


rope.    The  bird  called  quail  in  New  Eng- 
land, is  called  partridge  at  the  South. 


QUAKERS.  A  religious  sect  of  pro- 
fessing Christians,  remarkable  for  their 
singular  neatness  of  dress,  and  many  other 
peculiarities.  They  are  also  denominated 
Friends,  because  they  address  all  persons 
by  the  style  of  friend. 

QUALITY  (in  Physics).  The  property 
of  any  body  which  affects  our  senses  in 
such  manner,  as  that  it  may  be  distin- 
guished. 

QUANTITY  (in  Physics).  Any  thing 
capable  of  estimation  or  mensuration, 
which,  being  compared  with  another  thing 
of  the  same  nature,  may  be  said  to  be 
greater  or  less,  equal  or  unequal  to  it. 
Natural  quantity  is  that  which  nature 
furnishes  us  with  in  matter  and  its  ex- 
tensions. 

QUANTITY  (in  Grammar).  An  affec- 
tion of  a  syllable,  or  that  which  determines 
a  syllable  to  be  long  or  short. 

QUANTUM  SUFFICIT,orQ.S.  That 
which  is  necessary. 

QUANTUM  VALEBANT.  As  much 
as  they  were  worth  ;  applied  to  goods. 

QUARANTINE.  The  space  of  forty 
days,  the  time  which  every  ship,  suspected 
of  infection,  is  obliged  to  remain  in  some 
appointed  place,  without  holding  any  in- 
tercourse with  the  shore. 

QUARREL  OF  GLASS.  A  square  of 
glass. 

QUARRY.  A  place  underground,  out 
of  which  are  got  marble,  freestone,  slate, 
limestone,  &c. 

QUARTAN.  A  fever  or  ague  that 
comes  every  fourth  day. 

QUARTER  (in  Arithmetic).  The 
fourth  part  of  any  thing. 

QUARTER  (in  Commerce).  A  corn 
measure,  containing  eight  bushels. 

QUARTER  (in  Carpentry).  A  piece 
of  timber  four  inches  square. 

QUARTER  (in  Naval  Architecture). 
That  part  of  a  ship's  hull  which  lies  from 
the  steerage  to  the  transum. 

QUARTER  (in  Geography).  A  name 
for  the  four  divisions  of  the  globe. 

QUARTER  (in  Military  Affairs).    The 


306 


R 


RAB 


sparing  of  men's  lives,  and  giving  good 
treatment  to  a  vanquished  enemy. 

aUARTER  DAYS.  Tlie  days  which 
begin  the  four  quarters  of  the  year,  namely, 
the  25th  of  March,  or  Lady  Day  ;  the  24th 
of  June,  or  Midsummer  Day  ;  the  29th  of 
September,  or  Michaelmas  Day  ;  and  the 
25th  of  December,  or  Christmas  Day. 

aUARTERING  (in  Law).  The  divid- 
ing the  body  of  a  traitor  into  four  parts 
after  it  is  beheaded. 

aUARTERINGS.  The  partitions  in 
an  escutcheon,  according  to  the  number  of 
coats  of  arms  tliat  are  to  be  upon  it. 

aUARTER-MASTER.  An  officer 
whose  duty  it  is  to  provide  quarters  or 
lodgings  for  the  soldiers. 

QUARTER  SESSIONS.  In  England, 
a  court  held  every  quarter  by  the  magis- 
trates of  the  county,  to  hear  and  determine 
causes  both  civil  and  criminal ;  an  appeal 
lies  from  these  sessions  to  a  superior 
court. 

aUARTETTO.  A  piece  of  music  for 
four  voices. 

aUARTO  (in  Printing).  The  form  of  a 
book,  the  sheets  of  which  are  divided  into 
four  parts  or  leaves,  making  a  square  ;  it 
is  mostly  abbreviated  in  this  manner, 
4to. 

dUARTZ.  A  sort  of  siliceous  earth, 
consisting  of  silica,  with  a  small  portion 
of  alumina  and  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is 
not  fusible  per  se,  but  with  soda  it  runs 
into  a  hard  pellucid  glass ;  when  broken 
it  becomes  sand. 

ClUASSIA.  A  sort  of  plant  which  is 
sometimes  used  by  brewers,  in  the  stead 
of  hops.     It  is  also  a  valuable  medicine. 

aUEEN  CONSORT.  In  England,  the 
wife  of  the  king,who,  though  a  subject,  has 
nevertheless  several  prerogatives  above 
other  women. 

aUICK.  The  young  plants  of  the  haw- 
thorn, with  which  hedges  are  first  made. 

aUICKLIME.     Unslacked  lime. 

aUICKSANDS.  Sands  that  move  and 
shake,  into  which  those  who  pass  over 
them  are  apt  to  sink. 

aUICKSET  HEDGE.  Any  live  hedge, 
in   distinction  from  that  made  of  dead 


wood,  but  particularly  that  which  is  set 
with  quick. 

aUICKSILVER.  The  vulgar  name  for 
mercury. 

Q.UIDNUNC.  A  curious  person  always 
asking  after  news, 

aUID  PRO  aUO.  An  equivalent  or 
return  for  any  thing  given. 

Q,UILL.  The  feather  of  a  goose  or  a 
crow,  &c.,  particularly  that  of  which, 
when  cured,  pens  are  made. 

Q.U1NCE.  A  sort  of  apple  with  a  rough, 
acrid  taste. 

aUINTESSENCE,  A  preparation  of 
the  essential  oil  of  some  vegetable  sub- 
stance incorporated  with  the  spirit  of 
wine. 

GlUIRK.  An  odd  piece  in  a  ground  plot 
which  remains  after  the  square  has  beea 
formed. 

aUI  TAM.  A  sort  of  popular  action, 
on  a  penal  statute,  brought  at  the  suit  of 
the  commonwealth,  as  well  as  the  party 
or  informant. 

aUlTRENT.  In  England,  a  small 
rent,  payable  by  the  tenants  of  most  ma- 
nors, whereby  they  go  quit  and  free  from 
all  other  services. 

Q.UOITS.  A  game  which  consisted  in 
throwing  a  quoit  or  round  iron  to  a  certain 
distance. 

QUIVER.    A  case  for  arrows. 


aUORUM.  Justices  of  the  peace, 
so  named  because  in  the  commission 
they  are  said  to  be  those  before  whom 
all  matters  of  importance  are  transacted. 

QUOTIENT.  What  results  from  the 
division  of  one  number  by  another,  as 
6-^-2=3,  the  quotient. 

QUO  WARRANTO.  A  writ  to  inquire 
by  what  authority,  right,  or  title,  any  per- 
son or  corporation  holds  a  franchise,  exer- 
cises an  office,  and  the  like 


R. 


R,  the  eighteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
as  a  numeral,  stood  for  80;  with  a  dash 
over  it,  R,  for  80,0f)0  ;  as  an  abbreviation, 
R.  for  Roma,  Rex,  and  Royal;  R. C,  for 
Eomana  Civitas,  &c. 


RABBETING.  The  cutting  of  chan- 
nels or  grooves  in  a  board. 

RABBI.     A  doctor  in  the  Jewish  law. 

RABBIT.  An  animal  of  the  hare  kind, 
but  much  smaller.    There  are  two  sorts, 


RAD 


the  tame  and  the  wild  rabbit.    It  is  not  a 
native  of  America. 


RAK 


307 


RACCOON.  An  animal  of  the  bear 
tribe,  which  lives  in  hollow  trees.  It  is 
said  to  catch  crabs  by  letting  its  tail  into 
the  water,  and  pulling  them  out  when 
they  fasten  upon  it. 


RACE.  A  sport  which  consists  in  run- 
ning on  foot,  or  with  horses,  as  a  trial  of 
skill,  and  for  a  certain  premium  or  reward. 
Races,  by  which,  absolutely  taken,  are 
meant  horse-races,  are  carried  on  at  New- 
market, Epsom,  and  many  other  parts 
of  England  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year. 

RACE-HORSE,  or  Racer.  A  particu- 
lar breed  of  horses,  which  are  trained  for 
the  purpose  of  running  races. 


RACK.  An  engine  of  torture,  formerly 
used  in  England,  occasionally,  and  on  the 
continent  very  commonly,  for  the  purpose 
of  extorting  confession. 

RACKRENT.  The  full  value  of  the 
land  let  by  lease. 

RADIANT  POINT.  Any  point  from 
which  rays  proceed. 

RADICAL.  The  distinguishing  part  of 
an  acid,  that  which  unites  with  oxygen 
and  is  common  to  all  acids. 


RADIUS  (in  Geometry).  The  semi.' 
diameter  of  a  circle,  or  a  right  line  drawn 
from  the  centre  to  the  circumference.       / 

RADIUS  (in  Anatomy).  The  bone/f 
the  fore  arm.  — 

RAFT.  A  sort  of  float,  consisting  of 
boards  fastened  together  side  by  side ;  a 
mode  of  conveying  timber  by  water. 

RAFTERS.  The  pieces  of  timber,  which, 
standing  by  pairs  on  the  raising  piece, 
meet  in  an  angle  at  the  top,  and  form  the 
roof  of  a  building. 

Rx\G-ROWLEY,  or  Raostoni.  A  sort 
of  stone  of  the  siliceous  or  flint  class. 

RAIL.  A  migratory  bird,  which  inhab- 
its sedgy  places.  In  the  Middle  and  South- 
ern States,  tliis  bird  is  abundant  on  the 
rocky  shores  of  the  rivers,  and  affords  a  fa- 
vourite amusement  to  sportsmen. 

RAILS.  A  wooden  fence  for  enclosing 
a  place. 

RAILWAY.  A  species  of  road  or  car- 
riage way,  in  which,  the  track  of  the  car- 
riage wheels  being  laid  with  bars  or  rails 
of  wood,  stone,  or  metal,  the  carriage  runs 
with  so  much  greater  facility,  that  one 
horse  will  perform  the  work  of  many.  In 
some  railways  in  England,  the  wagons 
are  driven  along  by  steam  instead  of 
horses. 

RAIN.  A  vapour  drawn  up  by  the  sun, 
that,  after  being  condensed  by  the  cold, 
falls  to  the  earth  in  drops  from  the  clouds. 
It  is  supposed  that  rain  is,  in  almost  every 
instance,  immediately  occasioned  by  the 
electrical  action  of  the  clouds  upon  one 
another. 

RAINBOW.  A  meteor  in  form  of  a 
party-coloured  arc,  exhibited  in  a  rainy 
sky,  opposite  the  sun,  by  the  refraction 
and  reflection  of  his  rays  in  the  drops  of 
falling  rain. 

RAINBOW,  Marine.  A  phenomenon 
sometimes  observed  in  an  agitated  sea, 
when,  the  wind  carrying  the  tops  of  the 
waves  aloft,  and  the  sun's  rays  falling  up- 
on them,  they  are  refracted. 

RAIN  GAGE.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls. 

RAISIN.  The  grape  perfectly  ripe,  and 
dried  either  in  an  oven  or  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun  ;  in  this  latter  case,  they  are  richer 
and  sweeter  than  when  dried  in  an  oven. 
The  finest  sort  are  imported  in  jars,  and 
thence  called  jar  raisins. 

RAISING  A  SIEGE.  Giving  over  the 
attack  of  the  place. 

RAKE.  An  implement  of  husbandry 
provided  with  teeth,  for  making  the  earth 
light  and  smooth.  It  is  also  used  for  gath- 
ering hay  and  grain.  The  corn  rake,  a 
large  kind  of  iron  rake,  used  in  Suffolk 


308 


RAN 


and  Norfolk,  England,  for  raking  barley 
stubbles,  is  represented  underneath. 


RAKE  (among  Mariners).  So  much  of 
the  hull  as  hangs  over  both  ends  of  her 
keel. 

RAM.    The  male  of  the  sheep. 

RAMADAN.  The  Mahomedan  fast, 
kept  during  the  ninth  month  of  the  Arabic 
j^ear. 

RAMIFICATION.  Any  small  branch 
issuing  from  a  large  one,  particularly  the 
very  minute  brandies  issuing  from  the 
larger  arteries. 

RAMMER.  An  instrument  for  driving 
stones  or  piles  into  tlie  ground. 

RAMPANT  (in  Heraldry).  An  epithet 
for  a  beast  standmg  directly  upright  on  his 
hinder  legs. 

RAMPART  (in  Fortification).  A  massy 
bank  of  earth  raised  round  a  fortress,  to 
cover  it  from  the  fire  of  tlie  enemy, 

RAM'S  HEAD.  An  iron  lever  to  heave 
up  great  stones  witli. 

RA^d'ri  HEAD  (among  Mariners).  A 
great  block  or  puiley,  into  which  the  ropes 
called  halliards  are  [)ut. 

RANA.  The  generic  name  for  that 
class  of  animals  ill  tlie  1/inniean  system,  of 
which  the  frog  and  the  toad  are  the  prin- 
cipal species. 

RANCIDITY.  Tiie  change  which  oils 
undergo,  both  in  smell  and  taste,  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air. 

RANDOM.  The  shot  made  from  a 
piece  not  designed  to  shoot  directly 
forward. 

RANGE  (in  Gunnery).  The  line  which 
a  shot  describes  from  the  mouth  of  a  piece 
to  the  point  where  it  lodges. 

RANGE  (among  Mariners).  A  suffi- 
cient length  of  the  cable  drawn  upon  the 
deck  before  the  anchor  is  cast  loose  from 
the  bow. 

RANGER.  In  England,  an  officer 
whose  duty  it  was  to  walk  through  the 
forest  and  present  all  trespasses  at  the  next 
forest  court  :  as  the  forest  laws  are  now 


RAT 

but  little  in  use,  the  duty  of  the  ranger  is 
not  of  the  same  importance  as  formerly. 

RANK  (in  Domestic  Policy).  The  situ- 
ation which  one  man  holds  in  respect  to 
another:  this  is  particularly  defined  in  re- 
gard to  the  nobility  in  England,  as  also  in 
all  offices  of  state,  as  also  in  the  officers  of 
the  army  and  navy. 

RANK  (in  Military  Tactics).  The 
straight  line  which  the  soldiers  of  a  bat- 
talion or  squadron  make,  as  they  stand 
side  by  side. 

RANSOM.  Money  paid  for  the  redeem- 
ing a  captive  or  the  liberty  of  a  prisoner  of 
war. 

RANUNCULUS.  A  perennial,  much 
cultivated  in  gardens,  bearing  a  flower  of 
a  globular  shape  ;  also  the  botanical  name 
of  a  genus  of  plants,  of  which  the  globe 
ranunculus,  the  crowfoot,  and  the  spear- 
wort,  are  the  principal  species. 

RARiLFACTION  (in  Physics).  The 
act  whereby  a  body  is  brought  to  possess 
more  room,  or  appear  under  a  larger  bulk, 
witliout  the  accession  of  any  new  matter. 

RASH.    An  eruption  on  the  skin. 

RASP.  A  steel  instrument  with  sharp 
teeth,  used  in  rubbing  things  smooth. 

RAT.  A  fierce  and  voracious  animal 
that  infests  houses,  barns,  corn  stacks,  &c. 
The  common  rat  is  a  native  of  almost  ail 
countries,  as  is  also  the  water  rat,  which 
has  the  faculty  of  swimming,  and  lives  on 
the  banks  of  rivers  or  ditches. 


RATAFIA.  A  delicious  liquor,  made 
of  the  kernels  of  apricots,  cherries,  &c., 
steeped  in  brandy. 

RATE  (in  Law).  A  valuation  of  every 
man's  estate,  for  determining  the  propor- 
tion that  each  is  to  pay  of  any  tax. 

RATE  (in  Naval  Architecture).  The 
class  or  degree  by  which  vessels  are  dis- 
tinguished, as  regards  their  force,  burden, 
&;c. 

RATIEN.    A  thick  woollen  stuff. 

RATIFICATIOiN.  In  England,  the 
confirmation  of  a  clerk  formerly  given  him 
by  the  bishop ;  also  the  confirmation  of  a 
treaty. 

RATIO.  The  mutual  habitude  or  rela- 
tion of  two  magnitudes  of  the  same  kind 


RAY 


REC 


In  respect  to  quantity  ;  thus  the  ratio  of  2 
to  1  is  double,  of  3  to  1  triple,  &c. 

RATION.  The  share  or  proportion  of 
meat,  drink,  forage,  &c.,  given  to  soldiers 
or  seamen. 

RATIONALE.  The  account  or  solu- 
tion of  any  phenomenon  or  hypothesis,  ex- 
plaining tlie  principles  on  which  it  de- 
pends, and  every  other  circumstance. 

RATLINES  (among  Mariners,  called 
Ratlins).  Lines  which  make  the  ladder 
steps  for  going  up  the  shrouds,  and  fut- 
tocks. 

RATTLESNAKE.  An  animal  of  the 
serpent  kind,  having  a  tail  furnished  with 
a  rattle,  which  it  shakes  wlien  angry.  It 
inhabits  rocky  and  mountainous  places  in 
North  America,  and  although  its  bite  is 
poisonous,  yet  it  does  not  attack  any  one 
unless  provoked. 


RAVELINS.  Works  raised  on  the 
counterscarp  before  the  curtain  of  a  place. 

RAVEN.  A  bird  of  the  crow  kind,  that 
feeds  on  carrion,  is  long  lived,  and  has  an 
exquisite  sense  of  smell.  It  is  common  in 
Europe,  and  is  found  in  America  north 
oflatitude50. 


RAY.  A  beam  of  light,  propagated  from 
a  radiant  point,  said  to  be  direct  when  it 
comes  direct  from  the  point,  reflected  if  it 
first  strike  upon  any  body,  and  is  thence 
transmitted  to  the  eye.  Rays  are  also  dis- 
tinguished into  parallel,  converging,  diverg- 
ing, &c. 

RAY.  A  genus  of  fishes  of  the  class 
amphibia  in  the  Linnaan  system,  the  prin- 


cipal species  of  which  are  the  skate,  the 
thornback,  the  sturgeon,  the  ray,  and  the 
torpedo. 

RAZOR.    An  instrument  for  shaving. 

REACTION  (in  Physics).  The  resist- 
ance made  by  all  bodies  to  the  action  or 
impulse  of  others  that  endeavour  to  change 
their  state,  whether  of  motion  or  rest. 

READINGS.  The  different  manner  of 
reading  the  text  of  authors,  particularly 
that  of  classical  writers. 

READINGS  (in  Law).  Commentaries 
or  glosses  on  the  law  text. 

REAGENT.  The  name  given  by  chy- 
mists  to  sucli  bodies  as  serve  to  detect  the 
component  parts  of  others  ;  thus  the  infu- 
sion of  galls  is  a  reagent  which  detects 
iron  by  a  dark  purple  precipitate. 

REALGAR,  or  Red  Orpiment.  A 
metallic  substance,  the  sulphuret  of  arse- 
nic, which  is  either  native,  and  dugout  of 
the  earth  in  China,  or  it  is  factitious,  pro- 
cured by  boiling  orpiment  in  subliming 
vessels. 

REAM.    Twenty  quires  of  paper. 

REAPING  MACHINE.  An  implement 
of  husbandry  for  cutting  down  grain,  in- 
stead of  reaping  with  a  sickle. 


REAR.  A  military  term  for  behind,  aa 
rear-guard,  a  body  of  men  that  follows  an 
army  in  its  march,  to  pick  up  stragglers 
and  the  like. 

REAR.  A  naval  term  applied  to  the 
squadron  which  is  hindermost. 

REBATE  AND  DISCOUNT.  A  rule 
in  arithmetic,  by  which  discounts  upon 
ready  money  payments  are  calculated. 

REC.  or  RECEIPT.  An  acknowledg- 
ment in  writing  of  money  received. 

RECEIVER  (in  Law).  One  who  re- 
ceives stolen  goods ;  also  the  name  of 
some  officers  appointed  to  receive  money 
as  the  receiver  of  rents,  or  receiver  of 
fines,  &c. 

RECEIVER  (in  Pneumatics).  The  re- 
ceiver of  the  air-pump,  a  glass  vessel  pla- 
ced on  the  top  of  the  apparatus  out  of 
which  the  air  is  to  be  exhausted. 

RECEIVER  (in  Chymistry).  A  vessel 
for  receiving  any  distilled  liquor. 

RECIPE.  Directions  for  preparing  any 
mixture  or  compound,  as  a  physician's  re- 
cipe, a  cook's  recipe,  and  the  like. 


310 


RED 


REF 


RECIPROCAL.  An  epithet  for  what 
acts  by  alternation. 

RECIPROCAL  TERMS  (in  Logic). 
Terms  which,  having  the  same  significa- 
tion, are  convertible,  as  man  and  rational 
animal ;  for  man  is  a  rational  animal, 
and  a  rational  animal  is  man. 

RECIPROCAL  PROPORTION  (in 
Arithmetic)  is  when,  in  four  numbers, 
the  fourth  is  less  than  the  second  by  so 
much  as  the  third  is  less  than  the  first, 
and  the  contrary. 

RECIPROCAL  VERBS  (in  Grammar). 
Such  as  reflect  the  action  on  the  agent 
himself,  as  I  love  myself,  thou  lovest  thy- 
self, &c. 

RECITATIVE,  The  rehearsal  of  any 
thing  on  a  stage  in  musical  cadence. 

RECKONING,  or  Ship's  Reckoning. 
The  account  kept  of  a  ship's  way,  by  which 
it  may  be  known  at  any  time  where  she 
is  ;  the  account  taken  from  the  logbook  is 
called  the  dead  reckoning. 

RECOGNIZANCE.  A  bond  or  obliga- 
tion acknowledged  in  some  court,  or  be- 
fore some  judge; 

RECORD.  A  public  act  enrolled  and 
preserved  in  courts  of  record. 

RECORDER.  An  officer  associated 
with  the  mayor  of  a  town  for  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  according  to  the  forms 
of  law. 

RECOVERY  (in  Law).  The  obtaining 
of  any  thing  by  judgment  or  trial  at  law. 

RECTANGLE.  A  figure  having  right 
angles,  as  a  square,  &c. 

RECTIFICATION  (in  Astronomy). 
The  setting  the  globes  in  such  position  as 
to  fit  them  for  the  performance  of  prob- 
lems. 

RECTIFICATION  (in  Geometry).  The 
finding  a  right  line  equal  in  length  to  a 
curve. 

RECTIFICATION  (in  Chymistry). 
The  repeating  a  distillation  or  sublimation 
several  times,  in  order  to  render  the  sub- 
stance purer  and  finer. 

RECTOR.  In  England,  the  parson  of 
the  parish  church,  who  has  the  cure  or 
charge  of  the  parish,  and  receives  all  the 
tithes,  glebes,  and  other  profits. 

RECTUM.  The  last  portion  of  the  large 
intestines. 

RECUSANTS  (in  Law).  A  name  for- 
merly given  to  the  Roman  Catholics  who 
refused  to  conform  to  the  church  of  Eng- 
land. 

RED.  One  of  the  simple  or  primary 
colours  of  bodies,  which  is  distinguished 
into  different  shades,  as  scarlet,  vermilion, 
crimson,  &c. 

RED  BOOK  OF  THE  EXCHEaUER. 


In  England,  an  ancient  manuscript  or 
record,  in  the  keeping  of  the  king's  re- 
membrancer, which  contains  many  things 
relating  to  the  times  before  and  after  the 
Conquest. 

REDBREAST.     See  Rob  i  n. 

REDEMPTION  (in  Law).  The  right 
of  reentering  upon  lands,  &c.,  that  have 
been  assigned  or  sold,  upon  reimbursing 
the  purchase  money.  This  right  is  some- 
times termed  the  equity  of  redemption. 

REDOUBT  (in  Fortification).  A  small 
square  fort,  without  defence  but  in  front. 

REDPOLE.  A  finch  with  a  red  spot 
on  the  crown. 

REDSHANK.  A  bird  of  the  curlew 
tribe. 

REDSTART.  A  European  bird  that 
is  migratory,  and  sings  very  sweetly. 
Though  very  timid,  it  often  builds  its  nest 
in  cities. 

REDSTRE  AK.    A  sort  of  apple. 

REDUCTION  (in  Arithmetic).  A  rule 
by  which  money,  weights  or  measures 
are  reduced  to  their  least  or  greatest  parts. 

REDUCTION  OF  EQUATIONS  (In 
Algebra).  The  reducing  them  to  the  sim- 
plest state,  or  clearing  them  of  all  super- 
fluous quantities. 

REDUCTION  (in  Surgery).  An  ope- 
ration whereby  a  dislocated  bone  is  re- 
stored to  its  proper  place. 

REDUCTION  OF  A  DESIGN  OR 
DRAUGHT,  &c.  The  making  a  copy 
thereof  either  larger  or  smaller  than  the 
original. 

REDWING.  A  European  bird,  about 
the  size  of  the  thrush. 

REDWING-BLACKBIRD.  A  well 
known  American  bird,  that  builds  its  nest 
on  low  bushes,  near  ponds,  and  in  marshy 
places. 

REED.  A  kind  of  long,  hollow,  knot- 
ted grass,  that  grows  in  fens  and  watery 
places. 

REEFING.  A  sea  term  for  the  rolling 
or  taking  up  a  sail  in  a  gale  of  wind. 

REEL.  A  machine  turning  round  on 
an  axis,  on  which  lines  of  diflerent  kinds 
are  wound. 

REENTRY  (in  Law).  The  resuming 
or  retaking  possession  of  lands  lately  lost. 

REEVE.     See  Ruff. 

REFERENCE  (in  Law).  Referring  a 
matter  in  dispute  to  the  decision  of  an  ar- 
bitrator ;  also  in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  in 
England,  referring  a  matter  to  a  master. 

REFERENCE  (in  Printing).  A  mark 
in  the  text  of  a  work,  referring  to  a  similar 
one  in  the  side  or  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  ;  also  the  authorities  referred  to  un- 
der such  marks. 


REG 

REFINING.  The  art  of  purifying  any 
thing,  but  particularly  the  assaying  or  re- 
fining gold  and  silver,  by  separating  all 
other  bodies  from  them. 

REFLECTION  OF  THE  RAYS  OF 
LIGHT.  A  motion  of  the  rays,  whereby, 
after  impinging  on  the  solid  parts  of  bod- 
ies, they  recede  or  are  driven  therefrom. 

REFORM  IN  PARLIAMENT.  A 
change  in  the  representative  part  of  the 
English  constitution,  by  an  extension  of 
the  elective  franchise  to  modern  large 
towns,  such  as  Manchester,  Birmingham, 
&c.,  which  have  heretofore  sent  no  mem- 
bers to  parliament,  and  by  taking  away 
their  franchise  from  reduced  places,  such 
as  Old  Sarum  and  others,  which  at  pre- 
sent consist  of  only  a  few  houses. 

REFORMATION.  The  change  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  to  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion, which  was  first  set  on  foot  in  Ger- 
many by  Luther,  but  had  been  previously 
begun  in  England  by  Wicklifie,  and  com- 
pleted by  Henry  VIII.,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Head  of  the  Church. 

REFRACTION.  The  deviation  of  a  ray 
of  light  from  (hat  right  line  in  which  it 
would  have  continued,  if  not  prevented  by 
the  tliickness  of  the  medium  through  which 
it  passes.  Thus  the  light  in  passing  through 
the  atmosphere  is  refracted  or  bent  down, 
which  causes  the  heavenly  bodies  to  ap- 
pear higher  than  they  reallv  are. 

REFUGE  FOR  THE  DESTITUTE.  A 
charitable  institution  for  the  temporary 
relief  of  those  who  are  houseless  and  des- 
titute. 

REGALIA  (in  Law).  The  rights  and 
prerogatives  of  a  king ;  also  the  ensigns 
of  royalty,  the  crown,  sceptre,  &c.,  worn 
by  the  kings  of  England  at  the  coronation. 

REGENT  (in  Law).  One  who  governs 
during  the  minority  of  a  king,  or  while  he 
is  incapable  of  reigning. 

REGIMEN  (in  Medicine).  A  rule  of 
living  as  to  diet,  ,&c.,  prescribed  for  a 
patient. 

REGIMEN  (in  Grammar).  The  gov- 
ernment of  one  word  by  another,  as  nouns 
by  verbs,  &c. 

REGIMENT.  A  body  of  soldiers,  con- 
sisting of  several  companies. 

REGISTER  (in  Law),  A  book  of  pub- 
lic records. 

REGISTER  (in  a  Parish  Church).  A 
book  in  which  marriages,  baptisms  and 
burials  are  registered. 

REGISTER  (in  Chymistry).  A  contri- 
vance in  furnaces  for  increasing  or  dimin- 
ishing the  intensity  of  the  heat. 

REGISTER  (among  Letterfounders). 
One  of  the  inner  parts  of  the  mould  in 


REL 


311 


which  the  printing  types  are  cast.  Its  use 
is  to  direct  the  joining  the  mould  justly 
together  again,  after  opening  it  to  take  out 
the  new  cast  letter. 

REGISTER  (among  Printers).  Dispos- 
ing the  forms  on  the  press,  so  that  the  lines 
and  pages  printed  on  one  side  of  the  sheet 
fall  exactly  on  those  of  the  other. 

REGLET  (in  Architecture).  A  little, 
flat,  narrow  moulding  in  pannels,  &;c. 

REGRATOR  (in  Law).  In  England, 
one  v^'ho  buys  and  sells  in  the  same  market 
or  fair,  or  within  five  miles  thereof. 

REGULAR.  Agreeable  to  the  rules  of  art. 

REGULAR  (in  Geometry).  A  regular 
figure,  one  whose  sides  and  angles  are  all 
equal. 

REGULAR  (in  Grammar).  A  regular 
verb,  one  that  is  conjugated  by  some  rule. 

REGULARS.  Soldiers  regularly  disci- 
plined, and  at  the  entire  disposal  of  the 
government. 

REGULARS  (in  the  Romish  Church). 
Clergy  that  live  under  some  rule  of  obedi- 
ence. 

REGULATOR  OF  A  WATCH.  A 
small  spring  belonging  to  the  balance. 

REGULUS.  A  star  of  the  first  magni- 
tude in  the  constellation  Leo. 

REGULUS  (in  Chymistry).  An  imper- 
fect or  impure  metallic  substance. 

REIN-DEER.  An  animal  of  the  deer 
kind,  that  inhabits  the  northern  regions, 
chiefly  in  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Green- 
land ;  it  is  five  feet  in  height,  horns  long 
and  slender,  besides  a  pair  of  brow  ant- 
lers. It  is  used  by  the  natives  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  but  not  in  America,  for  drawing 
their  sledges  and  for  other  purposes. 


REJOINDER  (in  Law).  The  defend- 
ant's answer  to  the  plaintiff^s  reply. 

RELATIVE  (in  Grammar).  A  sort  of 
pronoun  which  relates  to  some  noun  going 
before,  as  which  and  who. 

RELEASE  (in  Law).  An  instrument 
in  writing  by  which  estates,  rights,  &c., 
are  extinguished. 


812 


REP 


RES 


RELIEVO,  or  Relief  (in  Sculpture). 
The  projection  or  standing  out  of  a  figure 
above  the  ground  or  plane  whereon  it  is 
formed.  There  are  three  kinds  of  relievo, 
namely,  the  alto,  which  projects  as  much 
as  life  ;  the  basso  relievo,  when  the  work 
is  raised  but  a  little  ;  and  demi  relievo, 
when  one  half  of  the  fisure  rises. 

RELIGIOUS  HOUSES.  Convents, 
monasteries,  nunneries,  and  the  like,  in 
the  Romish  Church,  where  persons  live 
under  certain  rules,  and  are  bound  by 
their  vows  to  lead  a  religious  life  ;  at  the 
Reformation,  these  religious  houses  were 
dissolved  in  England,  and  their  wealth 
was  seized  by  Henry  VIII. 

REMAINDER  (in  Law).  An  estate  in 
lands,  tenements,  &c.,  limited  to  be  enjoy- 
ed after  the  expiration  of  another  estate. 

REMAINDER  (in  Arithmetic).  The 
difference,  or  that  which  is  left  after  sub- 
tracting one  quantity  from,  another. 

REMEMBRANCER.  In  England,  an 
officer  in  the  exchequer. 

REMITTANCE.  A  sum  of  money  sent 
from  a  distance. 

REMORA.  The  generic  name  for  the 
sucking- fish. 

RENDEZVOUS.  An  appointed  place 
of  meeting,  particularly  for  soldiers. 

RENNET.  The  gastric  juice  and  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  of  a  calf,  used  in 
turning  milk  to  curds. 

RENT.  A  profit  issuing  yearly  out  of 
lands  or  tenements. 

RENTAL,  or  Rentroll.  In  England, 
a  roll  in  which  the  rents  of  a  manor  are 
set  down ;  the  collective  amount  of  rents 
from  any  man's  estates. 

RENT  CHARGE.  In  England,  a 
charge  of  rent  upon  land,  with  a  clause  of 
distress  in  case  of  non-payment. 

REPEATER.  A  kind  of  watch,  which, 
by  means  of  a  spring,  repeats  or  strikes 
the  hour. 

REPELLANTS.  Medicines  which 
drive  the  humours  from  the  part  where 
they  have  settled. 

REPERTORY.  A  place  where  things 
are  deposited  ;  also  a  book  in  which  things 
are  methodically  entered. 

REPLEVIN  (in  Law).  A  release  of 
cattle  or  goods  that  are  distrained. 

REPLICATION  (in  Law).  The  plain- 
tiff's reply  to  the  defendant's  answer. 

REPORT  (in  Law).  A  relation  of  cases 
judicially  debated  and  decided  upon. 

REPRESENTATION  (in  Law).  The 
personating  another,  as  in  the  case  of  an 
heir  by  representation. 

REPRESENTATIVE  (in  Law).  One 
who  represents  a  district  or  corporation, 


as  a  member  of  parliament,  a  member  of 
congress. 

REPRESENTATIVE  MONARCHY. 
A  government  having  national  councils, 
consisting  of  persons  chosen  by  the  people, 
to  represent  their  persons,  and  consult 
their  interests  ;  such  are  the  governments 
of  England  and  France,  &c. 

REPRESENTATIVE  OR  FREE  GOV- 
ERNMENT. A  government  in  which  the 
laws  are  made  by  representatives  freely 
chosen  by  the  people  ;  such  is  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States. 

REPRIEVE  (in  Law).  A  warrant  for 
suspending  the  execution  of  a  malefactor. 

REPRINT.     A  book  printed  again. 

REPRISALS.  The  seizing  the  vessels 
or  goods  of  merchant  strangers,  as  an 
equivalent  for  some  loss  sustained  from 
the  nation  of  which  they  are  subjects. 

REPRODUCTION.  The  power  in 
some  bodies  of  being  restored  by  a  process 
of  nature,  after  having  been  destroyed,  as 
the  reproduction  of  a  tree  ft-om  a  slip,  but 
more  particularly  the  reproduction  of  ani- 
mals which  have  been  cut  into  pieces,  as 
the  polype,  and  some  other  worms  ;  also 
the  limbs  of  crabs,  lobsters,  &;c.,  are  re- 
produced when  broken  off". 

REPTILES.  The  first  order  of  animals 
under  the  class  amphibia,  in  the  Linnajan 
system,  comprehending  the  toad,  the  frog, 
the  dragon,  the  lizard,  crocodile.  Sec. 

REPUGNANCE  (in  Law).  A  contradic- 
tion of  what  has  been  said  before,  as  in 
deeds,  grants,  &;c.,  which  makes  them 
void. 

REPULSION  (in  Physics).  A  power 
in  bodies  of  opposing  the  approach  of  other 
bodies,  as  oil  and  water,  which  for  a  time 
refuse  to  be  incorporated  ;  it  is  opposed  to 
attraction. 

REaUESTS,  Court  of.  In  England, 
a  court  for  the  recovery  of  small  debts. 

RESCUE  (in  Law).  The  violent  tak- 
ing away,  or  causing  to  escape,  one  that 
is  taken  by  lawful  authority. 

RESERVE.  A  body  of  men  kept  apart 
in  the  day  of  battle  for  some  particular  ser- 
vice, as  occasion  may  require. 

RESIANT  (in  Law).  One  residing  in 
a  certain  place. 

RESIDENCE  (in  Law).  In  England, 
the  continuance  of  a  parson  or  vicar  on  his 
benefice. 

RESIDENT.  A  minister  of  state  sent 
to  reside  at  any  court. 

RESIDUARY  LEGATEE.  Hetow'jom 
the  residue  of  a  personal  estate  ia  g  ven 
by  will. 

RESIDUUM.  The  residue,  or  what  is 
left  after  any  chymical  process. 


RET 


REV 


313 


RESIN,  or  Rosin.  A  solid  inflamma- 
ble substance  exuding  from  trees,  as  the 
common  resin,  or  turpentine,  from  the 
pine ;  mastich  from  the  pistacea ;  sanda- 
rach  from  the-  thuya ;  ladanum  from  the 
cystus,  &;c.  Pure  resins  are  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, but  the  impure  resins  are  not 
soluble. 

RESISTANCE,  or  Resisting  Force. 
Any  power  which  acts  in  an  opposite  di- 
rection to  another. 

RESOLUTION  (in  Mathematics).  A 
method  by  which  the  truth  or  falsehood 
of  a  proposition  is  discovered. 

RESOLUTION  (in  Chymistry).  The 
reducing  a  body  to  its  component  parts. 

RESOLUTION  (in  Surgeryj.  The  dis- 
persing of  tumours. 

RESOLUTION  OF  FORCES  (in  Me- 
chanics). The  dividing  any  force  or  mo- 
tion into  several  others  in  other  directions, 
but  which,  taken  together,  shall  have  the 
same  effect  as  the  single  one. 

RESPIRATION.  An  important  func- 
tion of  the  animal  body,  which  consists 
in  the  alternate  inhalation  and  exhalation 
of  air,  by  which  the  lungs  and  chest  are 
alternately  dilated  and  contracted. 
RETAINER.  An  adherent  or  dependant. 
RETAINING  FEE.  A  fee  given  to  a 
barrister,  or  lawyer,  to  keep  him  from 
pleading  for  the  other  side. 

RETALIATION.  The  act  of  return- 
ing like  for  like. 

RETARDATION  (in  Physics).  The 
act  of  diminishing  the  velocity  of  a  moving 
body. 

RETE  MUCOSUM.  A  mucous  mem- 
brane between  the  epidermis  and  the 
cutis,  v/hich  is  one  part  of  the  integument 
of  the  skin. 

RETICULA.  A  contrivance  among  as- 
tronomers for  measm-ing  the  quantity  of 
eclipses. 

RETINA.  The  third  or  innermost 
membrane  of  the  eye,  which  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  organ  of  vision. 

RETORT.  A  cliymical  vessel  of  a 
round  figure,  with  a  hollow  peak  or  tube 
curved  downward. 


RETREAT.  The  retrograde  movement 
of  any  army  or  body  of  men. 

RETRENCHMENT.  Any  work  raised 
to  cover  a  post. 

27 


RETRO.  Backward  ;  a  prefix  to  many 
words,  as  retrocession,  retrogradation,  &c. 
RETROCESSION  OF  THE  EaUI- 
NOXES.  The  going  backwards  of  the 
equinoctial  points  of  the  signs  Aries  and 
Taurus. 

RETROGRADATION.  A  moving 
backwards. 

RETURN.  A  certificate  from  sheriffs 
and  bailiffs  of  what  is  done  in  the  execu- 
tion of  a  writ. 

RETURN  DAYS  (in  Law).  Certain 
days  in  term  time  for  the  return  of  writs. 

RETURNS  (in  Commerce).  That 
which  is  returned,  whether  in  goods  or 
specie,  for  merchandise  sent  abroad  ;  also 
the  return  of  money  laid  out  in  the  way 
of  trad  3. 

RETURNS  OF  A  MINE  (in  Fortifi- 
cation). The  vvindings  and  turnings  of 
a  gallery  leading  to  a  mine. 

ilE  VELATION.  The  miraculous  com- 
munications made  by  God  of  his  will  to 
man,  which  are  contained  in  the  Bible. 

REVENUE  (in  Law).  The  yearly 
profit  that  accrues  to  a  man  from  his  lands 
or  possessions.  In  England,  the  revenue 
of  the  crown  is  that  which  peculiarly  ac- 
crues by  way  of  profit  to  the  king;  in  an 
extended  sense,  the  public  revenue,  or  the 
yearly  income  derived  from  the  taxes  and 
other  sources,  for  the  support  of  the  gov- 
ernment. 

REVERBERATORY.     A  veiy  strong 
furnace,  used  for  calcining  minerals,  &;c. 
REVERSAL  OF   JUDGMENT.      The 
making  it  void. 

REVERSE  OF  A  MEDAL.  The  back 
side,  or  that  v^'hich  does  not  contain  the 
principal  figure. 

REVERSION  (in  Law)  is  when  the 
possession  of  an  estate,  which  was  parted 
with  for  a  tim.e,  returns  to  the  donor  or 
his  heirs. 

REVIEV7  (in  Military  Affairs),  The 
display  of  a  body  of  men  before  the  gene- 
ral, that  he  may  judge  of  their  condition. 

REVIEW,  Bill  OF  (in  Law).  A  bill 
in  chancery  for  the  re-examination  of  a 
cause. 

REVIEW  (in  Literature).  A  periodi- 
ca! publication,  which  professes  to  give  a 
criticism  of  publications  as  they  appear. 

REVISE.  A  second  proof  sheet  of  a 
work,  for  the  revisal  or  re-examination  of 
the  errors  corrected. 

REVOCATION.  The  recalling  or  mak- 
ing void  any  grant. 

REVOLUTION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
motion  of  any  heavenly  body  in  a  circular 
line,  until  it  returns  to  the  same  point 
again. 


314 


RHU 


RID 


REVOLUTIONIST.  A  favourer  of 
political  revolutions. 

RHEA.  A  large  bird  of  the  ostrich  spe- 
cies, found  in  the  plains  of  Patagonia,  and 
incorrectly  called  the  South  American  os- 
trich. 

RHETORIC.  The  art  of  speaking  on 
any  subject  with  propriety,  and  the  force 
of  persuasion. 

RHEUM.  A  thin,  serous  humour,  that 
oozes  occasionally  from  the  glands  about 
the  throat  and  mouth. 

RHEUMATISM.  Wandering  pains  in 
the  body,  accompanied  with  heaviness, 
difficulty  of  motion,  and  sometimes  a 
fever. 

RHINOCEROS.  A  large  beast  in  India, 
and  the  largest  of  all  quadrupeds,  except 
the  elephant,  having  a  horn  in  his  front, 
and  a  skin  full  of  wrinkles,  which  is  so 
hard  that  it  can  scarcely  be  pierced  by  a 
Bword. 


RHODODENDRON.  A  shrub  bearing 
a  very  fine  flower. 

RHOMBOID.  A  quadrilateral  figure, 
whose  opposite  sides  and  angles  are  equal, 
but  it  is  neither  equilateral  nor  rectan- 
gular. 


RHOMBUS.  A  quadrilateral  figure 
which  is  equilateral,  but  not  rectan- 
gular. 


RHUBARB.     A  perennial,  the  root  of 
which  is  much  used  in  medicine,  particu- 


larly what  comes  from  Turkey  ;  the  stalk 
of  the  European  rhubarb  is  also  much  es- 
teemed in  tarts. 

RHUMB.  A  vertical  circle  of  any  place, 
or  the  intersection  of  part  of  such  circle 
with  the  horizon. 

RHYME.  A  sort  of  verse  which  termi- 
nates with  words  of  the  same  sound. 

RIB  (in  Anatomy).  A  side  bone  of  the 
body. 

RIB  (in  Carpentry).  Any  piece  of  tim- 
ber that  strengthens  the  side. 

RIB  (in  Ship-building).  The  timber  of 
the  futtocks,  when  the  planks  are  off, 
which  resemble  the  ribs  of  the  body. 

RIBBON.  A  narrow  sort  of  silk,  chiefly 
used  for  head  ornaments. 

RICKETS.  A  disease  in  the  back  bone, 
incident  to  children. 

RICE.  A  sort  of  esculent  grain,  culti- 
vated in  warm  countries,  which  grows  in 
husks  of  an  oval  figure. 


RICK-CLOTH.  In  England,  a  tarpaw- 
ling,  which  is  set  up  by  stacks  or  ricks  of 
hay  or  corn,  while  it  is  stacking.  It  is 
worked  with  pulleys,  as  represented  un- 
derneath. 


RIDER.  A  leaf  inserted  in,  or  attached 
to  other  leaves. 

RIDER  (in  Commerce).  One  who  tra- 
vels for  a  trading  or  mercantile  house  to 
collect  orders. 

RIDER  (in  Gunnery).  A  piece  of  wood 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  body  of  the  axle- 
tree  of  the  gun  carriage. 

RIDER-ROLL  (in  Law).    A  schedulo 


RIO 


ROE 


315 


or  small  piece  of  parchment  added  to  some 
part  of  a  roll  or  record. 

RIDERS  (in  Ship-building).  Timbers 
bolted  upon  others  to  strengthen  them. 

RIDGE,  The  top  of  a  house  that  rises 
to  an  acute  angle  ;  also  the  top  of  tlie  ver- 
tebra of  the  back. 

RIDGE  (in  Husbandry').  The  highest 
part  of  the  land  between  two  furrows. 

RIDING.  A  division  of  a  county,  as 
the  east  and  west  riding  of  Yorkshire, 
England. 

RIDING-CLERK.  In  England,  one  of 
the  six  clerks  in  chancery,  who,  in  his 
turn,  keeps  the  coniptrohnent  book  of  all 
grants  that  pass  the  great  seal. 

RIDING  SCHOOL.  A  public  place 
where  persons  are  taught  to  sit  gracefully 
on  a  horse,  and  use  the  bridle  with  pro- 
priety. 

RIFLE.  A  gun  having  spiral  channels 
in  the  barrel. 

RIFLEMEN.  Soldiers  armed  with  ri- 
fles, and  employed  as  marksmen  to  fire 
behind  hedges. 

RIGGING,  All  the  cordage  or  ropes 
belonging  to  the  different  parts  of  a  ship. 

RIGHT  (in  Law).  Any  title  or  claim 
by  virtue  of  a  condition,  mortgage,  &c. 

RIGHT  (in  Geometry).  Straight,  as  a 
right  line. 

RIGHT  ANGLE.  The  angle  formed 
by  one  line  falling  perpendicularly  upon 
another. 

RIGHT  SPHERE  (in  Astronomy).  That 
position  of  a  sphere  by  which  its  poles  are 
In  the  horizon. 

RIG  LET  (in  Architecture).  A  flat,  thin 
piece  of  wood,  like  what  is  designed  for 
the  frames  of  small  pictures,  before  they 
are  moulded. 

RIGLET  (in  Printing).  A  thin  slip  of 
wood  used  in  making  up  a  form,  for 
tightening  the  pages,  &c. 

RIND.     The  skin  of  any  fruit. 

RINGDOVE.  A  European  variety  of 
the  pigeon. 

RINGHEAD.  An  instrament  for  stretch- 
ing woollen  cloth  with. 

RINGLEADER.  The  head  of  a  party 
or  faction. 

RING-OUGEL.  A  Enropean  bird, 
marked  with  a  crescent  of  white  upon  the 
under  part  of  the  neck. 

RINGWORM.  A  cutaneous  disorder 
that  comes  on  the  skin  in  rings,  and  is 
contagious. 

RIOT  (in  Law).  The  forcible  doing  an 
unlawful  thing  by  three  or  more  persons, 
assembled  together  for  that  purpose. 

RIOT  ACT.  A  legislative  act,  prohib- 
iting riotous  or  tumultuous    assemblies. 


which,  being  read  by  a  magistrate  or  peace 
officer  to  the  mob,  obliges  all  persons  to 
disperse  within  an  hour,  on  pain  of  being 
apprehended  as  rioters. 

RISING.  The  appearance  of  any  star 
or  planet  above  the  horizon,  which,  before, 
was  hid  beneath  it. 

RITUAL.  A  book  directing  the  order 
and  manner  to  be  observed,  in  celebrating 
religious  ceremonies,  and  performing  di- 
vine service  in  the  church. 

PvIVER.  A  stream  or  current  of  fresh 
water,  flowing  in  a  bed  or  channel,  as  the 
river  Amazon  in  South  America,  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Saint  Lawrence  in  North 
America,  the  Nile  in  Egypt,  the  Euphrates 
and  Ganges  in  India,  the  Rhine  and  Da- 
nube in  Germany,  the  Rhone  and  Seine  in 
France,  the  Tiber  in  Italy,  the  Tagus  in 
Portugal,  the  Thames  in  Great  Britain, 
&:c. 

RIVET.  A  metal  pin  clinched  at  both 
ends. 

RIX  DOLLAR.  A  coin  in  Germany, 
worth  from  three  to  four  shillings  sterling. 

ROACH.    A  fish  of  the  carp  kind. 

ROAD.  A  highway,  or  a  way  prepared 
for  travellers  ;  it  is  either  a  carriage  road, 
where  carriages  may  pass,  or  a  foot  road, 
or  path  for  foot  passengers.  Military  roads 
were  formerly  constructed  by  the  Romans 
for  the  passage  of  their  armies,  of  which 
there  are  still  vestiges  in  England.  Roads 
in  the  latter  country  are  now  principally 
made  by  small  stones  bound  together  with 
the  earth,  which  is  called  Macadamizing. 

ROAD.  A  sea  terra  for  any  place  fit 
for  anchorage,  at  some  distance  from  the 
shore. 

ROADSTER.  A  horse  accustomed  to 
travelling  on  the  road. 

ROBIN,  or  Robin  Redbreast.  A 
pretty  little  European  bird  with  a  red 
breast,  which  is  very  tame,  and  in  winter 
time  comes  into  the  house.  The  Ameri- 
can robin  is  larger,  but  is  a  great  favouiite, 
and  sings  verj'  sweetly. 

ROCHE  ALUM,  or  Rock  Alum.  A 
mineral  salt  of  a  very  binding  quality. 

ROCK.  A  stony  mass,  of  which  moun- 
tains are  for  the  most  part  formed.  Rocks 
are,  however,  to  be  met  with  in  immensely 
large  separate  masses. 

ROCKET.  A  sort  of  fireworks,  which, 
when  let  off,  go  to  a  very  great  height  in 
the  air  before  they  burst. 

ROCKBIL.  A  bituminous  substance 
found  in  rocks- 

ROE.  An  animal  of  the  deer  kind : 
also  the  spawn  of  fish  ;  that  of  the  males 
is  called  soft  roe  or  melt,  that  of  the  fe- 
males hard  roe  or  spawn. 


316 


ROS 


ROGATION  WEEK.  The  week  pre- 
ceding Whitsuntide. 

EOLL(in  Law).  A  schedule  or  parch- 
ment which  may  be  rolled  up. 

ROLLER  (in  Husbandry  and  Garden- 
ing). A  wooden  or  iron  instrument  of  a 
circular  shape,  and  fitted  for  rolling  along 
the  ground  to  level  grass  land,  break  the 
clods  of  arable  land,  and  to  bind  tlie  grav- 
el in  gravel  walks. 


ROLLER  (in  Surgery).  A  long,  broad 
ligature,  for  keeping  the  parts  of  the  body 
in  their  places. 

ROLLER  (in .Ornithology).  A  sort  of 
bird  the  size  of  a  jay. 

ROLLING  MILL.  A  machine  for 
working  metals  into  plates  or  bars.  This 
sort  of  mill  is  chiefly  used  for  drawing  out 
the  iron  bars,  after  they  have  been  manu- 
factured into  bar  iron  by  the  forge  hammer. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  Those  who 
hold  the  doctrines,  and  submit  to  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  Romish  church. 

ROOD.    The  fourth  part  of  an  acre. 

ROOF.    The  covering  of  a  building. 

ROOK.  A  sociable  European  bird  of 
the  crow  kind. 

ROOT  (in  Arithmetic).  A  number  or 
quantity,  which  multiplied  by  itself  produ- 
ces a  higher  power,  as  2,  the  square  root 
of  4  or  the  cube  root  of  8. 

ROOT  (in  Botany).  That  part  of  a  plant 
which  is  under  ground,  and  by  which  the 
plant  derives  its  nourishment  from  the 
earth. 

ROOT  (in  Grammar).  The  original 
words  from  which  others  are  formed. 

ROPE.  The  larger  kind  of  cordage, 
formed  by  the  twisting  of  several  strings 
of  yarn  together;  the  smallest  sort  of 
rope  is  called  cord,  and  the.  larger  kinds 
cable,  which  is  used  for  the  rigging  of  ships. 

ROPEMAKING.  The  process  of  tv>?ist- 
ing  yarn  into  ropes  by  means  of  a  wheel. 

ROPEYARN.  The  rope  of  any  yarn 
untwisted. 

ROSE.  A  shrub  equally  celebrated  and 
admired,  by  both  ancients  and  moderns, 
for  its  sweetness  and  its  beauty.  The 
most  esteemed  species  of  this  favourite 
ehrub,  are  the  hundred  leaved  rose,  da- 


ROU 

mask  rose,    Provence  rose,  white   rose, 
moss  rose,  &c. 

ROSE  ACACIA.  A  prickly  shrub,  the 
flower  of  which  resembles  the  rose  in  form. 

ROSEMARY.  A  medicinal  and  fra- 
grant plant. 

ROSEWATER.  Water  distilled  from 
roses. 

ROSIN.    See  Resin. 

ROSTRUM.  A  place  in  Rome  where 
orations  were  made  and  pleadings  carried 
on:  it  was  so  called  from  rostrum,  the 
beak  of  a  ship,  because  it  was  made  of  the 
beaks  of  the  ships  taken  at  Antium. 

ROT.  A  disease  among  sheep,  in  which 
their  lungs  are  wasted  and  their  throats 
swollen. 

ROTACE^.  One  of  LinniBus's  natural 
order  of  plants,  consisting  of  such  as  have 
one  wheel-shaped  petal  without  a  tube. 

ROTATION  (in  Geometry).  The  cii^ 
cumvolution  of  a  surface  round  an  immo- 
vable line,  by  which  solids  are  conceived 
to  be  generated. 

ROTTEN  STONE.  A  mineral,  found 
in  Derbyshire,  which  is  used  for  all  sorts 
of  finer  grinding  and  polishing,  and  some- 
times for  cutting  of  stones. 

ROTUNDA,  or  Rotundo.  A  circular 
building  at  Rome,  which  was  anciently 
called  the  Pantheon;  also  any  circular 
building. 

ROTUNDITY  OF  THE  EARTH. 
Roundness  of  form  ascribed  to  the  earth 
from  various  appearances  which  serve  to 
prove  it,  as,  for  instance,  that  the  masts  of 
a  vessel  come  in  sight  before  the  hull  is 
visible. 

ROUGE.  A  red  paint  extracted  from 
the  plant  called  by  botanists  the  carthamua 
tinctorius. 

ROUGH-CASTING.  A  kind  of  mortar 
used  as  a  covering  for  external  walls, 
which  is  thrown  on  rouglily,  instead  of  be- 
ing plastered  on. 

ROUGHRIDER.  Anon-commissioned 
oflicer  in  the  cavalry,  who  assists  the  rid- 
ing master. 

ROUNDHOUSE.  In  England,  a  tem- 
porary prison  in  a  parish,  where  those 
who  are  apprehended  by  the  constable  are 
confined. 

ROUNDHOUSE  (among  Mariners). 
The  uppermost  room  or  cabin  in  the  stern 
of  a  ship,  where  the  master  lies. 

ROUNDS.  A  watch  commanded  by  an 
oflicer,  who  goes  in  the  night  time  round 
a  fortress. 

ROUND  ROBIN.  A  paper  containing 
a  statement  of  grievances,  on  the  part  of 
any  number  of  discontented  persons  in  the 
army  or  navy,  v/ho  sign  their  names  in  a 


SAB 

circular  manner,  that  it  may  not  be  seen 
who  signed  first. 

ROWEL.  The  pointed  wheel  in  a  spur. 

ROYAL  ASSENT.  In  En£?land,  the 
assent  given  by  the  king  to  bills  that  have 
been  passed  the  two  houses  of  parliament ; 
it  is  given  to  a  public  bill  in  the  words 
*  Le  roi  le  veut,'  and  to  a  private  bill, 
'  Soil  fait  comnie  il  est  desire.'  The  king 
refuses  his  assent  by  writing  the  words 
'  Le  roi  s'avisera,'  i.  e.  The  king  will 
think  of  it  or  be  advised. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY.  In  England,  a 
society  incorporated  by  Charles  II.,  under 
the  name  of  '  The  President,  Council,  and 
Fellows  of  the  Koyal  Society,  for  the  Im- 
provement of  Natural  Philosophy.' 

R.  S.  An  abbreviation  for  Royal  Society. 

RUBLE.  A  Russian  coin ;  those  of 
1764,  value  3s.  3d.,  and  those  of  1801, 
value  2s.  9|d.  sterling. 

RUBRIC.  The  directions  given  in  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

RUBY.  A  precious  stone,  next  to  the 
diamond  in  value.  Its  constituent  parts 
are  alumina,  silica,  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
oxide  of  iron. 

RUDDER.  A  piece  of  timber  hung  on 
hinges  at  the  stern-posts  of  a  ship,  which, 
by  being  turned  either  way,  directs  the 
course  of  the  vessel. 

RUDIMENTS.  The  first  elements  or 
principles  of  any  art  or  science. 

RUDOLPHINE  TABLES.  A  celebra- 
ted set  of  astronomical  tables,  published 
by  Kepler,  and  thus  entitled  in  honour  of 
the  emperor  Rudolph  or  Rudolphus. 

RUFF.  A  European  bird,  about  a 
foot  in  length,  with  long  feathers  standing 
out  round  the  neck,  like  a  ruff.  The  fe- 
male is  called  Reeve. 

RULE  OF  THREE  (in  Arithmetic). 
A  rule  which  teaches  by  means  of  three 
numbers  to  find  a  fourth. 

RULE,  or  RULER.  An  instrument  of 
wood  or  metal,  marked  off,  so  as  to  be  of  use 
in  mensuration. 


SAB 


317 


RULE,  Sliding.  A  rhathematical  in- 
strument, serving  to  perform  computations 
in  gauging,  measuring,  &c.,  without  the 
use  of  compasses,  merely  by  the  sliding  of 
the  parts  of  the  instrument  one  by  another. 

RULES  OF  COURT.  Certain  orders 
made  from  time  to  time  in  the  courts  of 
law,  for  regulating  the  practice  of  the  court. 

RUM.  A  spirituous  liquor  distilled  from 
sugar  canes. 

RUMEN  (in  Comparative  Anatomy). 
The  paunch  or  first  stomach  of  such  ani- 
mals as  chew  the  cud. 

RUMINATING.  Chewing  the  cud,  as 
cows,  sheep,  and  some  other  animals  do. 

RUN.  The  uppermost  part  of  a  ship's 
bottom. 

RUNDLET.     A  cask  for  liquors. 

RUNNER  (in  Law).  One  who  runs  or 
goes  about  to  give  intelligence  to  the  po- 
lice of  what  is  passing. 

RUNNER  (in  Commerce).  A  rope  with 
a  pulley  for  hoisting  up  goods. 

RUNNET.    SeeRENxNET. 

RUPEE.  An  Indian  coin  equal  to  two 
shillings  sterling. 

RUSPONO.  A  coin  of  Tuscany,  value 
£1.  8s.  6d.  sterling. 

RUSH.  A  kind  of  coarse  grass  that 
grows  in  watery  lands.  The  flowering 
rush  is  a  perennial,  and  the  sweet  rush  a 
tuberose  plant,  both  of  which  are  cultiva- 
ted in  gardens. 

RUST.  A  crustaceous  substance  grow- 
ing on  iron,  which  is  considered  as  an  ox- 
ide of  iron. 

RUSTIC.  An  epithet  for  a  mode  of 
building  that  imitates  simple  nature. 

RYDER.  A  Dutch  coin,  value  £1.  45. 
lid.  sterling. 

RYE.  A  kind  of  grain  that  in  its  growth 
resembles  wheat ;  it  is  in  England  mostly 
cultivated  as  food  for  cattle.  In  America, 
it  is  made  into  bread,  which  is  coarser 
than  that  made  of  wheat  flour.  It  is, 
however,  preferred  by  many  persons  to 
wheat. 


S. 


S,  the  nineteenth  letter  of  our  alphabet, 
as  a  numeral,  stood  for  seven  ;  in  Music,  as 
an  abbreviation,  it  stands  for  solo  ;  in  navi- 
gation, for  south;  S.  E.,  for  south  east  ; 
S.  W.,  for  south  west ;  S.  S.  E.,  for  south 
south  east ;  S.  S.  W.,  for  south  south  west. 
SABBATH.  The  seventh  day,  ob- 
served by  the  Jews  as  a  festival  or  day  of 
rest,  in  commemoration  of  God's  resting 
27* 


I  on  the  seventh  day,  after  the  work  of  the 
creation.  The  Jewisli  sabbath  commen- 
ces at  sunset  on  the  Friday,  and  ends  at 
sunset  on  the  Saturday.  The  term  Sab- 
bath is  applied  by  Christians  to  the  Lord's 
Day,  vulgarly  called  Sunday,  which  haa 
been  substituted  for  the  Jewish  Sabbath. 

SABLE  (in  Zoology).    An  animal  of  the 
weasel  tribe,  having  a  dark  tawny  body. 


318 


SAF 


It  inhabits  the  northern  regions,  and  is 
much  esteemed  for  its  fur. 


SABLE  (in  Heraldry).  The  tincture  of 
black  represented  in  engraving  by  perpen- 
dicular and  horizontal  lines. 


SABRE.  A  sword  with  a  broad, 
heavy  blade,  worn  by  the  heavy  cavalry. 

SACCHARINE.  Of  the  nature  of  sugar. 

SACCHARINE  ACID.  An  acid  ex- 
tracted from  sugar  by  distillation. 

SACK  OF  WOOL.  A  quantity  of  wool 
containing  twenty-two  stones,  each  stone 
fourteen  pounds. 

SACKBUT.  A  sort  of  tmmpet  fit  for 
playing  bass. 

SACLACTIC  ACID.  A  powder  procur- 
ed from  the  sugar  of  milk. 

SACRAMENT.  A  sign  of  a  holy  thing 
containing  a  divine  mystery. 

SADDLE,  A  seat  for  a  horseman  fitted 
to  a  horse's  back.  It  is  supposed  that  sad- 
dles did  not  come  into  use  till  about  the 
time  of  Constantine  the  Great,  in  the 
fourth  century. 

SADDLER.  One  who  makes  and  sells 
saddles.  The  company  of  saddlers  in 
London  is  of  great  antiquity,  having  been 
incorporated  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I. 

SADDUCEES.  A  sect  among  the  Jews, 
which  were  esteemed  as  deists  and  free- 
thinkers. 

SAFE  CONDUCT.  A  security  given 
by  the  king  under  his  great  seal  to  any 
person,  for  his  quiet  coming  into,  or  pas- 
sage out  of  his  realm. 

SAFEGUARD.  A  protection  given  by 
a  prince  or  his  general  to  an  enemy's 
country,  to  protect  it  from  being  ravaged 
by  an  army. 

SAFETY-LAMP.  A  lamp  invented  by 
Sir  Humplirey  Davy,  for  the  use  of  miners 
in  the  coal  mines,  to  prevent  the  fatal  ex- 


SAL 

plosions  which  have  arisen  from  the  use 
of  common  lamps.  The  safety-lamp 
transmits  its  liglu  through  a  cylinder  of 
iron  or  copper  wire  gauze,  the  apertures  in 
which  are  not  above  one  twentieth  of  an 
inch  square.  As  the  fire-damp  is  not  ig- 
nited by  heated  wire,  the  thickness  of  the 
wire  is  of  no  importance.  Tiie  principal 
parts  of  this  lamp  are  a  brass  cistern  con- 
taining the  oil,  the  rim  on  which  the  wire 
gauze  cover  is  fixed,  an  aperture  for  supply- 
ing oil,  a  central  aperture  for  the  wick,  and 
the  wire  gauze  cylinder. 


SAFFRON.  A  bulbous  root ;  also  the 
flower  of  the  crocus ;  also  a  substance 
formed  from  the  stigmata  of  the  crocus 
officinalis  dried  on  a  kiln  and  pressed  into 
cakes. 

SAG  ITT  A.  A  constellation  in  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

SAGITTARIUS.  The  ninth  sign  of  tliQ 
zodiac,  marked  thus  (  ^  ). 

SAGO.  A  simple  produced  from  the 
pith  of  a  kind  of  palm  growing  in  the  East 
Indies,  called  by  botanists  the  cycas  cir- 
cinalis. 

SAGOIN.  A  South  American  animal 
about  the  size  of  a  rabbit. 

SAIL.  A  large  piece  of  canvass  com- 
posed of  several  breadths  sewed  together, 
which,  when  extended  by  means  of  lines 
on  masts,  catches  the  wind,  and  drives  tlie 
vessel  along. 

SAILING.  The  conducting  a  vessel 
from  one  port  to  another,  which  is  the 
practical  part  of  navigation. 

SALAMANDER.  A  sort  of  lizard, 
whicli  exudes  from  its  pores  a  milky  li- 
quor, by  which  it  is  enabled  for  a  time  to 
resist  the  action  of  fire.  From  this  virtue, 
it  was  formerly  supposed  capable  of  living 
in  fire. 

SAL  A'VrMONTAO.  A  fossil  salt  which 
v,-ap  said  to  be  dug  out  of  the  sands  of  Am- 
monia in  Lib3'a,  froni  which  it  took  itg 
name.    There  is  no  native  salt  of  this 


SAL 

name  known  to  the  moderns,  but  a  facti- 
tious salt  composed  of  a  volatile  alkaline 
and  the  acid  of  sea  salt,  whence  it  is  call- 
ed the  muriate  of  ammonia. 

SALARY.  The  stipend  or  remunera- 
tion made  to  a  man  for  liis  services,  in  dis- 
tinction from  wages,  which  is  for  day 
labour,  and  pay,  which  is  for  military 
service. 

SALE  (in  Law).  Transferring  the  pro- 
perty of  goods  from  one  to  another,  upon  a 
valuable  consideration. 

SALESMAN.  One  who  sells  clothes 
or  other  commodities.  It  is  also  applied 
to  one  in  a  mercantile  establishment,  who 
sells  the  goods. 

SALIENT  ANGLE  (in  Fortification). 
An  angle  projecting  outwards. 

SALIVA.  An  excretion  from  certain 
glands  of  the  mouth,  wliich  serves  to 
moisten  the  food  before  it  is  swallowed. 

SALIVATION.  A  drawing  humours 
out  of  the  mouth  by  mercurial  prepara- 
tions; also  a  preternatural  increase  of 
saliva. 

SALLOW.    A  sort  of  willow. 

SALLY.  The  issuing  of  the  besieged 
from  their  fort  and  tower,  and  falling  on 
the  besiegers  to  cut  them  oft". 

SALLY  PORTS.  Doorways  on  each 
quarter  of  a  fire  ship,  out  of  which  the 
men  make  their  escape  into  the  boats 
as  soon  as  the  train  is  laid. 

SALMON.  A  fish  that  lives  in  either 
fresh  or  salt  water,  but  shuns  that  which 
is  foul.    It  is  much  esteemed  for  its  flesh. 


SAN 


319 


SALMON  TROUT.  A  species  of  the 
salmon,  having  a  body  spotted  with 
black. 

SALOON.  A  spacious  room  much  used 
in  Italy  as  a  state  room  for  the  reception 
of  ambassadors. 

SALOP.  A  substance  brought  from 
Persia,  and  prepared,  as  is  supposed,  from 
a  species  of  the  plant  botanically  called 
orchis. 

SALT.  A  name  given  by  modern  chy- 
mists  to  three  sorts  of  substances,  namely, 
acids,  alkalies,  and  the  compounds  form- 
ed by  acids  in  union  with  alkalies,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides.  These  latter  are 
Baits,  properly  so  called,  and  are  some- 


times distinguished  from  the  two  others 
by  the  name  of  neutral  salts,  as  Epsom 
salts,  nitre,  &c.  Salts  are  likewise  dis- 
tinguished according  to  the  process  by 
which  they  are  prepared.  Common  salt, 
or  bay  salt,  a  muriate  of  soda,  being  a 
compound  of  muriatic  acid  and  soda,  is 
procured  by  evaporation  from  sea  water. 
Essential  salts  are  drawn  from  the  juices 
of  plants  by  crystallization.  Fixed  salts 
are  made  by  calcining  or  reducing  the  mat- 
ter to  ashes,  then  boiling  it  in  water, 
straining  off  the  liquor,  and  evaporating 
all  the  moisture,  when  the  salt  v/ill  re- 
main in  the  form  of  a  powder.  Volatile 
salts  are  procured  principally  from  animal 
substances  or  the  fermented  parts  of 
plants. 

SALTER.  A  dealer  in  salt  or  salt  fish. 
The  company  of  salters  in  London  were 
incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 

SALTPETRE,  or  Nitrs.  A  nitrate  of 
potash. 

SALTS,,  or  Saltcellars.  A  name  for 
the  vessel  that  holds  the  salt  when  it  is 
brought  to  the  table. 

SALVAGE.  A  recompense  allowecl 
to  such  persons  as  have  assisted  in  sa- 
ving merchandises,  ships,  &c.,  from  shipt- 
wrecks. 

SALUTE  (in  Military  Etiquette).  A 
discharge  of  artillery,  or  presenting  of  arms, 
as  a  mark  of  honour  or  respect  to  some 
person  of  distinction. 

SALUTE  (in  the  Navy).  The  dis- 
charge of  ordnance,  striking  of  colours, 
and  the  like,  as  testimonies  of  respect  to 
the  ships  of  an  admiral  or  superior. 

SAMARITANS.  A  sect  among  the 
Jews,  who  rejected  all  the  scriptures  ex- 
cept the  five  books  of  Moses. 

SANCTUARY  (in  Law).  A  privileged 
place,  whither,  anciently,  offenders  were 
allowed  to  fly,  and  to  remain  for  some 
time  under  protection. 

SANDAL.  A  sort  of  slipper  Worn  by 
the  Greek  and  Roman  ladies. 

SANDAL  WOOD,  The  wood  of  an 
Indian  tree,  remarkable  for  its  fragrance. 

SANDARACH.  A  resinous  substance 
exuding  from  a  tree  that  grows  in  Ear- 
bary. 

SANDBAGS.  Bags  fitted  for  holding 
sand  or  earth,  and  used  in  repairing 
breaches  in  fortifications,  See. 

SANDIVER,  or  Glass  Gall.  A  saline 
matter  which  rises  as  a  scum  in  the  cruci- 
bles in  which  glass  is  made. 

SANDPIPER.    A  sort  of  heath  bird. 

SANDSTONE.  A  soft,  compound 
stone,  consisting  of  grains  of  sand.  See, 
cemented  together.     The   principal  pie- 


320 


SAT 


ces  are  the  grindstone  and  the  filtering 
stone. 

SANGIAC.  The  governor  of  a  Turkish 
province. 

SANHEDRIM.  The  supreme  council 
or  court  of  judicature  among  the  Jews. 

SAP.  The  juice  or  fluid  part  of  a  tree, 
which  is  a  mucilaginous  liquid,  oftentimes 
strongly  saccharine,  so  as  to  yield  a  large 
quantity  of  sugar,  and  also  to  furnish  a 
strong  fermented  liquor. 

SAPPERS.  Soldiers  attached  to  the  en- 
gineers, and  employed  to  assist  in  the  la- 
bour of  sapping. 

SAPPHIRE.  A  hard  and  precious 
stone  of  a  beautiful  azure  or  sky-blue  col- 
our, nearly  as  transparent  and  glittering 
as  the  diamond. 

SAPPING.  A  working  underground 
to  gain  the  descent  of  a  ditch,  counter- 
scarp, &c. 

SARCOCOL.  A  gum  resin  brought 
from  Persia  and  Arabia  in  small  grains, 
and  supposed  to  be  the  product  of  a  tree 
called  by  botanists  the  penaa  sarcocoUa. 

SARCOPHAGUS.  A  sort  of  stone 
coffins,  which  consumed  the  bodies  placed 
in  them  in  the  space  of  forty  days.  It  was 
used  by  the  ancients  sometimes  instead 
of  burning  the  bodies  by  fire. 

SARDONYX.  A  precious  stone,  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  chalcedony  and 
cornelian  stone. 

SARMENTOS^  (in  Botany).  One  of 
Linnceus's  natural  orders,  consisting  of 
plants  which  have  climbing  stems  and 
branches,  like  the  vine. 

SARSAPARILLA.  The  root  of  the 
rough  smilax,  a  plant  growing  in  Peru. 
It  has  a  bitterish  taste,  and  is  much  used 
in  medicine. 

SASH  (among  Carpenters).  A  frame 
of  wood  with  panes  of  glass  for  a  window, 

SASH.  A  girdle  round  tlie  waist,  wliich 
in  the  army  is  worn  by  the  oilicers. 

SASSAFRAS.  A  yellow,  odoriferous 
wood  of  an  aromatic  scent,  common  in 
America. 

SATELLITE.  A  secondary  planet 
moving  round  another,  as  the  moon  does 
round  the  earth,  so  called  because  it  at- 
tends the  primary  planet  from  rising  to 
setting,  after  the  manner  of  the  satellites 
who  attended  on  the  eastern  princes  as  a 
guard.  Jupiter  has  four  such  satellites, 
Saturn  •even,  and  Herschel  six. 

SATIN.     A  glossy  kind  of  silk  stuff. 

SATIRE.  A  biting  sort  of  poetry, 
written  to  expose  the  follies  of  men. 

SATURATION.  An  impregnation  of 
a  fluid  with  as  much  of  any  solid  sub- 
stance as  it  can  dissolve.    Thus  water 


SAW 

will  dissolve  about  one  third  of  its  v.'eight 
of  common  salt,  and  when  it  holds  thus 
much  in  solution,  it  is  said  to  be  saturated 
with  it,  because,  if  more  be  added,  it  will 
remain  solid. 

SATURDAY.  The  last  day  in  the 
week,  so  called  from  Saturn. 

SATURN  (in  Heathen  Mythology).  A 
son  of  CobIus  and  Terra,  and  the  god  of 
time,  commonly  represented  with  a  sythe, 
to  denote  the  destroying  power  of  time ; 
sometimes  with  wings,  to  denote  the 
swiftness  of  time,  and  with  shackles,  to 
denote  the  slow  revolution  and  motion  of 
the  planet  Saturn. 


SATURN.  One  of  the  primary  planets* 
the  tenth  in  order  of  distance  from  the 
sun,  which  is  thirty  years  in  performing 
his  sidereal  revolution.  He  is  marked  by 
this  character  li . 

SATURNALIA.  A  festival  at  Rome, 
in  commemoration  of  the  golden  age,  or 
the  age  of  Saturn,  when  all  men  enjoyed 
their  liberty,  as  the  poets  tell  us. 

SATURN'S  RING.  A  broad,  opake, 
circular  arc,  which  encompasses  the  plan- 
et like  the  wooden  horizon  of  an  artificial 
globe. 


SAVOY.  A  sort  of  winter  cabbage 
with  a  crumpled  leaf,  which  is  greatly  im- 
proved in  flavour  by  being  exposed  to  frost. 

SAWMILL.  A  mill  for  sawing  trees 
into  boards,  planks,  &,c. 

SAWYER.  A  mechanic  employed  in 
sawing  timber.  Tiiere  are  two  sawyers  to 
one  piece,  one  of  nhom  is  in  the  pit,  or 
below,  and  the  other  stands  on  the  timber 


SCA 

SAXIFRAGE.  A  creeping  perennial, 
so  called  because  it  affects  rocky  or  stony 
places. 

SAXON  ARCH.  A  semicircular  arcli 
which  characterizes  the  Saxon  style. 


SAXON  STYLE.  A  mode  of  building 
first  used  by  the  Saxons  in  Great  Britain. 
See  Architectuke. 

SCABIOUS,  A  plant  cultivated  in 
gardens,  which  bears  a  handsome  brown 
flower. 

SCABRID^.  One  of  Linnasus's  nat- 
ural orders,  including  plants  with  rough 
leaves,  as  hemp,  fig,  &c. 

SCAFFOLD.  A  temporary  erection, 
either  for  workmen  or  for  spectators. 

SCALE  (iu  Mathematics).  The  degi-ees 
of  any  arch  of  a  circle  or  of  right  lines 
drawn  or  engraven  on  a  mle. 

SCALE  (in  Music).  A  series  of 
sounds  rising  or  falling  towards  acuteness 
or  gravity  ;  in  Geography,  a  scale  of  miles 
on  a  map,  for  measuring  tlie  distances  of 
places ;  in  Arithmetic,  scale  of  notation, 
the  order  of  progression  on  which  any 
system  of  arithmetic  is  founded,  as  the 
decennary  scale,  which  computes  by 
tens. 

SCALENE  TRIANGLE.  A  triangle 
whose  sides  and  angles  are  all  unequal. 

SCALES.  Two  wooden  bowls  suspen- 
ded at  the  ends  of  a  balance,  one  for  re- 
ceiving the  weights,  and  the  other  the 
things  to  be  weighed. 


SCALLOP.     A  sort  of  oysters. 


SCH  321 

SCALP.  The  skin  that  covers  the  skull 
bone. 

SCAMMONY.  A  concreted,  resinous 
juice,  light  and  friable,  of  a  grayish  brown 
coloui-,  and  disagreeable  smell. 

SCANNING.  Measuring  Latin  verses 
by  the  syllables  and  feet. 

SCANTLING.  The  measure,  size,  or 
standard,  by  which  the  dimensions  of 
any  thing,  particularly  timber,  is  deter- 
mined. 

SCAPEMENT  (in  Clock  Work).  The 
manner  of  communicating  the  impulse  of 
the  wheels  to  the  pendulum.  Common 
scapements  consist  of  the  swing  wheel 
and  pallets  only. 

SCAPULA.     The  shculder-hlade. 

SCx\RF.  A  sort  of  sash  worn  by  offi- 
cers in  the  army,  and  also  by  divines,  as 
well  as  females,  over  the  left  shoulder  and 
down  the  right  side. 

SCARF  SKIN.  The  first  and  outer- 
most of  the  three  lamina  of  whicli  the 
skin  is  composed. 

SCARIFICATION.  Incisions  made  in 
the  skin,  as  in  cupping. 

SCARP.  The  slope  on  that  side  of  a 
ditch  which  is  next  to  a  foitified  place, 
and  looks  towards  the  field. 

SCAVENGER.  A  person  whose  duty 
it  is  to  see  that  the  streets  be  cleansed 
from  filth  and  dirt. 

SCENOGRAFHY.  The  perspective 
representation  of  a  body  on  a  plane. 

SCHEDULE  (iu  Law).  A  scroll  of 
paper  or  paixhment  api>ended  to  a  will 
or  any  other  deed  ;  also  an  inventory  of 
goods,  &.C. 

SCHIST.  A  name  given  to  differ- 
ent kinds  of  stones  of  a  slaty  formation, 
but  particularly  those  of  the  argillaceous 
kind. 

SCHOLIUM.  A  note  or  annotation  on 
an  ancient  author. 

SCHOOL.  A  place  set  apart  for  the  in- 
struction of  youth. 

SCHOOL  (in  Philosophy).  A  system 
of  doctrine  as  delivered  by  particular 
teachers,  as  the  Platonic  school,  the  school 
of  Aristotle,  &c. 

SCHOOL  (in  Theology).  The  age  of 
the  church  and  the  form  of  divinity  that 
succeeded  the  fathers. 

SCHOOL  (among  Painters).  The  style 
and  manner  of  painting  among  tlie  great 
masters  of  the  art  at  any  particular  period, 
as  the  Italian,  Flemish,  Dutch,  Spanish, 
and  English  schools. 

SCHOONER.  A  small,  fast  sailing  ves- 
sel with  two  m.asts,  whose  main  and  fore- 
sails are  suspended  by  gaffs,  reaching  from 
the  mast  to  the  stern.    It  is  employed  in 


322 


SCO 


trade  by  thosa  whose  speculations  require 
despatch. 


SCIAGRAPHY.  The  art  of  finding  out 
the  hour  of  the  day  or  the  night  by  the 
shadow  of  the  sun  or  the  moon. 

SCION.  A  graft  or  young  shoot  of  a 
tree. 

SCIOPTIC.  A.  sphere  or  globe  of  wood 
with  a  hole,  in  which  is  placed  a  lens,  so 
constructed  that  it  may  be  turned  round 
every  way,  and  used  in  making  experi- 
ments in  a  darkened  room. 

SCIRE  FACIAS.  A  writ  of  execution 
which  lies  a  year  and  a  day  after  judg- 
ment given. 

SCIRRHUS.  A  hard  tumour  of  some 
gland. 

SCITAMINE^.  One  of  Linnseus's 
natural  orders,  comprehending  ginger,  car- 
damom, spices,  and  other  aromatic  plants. 

SCORING  (in  Music).  Collecting  and 
arranging  the  several  detached  parts  of  a 
piece  into  a  certain  order. 

SCORPIO.  One  of  the  twelve  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  marked  thus  W^. 

SCORPION.  An  insect,  having  eight 
legs,  which  resembles  the  crab,  but  much 
smaller.  It  is  armed  with  a  pungent  sting, 
the  puncture  of  which  in  hot  climates  is 
very  dangerous. 

SCREEN.  An  implement  in  husbandry 
which  consists  of  a  frame  and  wire  work, 
with  which  wheat  is  cleared  of  the  dust 
and  the  dross  grain. 


scu 

distance  before  the  army,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover the  movements  of  the  enemy. 

SCREW.  One  of  the  six  mechanical 
powers,  consisting  of  a  spiral  thread  or 
groove  cut  round  a  cylinder:  when  the 
thread  is  on  the  outside,  it  is  a  male  or 
convex  screw  ;  but  when  it  is  cut  along 
the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder,  it  is  a  fe- 
male screw,  otherwise  called  a  nut. 


BCOUTS.     Horsemen  sent  out   Bouie 


SCRIBE.  A  doctor  in  the  Jewish  law, 
whose  business  it  was  to  write  and  inter- 
pret the  scripture. 

SCRIBING  (among  Carpenters).  Fit- 
ting the  edge  of  a  board  to  the  side  of 
another. 

SCRIP.  A  bag  formerly  carried  by  pil- 
grims. 

SCRIP  (in  Commerce).  That  part  of 
any  loan  which  remains  unpaid  for  by  the 
subscribers. 

SCRIVENER.  One  who  draws  up 
and  engrosses  writings.  The  company  of 
scriveners  in  London  was  incorporated 
in  1616. 

SCROFULA.  A  disease  consisting  of 
hard  swellings  in  the  glandules  of  the 
neck  and  ears. 

SCRUPLE.  A  small  weight  equal  to 
twenty  grains. 

SCRUPLES  ECLIPSED.  That  part  of 
the  diameter  of  the  moon  which  enters  the 
shadow. 

SCRUTINY  (in  Law).  An  examina- 
tion of  suffrages  or  votes  at  an  election, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether 
they  are  good  or  not. 

SCULPSIT,  or  Sculp,  annexed  to  an 
engraver's  name,  denotes  that  he  engrav- 
ed or  carved  the  piece. 

SCULPTURE.  An  art  which  compre- 
hends not  only  carving  in  wood,  stone,  or 
marble,  but  also  enchasing,  engraving  in 
all  its  kinds,  and  casting  in  bronze,  lead, 
wax,  &c. 

SCULL.  A  little  oar  for  rowing  a  boat 
with. 


SEA 

SCULLER.  A  boat  rowed  with  sculls. 

SCUiVI.  That  which  rises  to  the  top  of 
any  liquor. 

SCURF.  A  scaly  swelling  raised  in  the 
skin  of  the  head. 

SCURVY.  A  disease,  the  symptoms  of 
which  are  yellow  spots  on  the  hands  and 
feet,  weakness  in  the  legs,  a  foul  breath, 
&;c.  It  arises  from  eating  too  much  salt 
provisions. 

SCUTTLES.  Square  holes  cut  in  the 
deck  of  a  ship,  large  enough  to  admit  a  man. 

SCYLLA.  A  rock  in  the  sea  between 
Sicily  and  Italy,  which  was  very  formida- 
ble to  the  mariners  among  the  ancients.  It 
was  opposite  to  the  whirlpool  Charybdis. 

SCYTHE.  An  instrument  for  mowing. 
It  consists  of  a  thin  steel  blade  attached  at 
right  angles  to  a  handle  of  six  or  eight  feet 
long.  For  cutting  corn  there  is  frequently 
the  addition  of  what  is  called  a  cradle. 
The  English  scythe  is  represented  below. 


SEC 


323 


SEA.  A  large  tract  of  water  which 
washes  the  coast  of  one  or  more  countries, 
as  the  Irish  Sea,  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
the  Red  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Marmora  or  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  Baltic.  A  sea  is  less 
than  an  ocean. 

SEA  COW.  See  Morse. 

SEAL,  or  Sea  Calf  (in  Zoology).  A 
harmless  and  sagacious  animal  inhabiting 
the  shores  of  many  islands  and  countries. 
The  fur  seal,  is  much  hunted  for  its  skin. 


SEAL.  A  piece  of  metal  having  coats  of 
arms  or  some  other  device  engraven  upon 
it ;  also  the  print  in  wax  made  by  the  seal. 

SEAL  (in  Law).  The  impression  or  de- 
vice printed  on  wax  which  is  put  to  any 


deed  by  way  of  ratification.  In  England, 
the  great  seal  is  the  seal  used  for  the  uni- 
ted kingdom  of  England  and  Scotland, 
and  sometimes  of  Ireland.  The  privy  seal 
is  that  which  the  king  uses  to  such  grants, 
&c.  as  pass  the  great  seal. 

SEALER.  In  England,  an  officer  in 
Chancery,  who  seals  the  writs  and  instru- 
ments there  made. 

SEALINGWAX.  A  hard  wax  made  o£. 
gum  lac,  resin,  &;c.  which  is  used  in  seal- 
ing letters,  &c. 

SEALSKIN.  The  skin  of  the  seal. 

SEAMEN.  Men  brought  up  to  the  sea 
life. 

SEAMEW.  A  sea  bird  about  18  inches 
in  length. 

SEAPORCUPINE.  A  fish  found  in 
America,  which  puflTs  itself  out  in  the 
shape  of  a  bladder  when  enraged. 

SEARCHERS.  Women  appointed  to 
examine  all  persons  immediately  after 
their  decease. 

SEASONS.  The  four  portions  of  the 
year,  namely,  Spring,  when  the  sun  enters 
Aries  ;  Summer,  when  he  enters  Cancer ; 
Autumn,  when  he  enters  Libra ;  and  Win- 
ter, when  he  enters  Capricorn. 

SEA-STAR,  or  Starfish.  An  animal 
inhabiting  the  sea,  which  adheres  to  the 
bottoms  of  ships,  and  renews  any  of  its 
parts  which  it  loses. 


SEA-URCHIN.  An  animal  Inhabiting 
the  sea,  which  is  armed  with  five  sharp 
teeth. 

SEAWEEDS.  A  sort  of  herbs  found 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  which 
are  botanically  called  algae. 

SEA-WOLF.  A  voracious  fish  found  in 
the  north  of  Europe. 

SEAWORTHY.  An  epithet  for  a  ship 
fit  for  a  voyage. 

SECOND.  Any  right  angle  that  cuts 
another,  whether  a  right  line  or  a  curve. 

SECOND  (in  Geometry  and  Horology). 
The  sixtieth  part  of  a  minute,  marked 
thus  ("). 

SECONDARY  (in  Law).  The  second 
man  in  any  place,  who  is  next  to  any  chief 
officer. 

SECONDARY      CIRCLES.       Circles 


824 


SEM 


which  intei-sect  the  six  greater  circles  of 
the  sphere  at  right  angles. 

SECONDARY  PLANETS.  Those 
which  revolve  as  satellites  round  the  pri- 
mary planets. 

SECRETARY.  One  who  is  employed 
in  writing  letters,  &c.  for  a  person. 

SECRETION.  The  separation  of  some 
fluid  from  another  in  an  animal  or  vege- 
table substance  by  means  of  glands. 

SECT.  A  religious  party. 

SECTION.  The  cutting  of  one  plane  by 
another. 

SECTOR.  A  mathematical  instru- 
ment used  in  measuring  proportional  quan- 
tities. 

SECTOR  OF  A  CIRCLE.  That  por- 
tion of  a  circle  comprehended  between 
two  radii  and  an  arch. 

SECUNDUM  ARTEM.  By  the  rules 
of  art. 

SECULAR  GAMES.  Games  among 
the  Romans,  so  called  because  they  were 
celebrated  but  once  in  a  seculum  or  age. 

SECULAR  PRIEST.  One  who  has 
not  taken  monastic  vows. 

SEDAN.  A  close  chair  in  which  per- 
sons are  carried  by  m.en,  used  at  Bath  in 
England,  and  in  some  other  places. 

SEDIMENT.  Whatever  settles  or  sinks 
to  the  bottom  of  a  fluid. 

SEED.  The  essence  of  the  fruit  of  every 
vegetable,  containing  the  rudiments  of  the 
new  vegetable. 

SEGMENT.  Any  part  of  a  line  in  a 
triangle  or  other  figure,  cut  off  by  a  per- 
pendicular let  fall  upon  it. 

SEGMENT  OF  A  CIRCLE.  A  part 
cut  off  by  a  chord,  or  that  portion  com- 
prehended between  an  arc  and  a  chord. 

SEIGNIOR,  Grand.  The  sultan  or  em- 
peror of  the  Turks. 

SEIGNORY.  The  jurisdiction  and 
power  of  a  lord. 

SEIZING.  A  sea  term  for  binding  two 
ropes  together. 

SEIZURE  (in  Law),  An  aiTCst  of  mer- 
chandise, that  is  prohibited  or  otherwise 
forfeited. 

SELENIUM,  or  Selenite.  The  sul- 
phate of  lime. 

SELENOGRAPHY.  A  description  of 
the  face  of  the  moon. 

SELLING  OUT  (among  Stockbrokers), 
A  transfer  of  one's  share  of  stock  from  one 
person  to  another,  in  distinction  from  buy- 
ing in,  which  is  the  purchase  of  the  stock 
held  by  another. 

SELLING  OUT  (among  Military  Men 
in  England).  The  selling  one's  commis- 
sion. 

SEMI.  A  prefix  to  many  words,  signify- 


SER 

ing  half,  as  semicircle,  half  a  circle  3  semi- 
colon, half  a  colon,  <fcc. 

SEMIMETALS.  Fossil  bodies  not  mal- 
leable, yet  in  some  measure  to  be  fixed  by 
fire. 

SENIORITY.  Priority  of  birth. 

SENIORITY  (among  Military  Men). 
Priority  in  the  time  since  the  raising  of 
any  regiment,  or  an  officer's  receiving  his 
commission,  &c. 

SENSE.  That  faculty  of  the  soul,whereby 
it  perceives  external  objects  by  means  of 
impressions  made  on  particular  parts  of 
the  body,  called  the  organs  of  sense,  and 
then  conveyed  to  the  sensory  ;  the  senses 
are  five,  namely,  seeing,  hearing,  smelling, 
taste,  and  feeling. 

SENSIBLE  HORIZON.  See  Horizon. 

SENSITIVE  PLANTS.  Plants  of  the 
mimosa  tribe,  which  have  the  extraordi- 
nary property  of  closing  on  being  touched. 

SENTICOS^.  One  of  Linna!us's  natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  including  the  rose, 
brier,  hawthorn,  &c. 

SENTINEL.  A  private  soldier  placed 
to  watch  at  some  post. 

SEPIARIiE.  One  of  Linnseus's  natural 
order  of  plants,  including  such  as  grow 
wild  in  hedges  or  are  used  for  hedges,  aa 
the  brier,  privet,  &c. 

SEPOYS,  Natives  who  serve  in  the 
army  in  India. 

SEPTEMBER.  The  ninth  month  of  the 
year,so  called  because  it  was  Septimus  Men- 
sis,  the  seventh  month  of  Romulus's  year. 

SEPTENNIAL.  Every  seven  years, 
as  septennial  parliaments,  i.  e.  new  par- 
liaments chosen  every  seven  years,  as  they 
are  at  present  appointed  in  England. 

SEPTUAGESIMA.  The  first  Sunday 
in  Lent. 

SEPTUAGINT.  The  Greek  translation 
of  the  Bible  from  the  Hebrew  into  the 
Greek  by  seventy-two  Jewish  interpreters, 
by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king 
of  Egj'pt. 

SEaUESTRATION  (in  Law).  The 
separating  a  thing  in  controversy  from  the 
possession  of  both  parties,  till  the  right  be 
determined  by  course  of  law. 

SEQUESTRATION  (in  the  Civil  Law). 
The  act  of  the  ordinary  disposing  of  the 
goods  and  chattels  of  a  person  deceased, 
whose  estate  no  one  will  meddle  with. 

SERAGLIO.  The  palace  of  the  grand 
seignior. 

SERGE.  A  woollen  stuff  manufactured 
in  a  loom. 

SERGEANT,  or  Sergeant  at  Law. 
In  England,  the  highest  degree  taken  in 
the  common  law,  answering  to  that  of 
doctor  in  the  civil  law. 


SET 

SERGEANT  (in  Military  Affairs).  An 
inferior  officer  appointed  to  teach  the  sol- 
diers their  exercise. 

SERGEANTS  AT  ARMS.  In  England, 
officers  appointed  to  attend  the  liing,  arrest 
offisnders,  and  the  like. 

SERIATIM.  Successively,  in  order. 

SERIES.  A  rank  or  progression  of  quan- 
tities proceeding  by  some  rule,  as  in  arith- 
metical progi-ession  by  addition,  1,  3,  5, 
&c. ;  and  in  geometrical  progi-ession  by 
multiplication,  as  2,  4,  8, 16.  &.c. 

SERIES,  Infinite.  A  series  consisting 
of  an  infinite  number  of  ttrms,  to  the  end 
of  which  it  is  impossibie  to  come, 

SERPENTES.  An  order  in  the  LiRna3an 
system  under  the  class  amphibia,  inclu- 
ding animals  which  have  no  feet,  fins,  nor 
ears,  and  are  cast  naked  on  the  earth  with- 
out limbs,  but  frequently  armed  with  a 
deadly  poison.  Under  this  order  are  the 
seven  genera,  namely,  the  boa  constrictor, 
the  rattlesnake,  the  viper,  the  snake,  the 
acrochordus,  amphisbsena,  and  coecilia. 

SERVAL.  A  beautiful  animal  of  the  cat 
family,  spotted  like  the  panther,  and  about 
the  size  of  the  lynx.  It  is  a  native  of 
India. 

SERVICE-TREE.  A  tree,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  highly  astringent ;  it  is  used  in 
making  brandy  and  cider. 

SERVITOR.  A  poor  scholar  at  Oxford 
in  England,  answering  to  a  sizer  at  Cam- 
bridge, who  attends  on  other  students  for 
his  maintenance. 

SERUM.  A  thin  transparent  liquor 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  blood,  and  also 
of  milk. 

SESSION.  In  England,  a  sitting  of  jus- 
tices in  court  upon  their  commission,  as 
the  session  of  oyer  and  terminer,  &c. 

SESSIONS,  or  auARXEH  Sessions.  In 
England,  sessions  held  every  quarter  by 
two  or  more  justices,  whereof  one  is  of  the 
quorum. 

SETTING.  The  sinking  below  the  hori- 
zon, applied  to  any  star  or  planet. 

SETTING  DOG,  or  Setter,  A  sport- 
ing dog  who  catches  fowls. 


SHA 


S25 


SET  OFF  (in  Law),  When  the  defen- 
dant acknowledges  the  plaintiff's  demand, 
but  sets  up  a  demand  of  his  own,  to  set  off 


or  counterbalance  the  debt  either  wholly 
or  in  part. 

SETON.  A  sort  of  issue  in  the  neck, 
formed  by  means  of  horsehair  or  fine 
thread  drawn  through  the  skinT 

SETS  (among  Gardeners).  The  young 
plants  of  white  thorn  or  other  shrubs, 
which  are  raised  as  quick  for  hedges.         , 

SEWER.  A  passage  or  gutter  made  to 
carry  water  away  into  the  sea. 

SEXAGENARY.  One  who  has  lived 
sixty  years. 

SEXAGESIMAL  ARITHMETIC.  A 
mode  of  computing  by  sixtieths,  such  as 
the  division  of  a  degree  into  sixty  minutes, 
a  minute  into  sixty  seconds. 

SEXAGESIMA  SUNDAY.  The  six- 
tieth day  before  Easter. 

SEXTANT.  The  sixth  part  of  a  circle, 
or  an  arc  comprehending  sixty  degrees  ; 
also  an  astronomical  instrument  like  a 
quadrant,  except  that  its  limb  only  com- 
prehends sixty  degrees. 

SEXTON.  An  officer  who  digs  the 
graves,  and  assists  the  minister  at  fune- 
rals. 

SEXUAL  SYSTEM  (in  Botany).  The 
system  of  classifying  plants,  invented  by 
Linnfeus,  and  formed  from  the  parts  of 
fructification,  as  the  stamens  and  the  pistils. 
From  the  number  of  stamens  are  formed 
the  classes  monandria,  diandria,  triandria, 
&c.  for  such  plants  as  have  one,  two, 
three,  or  more  stamens  ;  from  the  number 
of  pistils  are  formed  the  several  orders 
under  these  classes,  as  monogynia,  digynia, 
trigynia,  &c.  for  such  plants  under  each 
class  as  have  one,  two,  three,  or  more 
pistils. 

SHACKLES.  A  sort  of  fetters  for  male- 
factors ;  which  confine  the  legs ;  also  for 
animals  that  go  astray. 

SHADDOCK.  A  shrub,  the  fruit  of 
which  resembles  a  lemon. 

SHADOW  (in  Optics).  A  privation  or 
diminution  of  light,  by  the  interposition  of 
an  opaque  body. 

SHADOWING  (in  Painting).  The  art 
of  duly  representing  light  and  shade  in  a 
picture. 

SHAFT.  The  body  of  a  column. 

SHAFT  (among  Miners).  A  hole  like  a 
well,  which  miners  make  to  free  the  works 
from  the  springs  that  are  in  them. 

SHAGREEN.  A  kind  of  rough-grained 
leather,  prepared  from  the  skin  of  the 
hound-fish,  and  used  for  watchcases,  &c. 

SHAMMY,  or  Chamois.  A  soft  leather 
prepared  from  the  skin  of  the  chamois 
goat. 

SHAMROCK.  A  name  in  Ireland  for 
the  trefoil. 


826 


SHE 


i  SHANK.  That  part  of  the  fore  leg  of 
a  horse  that  is  between  the  knee  and  the 
second  joint  next  the  foot;  also  the  long 
and  cylindrical  part  of  different  things,  as 
the  shank  t)f  a  candlestick,  &c. 

SHARE.  The  cutting  part  of  a  plough. 

SHARK.  A  voracious  fish,  that  inhabits 
the  sea  only,  and  grows  to  an  enormous 
size. 


SHARP.    A  half  note, 
elevation,  marked  thus 


signifying   an 


^= 


SHEARS.  A  tool  made  in  the  form  of 
scissors,  for  clipping  hedges,  &c. 

SHEATH.  A  case  for  a  knife  or  sword. 

SHEATH-BILL.  A  bird  inhabiting  the 
South  Sea  islands,  which  has  the  upper 
mandible  of  its  bill  covered  with  a  sheath. 

SHEATHING.  The  covering  nailed  on 
a  ship's  bottom,  to  protect  the  planks  from 
worms. 

SHEEP.  A  domestic  animal,  much 
valued  both  for  its  flesh  and  its  wool.  Of 
the  different  breeds  of  this  animal,  the 
South  Downs,  Leicester,  and  Norfolk  are 
the  most  esteemed  in  England.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  profitable  part  of  the  live  stock 
of  a  farm,  where  the  lands  are  dry.    In 


the  United  States,  the  merino  breed  brought 
from  Spain  is  prefened  for  the  wool. 
SHEEP-SHEARING.  The  spring  sea- 


SHI 

son,  when  the  fleeces  of  the  sheep  are 
sheared  or  cut  off. 

SHEET.  A  large  linen  cloth  laid  on  a 
bed. 

SHEET.  A  breadth  of  paper,  that  ad- 
mits of  being  folded  into  a  given  form. 

SHEET  (among  Mariners").  A  rope 
fastened  to  the  corner  of  a  sail. 

SHEET-ANCHOR.  The  largest  anchor 
in  a  ship. 

SHEICK.  The  chief  of  a  tribe  among 
the  Arabs. 

SHEKEL.  A  Jewish  silver  coin,  worth 
about  half-a-crown  sterling. 

SHELF  (among  Miners).  A  hard  coat 
of  earth,  which  lies  under  the  mould. 

SHELL.  A  crustaceous  covering  of 
fishes  or  fruits. 

SHELL-FISH.  Fish  invested  with  a 
hard  covering,  either  testaceous,  as  oysters, 
or  crustaceous,  as  lobsters. 

SHERIFF,  or  Shire-reeve.  In  Eng- 
land a  reeve  or  ofiicer  of  the  shire,  who,  as 
keeper  of  the  king's  peace,  is  the  first  man 
in  the  county.  He  is  appointed  by  the 
king  for  every  county  except  Middlesex, 
where  he  is  elected,  according  to  ancient 
usage,  by  the  livery  of  London.  In  the 
United  States,  the  Sheriff  is  an  officer 
who  attends  upon  court,  has  charge  of 
the  prisoners,  sees  to  the  execution  of 
writs,  &c. 

SHIELD.  A  weapon  of  defence,  borne 
on  the  arm,  to  turn  off  lances  ;  also  another 
name  for  an  escutcheon,  by  which  it  is 
represented. 

SHIP.  A  general  name  for  all  large 
vessels  which  navigate  the  seas,  particu- 
larly those  equipped  with  three  masts  and 
a  bowsprit,  the  masts  being  composed  of 
a  lower  mast,  topmast,  and  topgallant 
mast,  each  of  which  is  provided  with 
yards,  sails,  &c. 

SHIP-BUILDING.  The  practical  branch 
of  naval  architecture,  or  the  art  of  con- 
structing vessels  according  to  certain 
draughts. 

SHIP-MONEY.  An  imposition  formerly 
charged  upon  the  ports,  cities,  towns,  &c. 
of  England. 

SHIPPING.  A  general  term  for  what- 
ever relates  to  ships. 

SHIPS  OF  WAR,  commonly  called 
Men  of  War.  Vessels  properly  equipped 
with  artillery,  ammunition,  and  all  the 
implements  of  war  necessary  for  attack 
and  defence.  Ships  of  the  first  rate  or 
class  mount  from  100  to  110  guns  and 
upwards;  of  the  second  from  90  to  98 
guns ;  third  rate  from  64  to  74  guns ; 
fourth  rate,  from  50  to  60  guns ;  fifth  rate, 
from  32  to  44  guns ;  and  sixth  rate,  from 


SID 

20  to  28.  Vessels  carrying  fewer  than 
20  guns  are  denominated  sloops,  cutters, 
firesliips,  and  bombs. 

SHIP-WORM.  A  testaceous  animal, 
the  teredo  of  Linnjeus,  that  adheres  to  the 
bottom  of  vessels  coming  from  India,  and 
does  much  damage. 

SHIPWRIGHT,  One  who  follows  the 
art  of  building  ships.  The  company  of 
shipwrights  in  London,  was  incorporated 
in  the  reign  of  James  I. 

SHIRE.     The  Saxon  name  for  a  county. 

SHOAL.  A  shallow  piece  of  water,  or 
a  shallow  part  of  the  sea  near  the  coast. 

SHOARS.  Props  set  up  obliquely 
against  a  house. 

SHOE.  A  covering  for  the  ifoot,  made 
of  leather  ;  also  the  piece  of  iron  nailed  to 
a  horse's  foot,  or  under  a  sledge,  &:c. 

SHOE  (among  Mariners).  A  small 
block  of  wood  on  the  back  of  an  anchor. 

SHORE.    A  tract  of  land  near  the  sea. 

SHORL.    A  mineral  of  a  black  colour. 

SHORTHAND,  otherwise  called  Ste- 
nography. All  abbreviated  form  of  wri- 
ting. 

SHOT.  A  general  name  for  all  sorts  of 
balls  used  in  firearms. 

SHREW.  An  animal  resembling  the 
mole,  that  lives  on  insects. 

SHREWMOLE.    A  species  of  mole. 


SIL 


327 


SHRIKE.  A  fierce  kind  of  bird,  that 
preys  on  lesser  birds,  and,  tearing  them 
to  pieces,  leaves  them  sticking  on  the 
hedges. 

SHRIMP.  A  small  sea-fish,  resembling 
a  lobster. 

SHROUDS.  A  sea  term  for  great  ropes 
that  come  down  both  sides  the  masts. 

SHROVE-TIDE.  The  time  just  before 
Lent. 

SHRUB.  A  small  low  tree,  between  a 
bush  and  a  tree.  It  is  mostly  an  orna- 
mental plant,  bearing  beautiful  flowers, 
as  the  acacia,  lilac,  &c. 

SIBYIjS.  Prophetesses,  or  such  as  pro- 
fessed to  be  so,  among  the  Romans  and 
Greeks.  The  Romans  preserved  their 
books  with  great  care,  and  consulted  them 
only  on  great  Occasions. 

SIDEREAL.  Pertaining  to  any  star  or 
planet,  as  a  sidereal  day,  the  time  in 
vvhich  any  star  appears  to  revolve  from 
the  meridian  to  the  meridian  aaain,  which 


is  23  hours  56  minutes  4  seconds  and  6'-' 
of  mean  solar  time,  there  being  36G  side- 
real days  in  a  year,  or  in  the  time  of  the 
365  diurnal  revolutions  of  the  sun. 

SIEGE.  The  encampment  of  an  army 
before  a  fortified  place,  with  a  design  to 
take  it. 

SIENITE.  A  compound  granular  ag- 
gregated rock,  composed  of  felspar  and 
hornblende,  with  a  portion  sometimes  of 
quartz  and  black  mica. 

SIEVE.  An  instrument  for  separating 
the  fine  from  the  coarser  parts  of  powders 
liquors,  grain,  &c. 

SIGHTS  OF  A  QUADRANT,  &c. 
Thin  pieces  of  brass  raised  perpendicular- 
ly on  its  side. 

SIGN  (in  Arithmetic  and  Algebra; 
Any  mark  used  in  operation,  as  -4-  for 
addition,  —  for  subtraction,  ^  for  multi- 
plication, _:_  for  division,  :=:  for  equality. 

SIGN  (in  Astronomy).  The  twelfth  part 
of  the  zodiac. 

SIGNALS.  Notices  given  to  a  distant 
observer,  for  the  purpose  of  communicating 
intelligence. 

SIGNATURE.  The  signing  any  paper, 
or  putting  any  mark  under  a  writing. 

SIGNATURE  (among  Printers).  A  let- 
ter of  the  alphabet,  put  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page  in  each  sheet. 

SIGNET.  A  seal  set  in  a  ring  ;  also  the 
king's  seal,  w^herewith  his  private  letters 
are  signed. 

SIGN-MANUAL  (in  England).  The 
signature  to  any  bill  or  instrument  in  the 
king's  own  handwriting. 

SILICA.  One  of  the  primitive  earths, 
which  forms  one  of  the  constituent  parts 
of  all  stones,  and  is  found  in  greatest 
abundance  in  agates,  jasper,  flints,  quartz, 
and  rock  crystal.  In  the  latter,  it  exists 
nearly  in  a  state  of  purity. 

SILiaUA.    A  pod,  like  that  of  the  pea 

SILiaUOS.E.  One  of  the  Linntean 
natural  orders  of  plants,  including  those 
which  have  siliquEB  or  pods  for  their  seed 
vessels,  like  the  pea,  bean,  lupin,  &;c. 

SILK.  The  production  of  different  spe- 
cies of  the  caterpillar,  particularly  the  one 
called  by  the  generic  name  of  the  bonibyx 
mori,  or  silkworm  by  distinction,  which 
is  commonly  used  in  Europe.  The  silk  is 
found  enclosed  in  two  small  bags,  from 
which  it  is  drawn  in  fine  threads,  to  serve 
the  insect  as  a  covering  while  it  lies  in 
the  chrysalis  state.  The  balls  of  silk  which 
the  worm  spins  are  called  cocoons,  which 
are  sold  to  persons  w^hose  business  it  is  to 
reel  them  off.  A  single  cocoon  is  never 
reeled  off  separately,  it  being  too  weak 
for  that  purpose  5  but  in  the  reeling,  the 


328 


SIJM 


ends  of  several  cocoons  are  joined  and 
reeled  together  out  of  warm  water,  into 
which  they  are  put  for  the  purpose  of 
softening  tlieir  natural  gum,  and  making 
them  stick. 

SILK-THROWER,  or  Silk-Throw- 
ster. One  who  throws  or  spins  silk  so 
as  to  fit  it  for  weaving.  The  company  of 
silk-throwers  in  London,  was  incorporated 
in  1629. 

SILKWORM.  The  worm  from  which 
silk  is  most  commonly  procured. 


SILVAN.  Pertaining  to  woods,  as  the 
silvan  nymphs,  &,c. 

SILVER.  The  whitest  of  all  metals,  is 
considerably  harder  than  gold,  but  not 
quite  so  ductile  or  malleable.  It  ignites 
before  it  melts,  and  requires  a  strong  heat 
to  fuse  it ;  it  is  chiefly  found  in  South 
America. 

SILVERING.  The  art  of  covering  the 
surfaxes  of  substances  with  a  thin  coating 
of  silver.  It  is  of  particular  use  for  culi- 
nary utensils,  as  it  resists  the  corroding 
power  of  vinegar,  &c. 

SIMILAR  (in  Mathematics).  An  epi- 
thet mostly  applied  to  figures,  angles,  &c. 
which  have  the  same  disposition  and  con- 
formation of  the  parts. 

SIMONY  (in  England).  The  corrupt 
presentation  of  any  one  to  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal benefice,  for  money,  gift,  reward,  or 
benefit. 

SIMPLE  (in  Medicine).  What  is  not 
mixed  with  any  other  thing,  as  opposed 
to  a  compound. 

SIMPLE  (in  Pharmacy).  A  general 
name  for  all  lierbs  which  have  any  parti- 
cular medicinal  virtue. 


SIZ 

SIMPLER.  One  who  gathers  simples 
for  the  druggists. 

SIMULTANEOUSLY.  At  one  and  the 
same  moment. 

SINECURE.  An  office  to  which  little 
or  no  personal  service  is  attached. 

SINE  DIE,  i.  e.  Without  Day.  A 
term  in  law  for  a  defendant  who  is  dis- 
missed court  without  trial. 

SINE  OF  AN  ARC.  A  right  line 
drawn  from  one  end  of  an  are  perpendi- 
cular to  the  radius  drawn  to  the  other  end, 

SINE  aUA  NON.  What  cannot  be 
dispensed  with. 

SINEW.  The  ligament  which  joins 
two  bones. 

SINGULAR  NUMBER  (in  Grammar), 
A  noun  which  denotes  a  single  thing. 

SINKING  FUND.  A  portion  of  the 
public  revenue  set  apart  to  be  applied  to 
the  reduction  or  diminution  of  the  national 
debt.  This  measure  of  appropriating  a 
part  of  the  revenue  of  the  country  for  the 
discharge  of  the  public  debt  was  adopted 
in  Holland  in  1655,  and  in  the  Ecclesiasti- 
cal States  in  1685.  Bat  the  particular  fund 
so  called  in  England  was  first  adopted  by 
Mr.  Pitt. 

SIPHON.     See  Syphon. 

SIR.  A  title  of  address  to  baronets  and 
knights,  coupled  with  their  Christian 
name,  as  Sir  William  or  Sir  John,  &c. ; 
also  a  general  complimentary  form  of  ad- 
dress. 

SIRIUS,  the  DoGSTAR.  A  very  bright 
star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  Canis  Major. 

SIROCCO,  A  periodica]  wind  in  Italy 
and  Barbary,  which  prevails  about  Easter. 

SKELETON.    An  assemblage  of  the 


bones  of  any  animal,  cleaned,  dried,  and 
preserved  in  their  natural  position. 
SIZE.    A  sort  of  aluemade  of  the  shreda 


SLI 

and  parings  of  leather,  parchment,  or  vel- 
lum boiled  in  water,  and  strained.  It  is 
used  by  painters,  printers,  &;c. 

SIZER.  A  poor  scholar  at  Cambridge, 
England. 

SKEIN.  Any  quantity  of  thread  after 
it  is  taken  off  the  reel. 

SKETCH.  The  outline  of  any  object, 
taken  in  pencil  or  otherwise. 

SKIFF.     A  small  light  boat. 

SKIN.  One  of  the  principal  integuments 
of  the  body,  consisting  of  three  lamina?, 
namely,  the  skarf  skin,  which  is  the  ouler- 
mostj  the  rete  mucosum,  the  secondj  and 
the  cutis  vera,  or  real  skin,  the  third. 

SKINNER.  One  who  deals  in  hides  or 
skins.  The  company  of  skinners  in  Lon- 
don, was  incorporated  in  1325. 

SKIRMISH.  A  loose  desultory  engage- 
ment between  small  parties  detached  from 
the  armies. 

SKULL.  The  bony  part  of  the  head, 
fashioned  in  the  form  of  a  globe,  and  con- 
sisting of  three  divisions,  namely,  the  sin- 
ciput, or  fore  part;  the  occiput,  or  iiind 
part;  and  the  vertex,  or  crown. 

SKUNK.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  kind, 
peculiar  to  Nortli  America,  remarkable  for 
emitting  a  fetid  smell  in  self  defence. 

SKY.  The  blue  expanse  of  the  heavens, 
or  the  region  wliich  surrounds  the  eartii 
beyond  the  atmosphere.  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
attributes  the  azure  colour  of  the  sky  to 
vapours  beginning  to  condense  there,  and 
acquiring  a  sufficient  consistence  to  reflect 
the  most  reflexible  rays. 

SLAB  (among  Carpenters).  An  outside 
plank  cut  from  a  tree,  which  is  generally 
rough  and  uneven;  also  a  table  of  marble 
for  hearths,  &c. 

SLATE.  A  bluish  fossil  stone,  which  is 
so  soft  that  it  can  be  cut  into  squares,  and 
used  either  for  the  roofs  of  liouses  or  other 
purposes. 

SLEDGE.  A  carriage  without  wheels, 
used  for  carrying  ploughs  or  other  imple- 
ments from  place  to  place;  also  a  carriage 
in  Russia,  fitted  for  going  along  the  snow. 
In  Lapland  the  sledges  are  drawn  b^^ 
reindeer. 

SLEEPERS.  Timbers  lying  next  to 
the  ground,  or  under  tlie  boarding  of  the 
floor. 

SLEIGHT  OF  HAND,  or  Slight  of 
Hand.  The  tricks  of  jugglers  performed 
with  such  dexterity  as  to  deceive  the 
quickest  eye. 

SLIDING-RULE.  A  mathematical  in- 
strument, to  be  used  witliout  compasses  in 
guaging. 

SLING.  A  leathern  strap,  on  which  a 
soldier's  musket  is  slung. 


S  M  E 


329 


SLING  (in  Surgery).  A  bandage  for 
supporting  a  wounded  limb. 

SLOOP.  A  small  vessel  with  one  mast. 
In  the  navy,  sloops  are  tenders  carrying 
ten  or  twelv-e  guns  and  about  thirty  men. 


SLOTH.  An  animal  remarkable  for  its 
slow  motion  in  walking.  It  climbs  quicker 
than  it  walks. 


SLUG.  A  variety  of  tlie  snail  tribe,  that 
has  no  shell.  It  is  very  destructive  in 
gardens. 

SLUG.  A  cylindrical  or  cubical  piece 
of  metal  sliot  from  a  gun. 

SLUICE.  A  frame  of  wood  set  in  a 
river,  &c,  to  raise  the  water  or  to  let  it 
pass  otF,  as  occasion  may  require. 

SMxlCK.  A  small  vessel  used  in  the 
fishing  trade. 

SMALL  ARMS.  A  general  name  for 
muskets,  fusils,  carabines,  &c. 

SMALL  CRAFT.  All  manner  of  small 
sea  vessels,  as  catches,  hoys,  &;c. 

SMALL-POX.  A  cutaneous  disorder, 
to  which  persons  are  mostly  subject  once 
in  their  lives.  If  taken  by  infection,  it  is 
often  dangerous,  but  if  taken  by  inocula- 
tion, it  mostly  passes  off  without  any  ill 
consequence.  Vaccination,  or  inoculation 
with  the  cow-pox,  is  milder,  but  not  so 
certain  a  remedy  against  future  infection. 

SMALT.  A  sort  of  blue  colour  used  in 
painting. 

SMELL,  or  SMELLING.  One  of  the 
five  senses,  performed  by  a  vascular  porous 
membrane  which  lines  the  internal  cavity 
of  the  nostrils.  This  is  effected  by  the 
odorous  particles  which  proceed  from  ex- 
ternal substances. 

SMELT.     A  fisli  of  the  salmon  tribe, 


330 


soc 


which  ascends  rivers  in  vast  shoals  in  the 
spawning  season. 

Si^IELTING  (in  Metallurgy).  The  fu- 
sion or  melting  of  ores,  in  order  to  separate 
the  metallic  from  the  earthy  or  stony  parts. 
The  art  of  fusing  ores  after  washing  is  one 
of  the  most  important  operations  in  metal- 
lurgT.'. 

SMITH.  One  who  works  in  iron.  The 
company  of  blacksmiths  in  London,  was 
incorporated  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Si^IITHERY.  The  art  of  working  iron 
into  particular  shapes  as  occasion  requires. 

SMOKE.  A  humid  matter,  exhaled  in 
the  form  of  a  vapour,  which  ascends  from 
the  tire. 

SMOKE-JACK.     See  Jack. 

SMUGGLERS  (in  Law).  Those  who 
get  prohibited  goods,  clandestinely  and 
fraudulently  imported. 

SMUT.  A  disease  in  wheat,  v/hich 
consumes  the  germ  and  substance  of  the 
grain.    It  is  a  sort  of  fungus. 

SNAIL.  A  sort  of  testaceous  animal,  of 
which  there  are  numerous  species,  that 
vary  mostly  in  regard  to  their  shells. 
Snails  without 'shells  are  called  slugs. 

SNAKE.  An  amphibious  animal,  which 
resembles  an  eel  in  its  cylindrical  body. 

SNEEZING.  A  convulsive  contraction 
of  the  chest. 

SNIPE.  A  heath  bird,  nearly  allied  to 
the  woodcock. 


SNOW.  A  well  known  meteor,  formed 
by  the  freezing  of  the  vapour  in  the  at- 
mosphere. 

SNUFF.  A  narcotic  powder  prepared 
from  the  leaves  of  the  tobacco  plant. 

SOAP.  A  composition  of  oil  or  fat,  and 
potashes,  or  any  other  alkali.  The  soft 
soap  is  made  of  potash,  and  oil  or  tallow; 
the  Spanish  or  Castile  soap,  of  oil  of 
olives,  and  soda  or  barilla:  black  soap  is 
a  composition  of  train  oil  and  an  alkali. 

SOCIETY.  A  name  given  to  any  asso- 
ciation of  persons  uniting  together,  and  co- 
operating to  effect  some  particular  object, 
as  the  societies  or  academies  for  promoting 
the  cause  of  literature;  charitable  societies, 
for  purposes  of  puldic  charity;  missionary 
societies,  for  sending  missionaries  abroad; 
and  the  like. 


SOL 

SODA.  A  mineral  alkali,  sometimes 
found  in  a  native  state,  as  in  the  lakes  in 
Egypt,  which,  being  dried  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  leave  beds  of  soda,  or  natron,  as 
it  is  there  called.  Soda  is,  however,  for 
the  most  part,  procured  from  a  plant, 
botanically  called  the  salsola  soda,  which 
grows  among  the  cliffs  on  the  coast,  and 
also  from  other  plants  on  the  seashore; 
but,  in  this  case,  it  is  more  or  less  pure, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  plant  froni 
which  it  is  procured.  Soda  resembles  pot- 
ash very  much,  but  it  is  rather  more  fusi- 
ble; and  when  it  comes  into  the  air,  it 
crumbles  into  powder  instead  of  liquefy- 
ing, as  potash  does. 

SODA  WATER.  Water  impregnated 
with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

SOI-DISANT.     Self-styled. 

SOIL.  The  ground  in  a  state  for  culti- 
vation, or  for  the  gTowtIi  of  plants. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM.  That  system  of  as- 
tronomy, which  is  founded  on  the  hypo- 
thesis that  the  sun  is  the  immoveable 
centre  of  the  universe,  round  which  ail 
the  other  planets  revolve  at  different  dis- 
tances, and  in  different  spaces  of  time. 

SOLDER.  A  metallic  composition  used 
by  plumbers  and  other  artificers,  for  the 
purpose  of  uniting  metallic  bodies  more 
firmly  together.  Iron  is  generally  soldered 
with  copper;  copper  and  brass,  with  tin. 

SOLE.  An  European  fish  much  valued 
for  the  table. 

SOLECISM.  An  impropriety  of  speech 
contrary  to  the  rules  of  grammar. 

SOLICITOR.  A  person  who  is  employ- 
ed in  conducting  suits  in  courts  of  equity. 

SOLID  (in  Geometry).  A  magnitude 
which  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 

SOLID  (in  Physics).  A  body  whose 
minute  parts  are  so  connected  together  as 
not  to  yield  readily  to  the  impression  of 
external  force,  in  distinction  from  a  fluid. 

SOLIDITY.  That  property  of  matter 
by  which  it  excludes  every  other  body 
from  the  place  which  it  occupies. 

SOLITARY  CONFINEMENT.  The 
confinement  of  prisoners  by  themselves  in 
cells. 

SOLO  (in  Music  Books).  A  name  for 
any  part  that  is  performed  by  one  single 
person. 

SOLSTICE.  The  time  when  the  sun  is 
at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  equator, 
namely,  23°  28';  which  happens  about  the 
21st  of  June,  when  he  enters  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  or  the  summer  solstice;  and  about 
the  2 1st  of  December,  when  he  eniers  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  which  is  the  winter 
solstice. 

SOLSTITIAL    POINTS.      The     two 


SPA 

points  in  the  ecliptic,  namely,  the  first  of 
Cancer,  and  the  first  of  Capricorn,  when 
the  solstices  happen. 

SOLVENT.  Any  menstruum  or  corro- 
sive liquor  which  will  dissolve  bodies. 

SOLUTION.  The  intimate  mixture  or 
perfect  union  of  solid  bodies  with  fluids, 
so  as  seemingly  to  form  one  homogeneous 
liquor. 

SOMNAMBULISM.  Walking  in  one's 
sleep. 

SOOT.  A  volatile  matter  arising  from 
the  smoke  of  wood  or  other  fuel ;  or  more 
properly,  the  smoke  itself  dried  and  con- 
densed on  the  sides  of  the  chimney. 

SOPHISM.  A  specious  but  false  argu- 
ment, that  serves  to  mislead. 

SOUND.  That  effect  or  impression  on 
the  ear,  supposed  to  he  occasioned  by  the 
tremulous  motion  of  the  air  acting  on  that 
organ.  If  this  motion  be  uniform,  then  it 
produces  a  musical  note  or  sound. 

SOUND  (in  Geography).  Any  great  in- 
let of  the  sea  between  two  capes  or  head- 
lands, where  there  is  no  passage  through, 
as  Plymouth  Sound,  or  that  part  of  the 
Baltic  called  by  distinction  the  Sound. 

SOUNDBOARD  (in  an  Organ).  A  re- 
sei-voir  into  which  the  wind  is  conducted, 
and  thence  distributed  to  the  pipes. 

SOUNDING  (in  Navigation).  Trying 
the  depth  of  the  water,  and  the  quality  of 
the  bottom,  by  a  line  with  a  plummet  at 
the  end. 

SOUP.  A  strong  decoction  of  flesh  or 
other  substances. 

SOW  (in  the  Iron  Works).  A  block  or 
lump  of  metal  worked  at  once  in  the  fur- 
nace. 

SPA.  A  mineral  spring. 

SPACE  (in  Geometry).  The  area  of 
any  figure. 

SPACE  (among  Printers).  A  slip  of 
wood  or  metal  for  making  a  space  between 
words  or  lines. 

SPANIEL.  A  sort  of  dog,  with  a  long 
shaggy  coat -and  pendulous  ears.    There 


SPE 


331 


< 


are  beside  this,  a  variety  of  other  dogs  of 
the  spaniel  kind. 


SPAN.  An  English  measure  of  nine 
inches. 

SPANISH  FLY.  An  insect  which  is 
used  in  raising  blisters. 

SPAR.  Any  sort  of  earth  which  breaks 
easily  into  cubical  or  laminated  fragments 
with  polisiied  surfaces. 

SPARROW.  A  bird  so  nearly  allied  to 
the  finch,  that  they  are  classed  by  Linnseus 
under  the  generic  name  of  fringilla.  But 
the  sparrow  difters  in  its  habits  essentially 
from  the  finch.  It  is  a  mischievous,  cun- 
ning, spiteful  bird,  that  is  very  destructive 
in  corn-fields,  and  in  the  roofs  of  houses 
where  it  builds.  We  here  speak  of  the 
European  species.  In  America,  there  are 
several  varieties,  of  which  the  chippingbird 
is  the  most  common. 

SPARROW-HAWK.  A  kind  of  short- 
winged  hawk. 

SPASM.  An  involuntary  contraction  of 
the  muscular  fibres. 

SPATHACE/E.  One  of  the  Linnaan 
natural  orders,  comprehending  plants  very 
similar  to  the  liliaceous  plants,  as  the  nar- 
cissus, &c. 

SPATULA.  An  instrument  for  spread- 
ing salves  or  plasters. 

SPAVIN.  A  disease  in  the  feet  of 
horses,  which  causes  them  to  swell. 

SPEAKER  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF 
COMMONS.  In  England,  a  member  cho- 
sen by  the  house,  and  approved  by  the 
king,  who  regulates  all  their  proceedings, 
and  speaks  in  the  name  of  the  whole  on  all 
public  occasions.  The  speaker  of  legisla- 
tive bodies  in  the  United  States  has  similar 
duties. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET.  A  sort  of 
trumpet  used  at  sea,  by  the  help  of  which 
persons  may  hear  at  a  great  distance. 


/>s 


w 

SPEAR.  A  sort  of  lance  with  a  sharp 
point. 

SPECIAL  JURY  (in  Law).  A  jury  of 
a  higher  order  of  persons,  sworn  to  try  a 
particular  cause. 

SPECIALTY  (in  Law).  A  bond,  bill, 
or  similar  instrument. 

SPECIE.  Gold  or  coin,  in  distinction 
from  paper  money. 

SPECIES.  Any  particular  plant,  ani- 
mal, or  mineral,  contained  under  a  genus. 

SPECIFIC.  A  medicine  having  a  par- 
ticular efiicacy. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY.    The  relative 


332  SPI 

proportion  of  the  weight  of  bodies  of  the 
same  bulk,  which  is  determined  by  im- 
mersing them  in  any  fluid. 

SPECTRUM.  A  luminous  spot  formed 
by  a  ray  of  light  on  a  white  surface,  when 
admitted  through  a  small  hole. 

SPECULUM.  Any  polished  body  im- 
pervious to  the  rays  of  light,  such  as 
polished  metals,  looking-glasses,  &c. 

SPERMACETI.  An  oily  substance 
found  in  the  head  of  the  physeter  macro- 
cephalus,  a  species  of  whale. 

SPHERE  (in  Geometry).  A  solid  con- 
tained under  one  uniform  round  surface, 
such  as  would  be  formed  by  the  revolution 
of  a  circle  about  a  diameter  thereof,  as  an 
axis. 

SPHERE  (in  Astronomy).  The  concave 
orb  or  expanse  which  invests  our  globe, 
and  in  which  the  heavenly  bodies  appear 
to  be  fixed,  at  an  equal  distance  from  the 
eye. 

SPHERICS.  The  doctrine  of  the  sphere, 
particularly  of  the  several  circles  described 
on  its  surface,  with  the  method  of  project- 
ing the  same  on  a  plane. 

SPHEROID.  A  solid  body  approaching 
to  the  figure  of  a  sphere. 

SPHINX.  A  fabulous  monster  of  Thebes, 
said  to  have  put  forth  riddles,  and  to  have 
killed  those  who  could  not  expound  them ; 
also  an  Egyptian  statue,  witli-the  head  of 
a  woman  and  the  body  of  a  lion. 

SPIDER.  An  insect  which  is  remark- 
able for  its  ingenuity  in  forming  its  web, 
which  it  effects  by  means  of  papillas  or 
teats  at  the  bottom  of  its  belly.  It  uses  its 
web  as  a  snare  for  flies  and  other  insects, 
whom  it  seizes  and  kills  with  great  fe- 
rocity. 


SPIDER-WORT,  A  perennial  and  a 
flowering  plant,  cultivated  in  gardens. 

SPINAGE.  A  pot-herb. 

SPINE  (in  Anatomy).  The  bony  column, 
which  consists  of  the  twenty-four  vertebrae 
of  the  back. 

SPINET.  A  musical  instrument  some- 
thing similar  to  a  harpsichord. 

SPINNING.  The  act  of  drawing  silk, 
flax,  or  wool,  into  threads,  which  is  per- 
formed either  by  means  of  a  wheel,  or  by 
machines  particularly  constructed  for  the 
purpose. 

SPIi\STER  (in  Law).  In  England,  an 


SPO 

addition  usually  given  to  unmarried  wo- 
men, from  a  viscount's  daughter  down- 
wards. The  term  is  also  used  in  the 
United  States,  in  application  to  any  un- 
married woman. 

SPIRACULA.  Holes  or  pores  in  the 
abdomen  of  insects,  through  which  they 
breathe. 

SPIRAL.  A  curve  line,  which  in  its 
progress  always  recedes  more  and  more 
from  its  centre. 

SPIRE.  A  steeple  that  rises  tapering 
by  degrees,  and  ends  in  a  point. 

SPIRITS.  A  general  name  for  all  vo- 
latile substances  collected  by  distillation, 
now  confined  by  chymists  to  alcohol. 

SPLEEN  (in  Anatomy).  A  spongy  vis- 
cus,  of  a  livid  colour,  lying  on  the  left 
side  of  the  body. 

SPLICING.  Joining  one  rope  to  ano- 
ther. 

SPLINTER.  A  small  shiver  of  vs^ood  or 
bone  suddenly  and  violently  broken  off. 

SPOKES.  The  bars  in  the  wheel  of  a 
carriage. 

SPONDEE.  A  foot  of  two  syllables- 

SPONGE.  A  substance  which,  at  one 
time,  was  supposed  to  be  a  sea-mose  grow- 
ing on  rocks,  but  now  discovered  to  be  a 
sort  of  zoophyte,  that  is  torpid,  and  clothed 
with  a  gelatinous  porous  flesh,  by  which  it 
absorbs  or  rejects  water  at  pleasure. 

SPOONBILL.  A  bird  so  called  from 
its  flat  orbicular  beak,  which  is  in  the 
shape  of  a  spoon. 


SPONTANEOUS.  An  epithet  for  things 
that  act  of  themselves,  without  any  appa- 
rent external  agency,  as  the  spontaneous 
combustion  of  vegetable  substances,  which 
when  highly  dried,  and  closely  heaped, 
will  burst  into  a  flame ;  so  the  spontaneous 
generation  of  the  limbs  or  parts  of  animate 
which  have  been  cut  offer  destroyed. 

SPOTS  ON  THE  SUN,  &c.  Dark 
places  observed  on  the  sun,  moon,  and 


SQU 

planets,  of  the  nature  of  which,  little  is 
known  at  present. 

SPRAT.  A  fish  very  similar  to  a  herring, 
but  smaller.  It  is  a  species  of  the  same 
genus,  under  the  generic  name  of  clupea 

SPRAY.  The  sprinkling  of  the  sea 
driven  from  the  top  of  a  wave  in  stormy 
weather. 

SPRING  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
seasons,  commencing  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere when  the  sun  enters  Aries,  about 
the  21st  of  March. 

SPRING.  A  fountain  or  source  of  water 
rising  out  of  the  ground. 

SPRING  (among  Mechanics).  A  piece 
of  tempered  steel,  fitted  to  give  an  elastic 
power  to  any  machine,  as  the  spring  of  a 
watch,  represented  underneath. 


STA 


333 


SPRING  COE.  A  species  of  African 
Antelope. 

SPRINGER.  A  lively  and  pleasant 
species  of  dog,  very  expert  in  raising 
woodcocks  and  snipes. 

SPRING-TIDES.  Tides  at  new  and 
full  moon. 

SPRIT.  A  small  boom  or  pole  crossing 
the  sail  of  a  boat  diagonally. 

SPRUCE.  A  fluid  extracted  by  decoc- 
tion from  the  spruce  fir. 

SPRUCE-BEER.  A  cheap  and  whole- 
some liquor,  made  of  treacle  or  molasses, 
and  the  essence  of  spruce,  well  boiled  in 
water,  to  which  yeast  is  afterwards  added 
to  assist  the  fermentation. 

SPRUCE-FIR.  A  kind  of  Scotch  or 
Norway  fir,  common  in  America. 

SPUNGE.     See  Sponge. 

SPUNGING-HOUSE  (in  England).  A 
victualling  house,  or  place  of  temporary 
confinement,  for  persons  arrested  for  debt. 

SPUNK.  A  substance  growing  on  the 
sides  of  trees,  which  serves  as  tinder. 

SPUN  YARN.  The  yarn  of  untwisted 
ropes,  the  ends  of  which  are  scraped  and 
beaten  thin,  to  be  let  into  the  ends  of 
other  ropes. 

SPUR.  A  piece  of  metal  made  to  fit 
the  heel  of  the  horseman,  and  armed  with 
a  rowel ,  which  is  used  for  urgin  g  a  horse  on . 

SPY.  A  person  hired  to  watch  the  mo- 
tions of  another,  particularly  what  passes 
in  an  enemy's  camp. 

SaUADRON  (in  the  Navy).  A  detach- 
ment of  ships  employed  in  any  expedition. 

SaUADRON  (in  the  Army).  A  body 
of  horse,  from  one  to  two  hundred. 

SQUARE  (in  Geometry).    A  quadrila- 


teral figure,  whose  angles  are  right  angles, 
and  sides  equal. 

SQUARE  (in  Arithmetic).  The  product 
of  any  number  multiplied  by  itself  j  also 
the  squares  of  lineal  measures,  as  a  square 
foot,  a  square  yard. 

SQUARE  (among  Carpenters).  An  in- 
strument for  squaring  their  work  or  redu- 
cing it  to  a  square. 

SQUARE  (in  Military  Affairs.)  A  body 
of  soldiers  formed  into  a  square. 

SQUARE-ROOT.  A  number  which, 
multiplied  in  itself,  produces  the  square 
number;  thus,  2  is  the  square-root  of  4. 

SQUIRREL.  An  agile  animal,  that 
climbs  dexterously,  and  leaps  nimbly  from 
tree  to  tree.  It  lives  mostly  on  seeds  and 
fruit.  The  most  common  varieties  in 
North  America  are  the  gray,  red,  and  stri- 
ped. 


STACK,  or  Rick.  A  structure  of  hay 
or  corn,  so  formed  that  it  may  be  thatched 
by  way  of  defence  from  the  wet.  The 
stem  or  body  of  the  stack  should  be  about 
two-thirds,  and  the  roof  one-third,  of  the 
whole  stack.  A  funnel  or  chimney,  called 
the  well,  is  frequently  left  in  circular 
stacks,  to  prevent  their  heating  too  strongly. 
As  a  preservative  against  the  wet,  while 
the  hay  or  corn  is  stacking,  rick-cloths 
are  fixed  up. 

STADIUM.  A  Greek  long  measure, 
equal  to  our  furlong;  also  the  race-course 
among  the  Greeks. 

STAFF.    An  ensign  of  office. 

STAFF  (in  the  Army).  A  specified 
number  of  officers  acting  together. 

STAFF  (among  Mariners).  A  light  pole 
erected  in  a  ship,  on  which  the  colours 
are  hoisted. 

STAFF-OFFICERS.  Those  officers 
who  constitute  the  staff*. 

STAGE.  The  elevated  place  in  the  area 
of  a  theatre,  where  the  actors  perform 
their  parts;  also  any  elevated  place  for 
the  purpose  of  exhibiting  any  thing,  or  of 
carrying  on  any  work  in  building. 


334  ST  A 

STAGE-COACH.  A  public  vehicle,  so 
called  because  the  horses  go  only  a  certain 
distance  at  a  time,  which  is  called  a  stage. 

STAG-BEETLE.  An  insect  which  lives 
in  the  decayed  trunks  of  trees. 

STAG.  An  elegant  animal,  the  male  of 
which  has  branching  and  recurvate  horns. 
The  branches  of  a  well  grown  stag  are  at 
least  six  or  seven.  This  animal  is  not 
found  in  America. 


STALACTITES.  A  sort  of  calcareous 
earths,  consisting  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
carbonic  acid,  and  water.  It  is  found 
suspended  from  vaults  or  the  roofs  of 
caverns  in  calcareous  mountains. 

STALK,  Caulis  (in  Botany).  That 
part  of  a  plant  which  receives  the  nourisli- 
ment  from  the  root,  and  distributes  it  to 
the  other  parts. 

STALL.  A  particular  seat  in  a  cathe- 
dralj  also  a  partition  in  a  stable;  and  an 
open  shop  in  a  market  or  fair. 

STAMEN  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
principal  parts  of  fructification  in  plants,  on 
which  Linnajus's  sexual  system  is  founded. 

STAMINA.  The  simple  original  parts 
of  an  animal  body,  which  existed  in  the 
embryo. 

STAMP.  Any  instrument  with  which 
an  impression  is  made;  also  in  England, 
paper  bearing  a  particular  mark  or  impres- 
sion, which  is  used  for  receipts,  deeds,  and 
other  instruments,  and  for  which  a  tax  is 
paid. 

STANDARD.  An  original  weight  or 
measure  by  which  other  measures  are  reg- 
ulated. These  measures  are  committed 
in  England,  to  the  keeping  of  a  magistrate, 
or  deposited  in  some  public  place,  as  the 
Exchequer. 

STANDARD  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
flag  or  banner,  borne  as  a  signal  for  the 
forming  of  troops  into  a  body.    The  royal 


STA 

standard  of  England  is  a  flag  in  which  the 
imperial  arms  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland  are  quartered,  with  those  of  Han- 
over. 

STANNERIES.  Tin  mines  or  works. 

STAPLE  (in  England).  A  town  where 
there  were  public  storehouses  for  merchan- 
dises. 

STAPLE  COMMODITIES.  Articles 
such  as  wool,  cloth,  lead,  &c.  which  might 
be  laid  up  in  the  staples  or  storehouses 
without  damage. 

STAR.  A  general  name  for  the  heavenly 
bodies,  but  more  particularly  for  what  are 
otherwise  denominated  fixed  stars,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  planets,  comets,  satellites, 
&c.  The  stars  were  distinguished  by  the 
ancients  into  different  collections,  included 
within  imaginary  figures  called  constella- 
tions. The  particular  stars  in  each  con- 
stellation have  been  moreover  distinguish- 
ed, by  the  moderns,  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek,  and  also  according  to  their  magni- 
tude, from  the  first  or  largest  to  the  sixth 
or  the  smallest  that  are  visible  to  the  naked 
eye. 

STARBOARD.  The  right  hand  of  a 
ship,  when  looking  towards  the  head  or 
fore  part. 

STARCH.  A  powder  drawn  from  wheat 
flour,  and  used  in  stiffening  linen. 

STAR-CHAMBER  (in  England).  A 
court  where  anciently  the  Lord  Chancel- 
lor, assisted  by  others,  used  to  sit  to  punish 
riots,  forgeries,  and  other  great  offences. 

STARFISH.     See  Sea-star. 

STARLING.  An  European  bird  about 
nine  inches  long,  that  is  very  docile,  and 
may  be  easily  taught  to  speak. 

STATICS.  That  branch  of  the  science 
of  mechanics  Vvhich  teaches  the  properties 
of  bodies  in  respect  to  their  weight,  equi- 
librium, &c.  when  in  a  state  of  rest.  See 
Mechanics. 

STATIONER.  A  dealer  in  paper,  pens, 
and  all  writing  utensils,  &c.  The  station- 
ers in  London,  form  one  of  the  city  com- 
panies. 

STATUARY.  A  branch  of  sculpture 
employed  in  the  making  of  statues. 

STATUES.  Figures  of  men  or  other 
objects  formed,  with  the  chisel,  of  marble 
or  stone,  &.c.,  or  carved  in  wood,  and  cast 
in  plaster  of  Paris,  or  in  different  kinds  of 
metals. 

STATUTES  (in  England).  Acts  of  par- 
liament made  by  the  three  estates  of  the 
realm,  which  are  either  public  or  private. 
The  courts  of  Westminster  must  take  cog- 
nizance of  the  public  statutes  without  their 
being  specially  pleaded,  but  not  so  of  pri- 
vate statutes.  In  the  United  States  the 


STE 

statutes  are  the  laws,  enacted  by  congress 
or  any  state  legislature. 

STAVE  (in  Music).  The  five  horizontal 
and  parallel  lines  on  and  between  which 
the  notes  are  placed. 


STO 


335 


STEALING  (in  Law).  The  fraudulent 
taking  away  of  another  man's  goods  with 
an  Intent  to  steal  them,  against  or  without 
the  will  of  him,  to  whom  they  belong. 

STEAM.  The  vapour  which  arises  from 
the  application  of  heat  to  water  or  any 
other  tluid. 

STEAM-ENGINE.  An  engine  first  con- 
structed by  Mr.  James  Watt,  a  native  of 
Greenock,  for  raising  water  by  means  of 
the  expansive  force  of  steam.  It  has  since 
undergone  many  improvements,  and  been 
made  applicable  to  every  sort  of  work 
which  requires  an  extraordinary  moving 
power.  The  steam  engine  was  first  suc- 
cessfully applied  to  navigation  by  Robert 
Fulton  of  the  United  States, 


STEEL.  Iron  refined  and  purified  by 
fire.  It  is  chymically  described  as  a  car- 
buret of  iron,  or  iron  combined  with  a 
small  portion  of  carbon. 

STEEL-YARDS.  A  balance  for  weigh- 
ing things. 


STEERAGE.  An  apartment  before  the 
bulk-head  of  the  great  cabin,  where  the 
steersman  stands  and  lodges  in  ships  of 
war. 

STEERSMAN.  The  person  at  the 
helm  employed  to  regulate  the  ship's 
course. 

STELLAT^E.     One    of  the    Linnsean 


natural  orders  of  plants,  comprehending 
those  which  have  their  leaves  disposed 
round  the  stem  in  the  form  of  a  star. 

STEM  (in  Botany).  That  part  of  a 
plant  which  sustains  the  root,  leaves,  and 
flower. 

STEM  (in  Shipbuilding).  The  circular 
piece  of  timber  into  which  the  two  sides 
of  the  ship  are  united  at  the  fore  end  ;  the 
fore  part  of  the  ship,  as  opposed  to  the 
stern. 

STENOGRAPHY,  or  Short-Hand. 
The  art  of  writing  in  short  characters 
instead  of  words. 

STEPPES.  Barren  tracts  of  elevated 
land  in  Russia,  and  the  northern  part  of 
Asia. 

STEREOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  repre- 
senting solids  on  a  plane. 

STEREOMETRY.  The  science  which 
teaches  the  measuring  of  solids. 

STEREOTYPE.  One  entire  solid  piece 
of  type  cast  from  an  impression  in  gypsum, 
of  a  page  composed  with  moveable  types. 

STERLING  MONEY.  The  lawful 
money  of  Great  Britain. 

STERN.  The  hindermost  part  of  a  ship. 

STEWARD  (in  Law).  A  term  applied 
in  England,  to  several  officers  of  distinction, 
particularly  the  Lord  High  Steward,  who 
presides  at  the  trial  of  a  peer  or  the  corona- 
tion of  the  king,  &c. 

STEWARD  (in  Commerce).  One  who 
manages  the  affairs  of  another,  particularly 
in  the  management  of  estates. 

STIGMA  (in  Botany).  The  top  of  the 
pistil. 

STILL.  The  apparatus  used  in  the  dis- 
tillation of  ardent  spirits.  See  Distilla- 
tion. 

STILTS.  A  set  of  piles  driven  into  the 
ground  plot,  for  the  intended  pier  of  a 
bridge. 

STIMULANTS.  Medicines  which  tend 
to  excite  the  animal  energy. 

STING.  A  weapon  in  the  form  of  a 
barbed  spear,  with  which  some  insects  are 
armed. 

STIRRUP.  The  step  of  a  saddle. 

STIRRUP  (in  Shipbuilding).  A  piece 
of  timber  put  under  the  keel  when  some 
part  of  it  is  lost  5  also  the  name  of  some 
short  ropes. 

STIVER.  A  Dutch  coin,  equal  to  about 
a  penny. 

STOAT.   See  Ebmine. 

STOCK.  The  wooden  part  of  many  in- 
struments, as  the  stock  of  an  anchor,  the 
stock  of  a  gun,  &c. 

STOCK  (in  the  Army).  Part  of  a  sol- 
dier's dress  worn  round  the  neck  instead 
of  a  neckcloth. 


836  S  T  O 

STOCK  (in  Commerce).  Any  fund  con- 
sisting of  money  or  goods  employed  by  a 
person  in  trade,  particularly  the  sum  of 
money  raised  by  a  company  for  carrying 
on  any  trading  concern. 

STOCK-BROKER.  One  who  deals  in 
the  public  funds  for  others. 

STOCK-DOVE.  An  European  bird, 
supposed  to  be  the  original  stock  of  the 
various  kinds  of  pigeons. 

STOCK-EXCHANGE.  The  place  where 
stock  is  bought  and  sold. 

STOCK-JOBBER.  A  speculator  or 
dealer  in  the  public  stocks  or  funds. 

STOCKING.  A  covering  for  the  legs, 
made  either  of  silk,  wool,  cotton,  or 
thread,  &c.  knit  witli  the  hands  or  wove 
in  a  frame. 

STOCKS  (in  Domestic  Policy).  The 
public  funds  or  government  securities, 
which  bear  an  interest,  and  are  regularly 
bought  and  sold. 

STOCKS  (in  Law).  A  mode  of  con- 
fining the  legs  of  disorderly  persons  by 
way  of  punishment,  which  was  ordained 
by  statute. 

STOCKS  (in  Shipbuilding).  A  frame 
of  timber  for  building  pinnaces,  ketches, 
and  other  small  craft  j  also  sometimes 
small  frigates. 

STOICS.  A  sect  of  philosophers  among 
the  ancients,  who  maintained  that  pain 
was  no  evil,  and  many  other  paradoxes 
of  a  similar  nature. 

STOLE,  Ghoom  of  the.  In  England, 
the  head  officer  in  the  bedchamber  of  a 
king  or  prince. 

STOMACH.  The  membranous,  oblong 
receptacle  in  the  lower  region,  destined  to 
receive  the  food  and  convert  it  into  chyle. 

STONE.  A  hard  mineral,  that  may  be 
used  in  various  ways  in  building.  The 
principal  component  parts  of  stones  are 
silica,  alumina,  zircona,  glucina,  lime,  and 
magnesia:  sometimes  the  oxides  of  iron, 
manganese,  nickel,  chronium,  and  copper 
are  also  found  to  enter  into  their  composi- 
tion. 

STONE-FRUIT.  Fruit  having  its  seed 
enclosed  in  a  stony  substance. 

STONEHENGE.  A  pile  of  huge  stones 
on  Salisbury  Plain,  in  England,  six  miles 
distant  from  that  city,  which  is  generally 
admitted  by  antiquaries  to  have  been  a 
British  temple.  It  consists  of  the  remains 
of  four  ranks  of  rough  stones  ranged  one 
within  another,  and  sustaining  others  that 
are  laid  across  and  fastened  by  mortices. 

STONE-WARE.  A  general  name  for 
every  thing  which  is  manufactured  of 
earth  or  clay,  particularly  the  coarser 
sorts  of  earthen-ware. 


STU 

STOP  (in  Music).  The  pressure  of  the 
strings  by  performers  on  the  violin  and 
violoncello,  by  which  they  are  brought 
into  contact  with  the  finger-board. 

STOP  OF  AN  ORGAN.  A  collection 
of  pipes  similar  in  tone  and  quality,  which 
run  through  the  whole  or  a  great  part  of 
the  compass  of  an  instrument. 

STORAX.  The  gum  benzoin. 

STORES,  or  Naval  Stores.  The  ma- 
terials laid  up  in  store  for  the  use  of  the 
navy,  such  as  ordnance,  ammunition; 
masts,  sails,  cordage,  &c. 

STORK.  A  bird  nearly  allied  to  the 
heron  and  the  crane,  with  which  it  is 
classed  by  Linnseus  under  the  generic 
name  of  ardea.  It  is  a  white  bird,  having 
the  orbits  of  the  eye  naked.  This  bird  is 
a  native  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and 
feeds  upon  amphibious  animals.  In  Hol- 
land and  Germany  the  storks  are  much 
favoured,  and  are  to  be  seen  on  the  tops  of 
the  houses,  and  even  in  the  public  streets. 


STORMY  PETREL.  See  Petrel. 

STRAIT,  or  STRAITS.  A  narrow  arm 
of  the  sea  shut  in  by  land  on  both  sides, 
as  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  &c. 

STRATUM.  A  bed  or  layer,  and  Strata, 
the  beds  or  layers,  of  diflerent  earths  or 
mineral  substances  of  which  the  whole 
earth  is  composed. 

STREAMER.  A  flag  or  pendant  in  a 
ship. 

STREPDITEROS.  A  species  of  Goat, 
with  tall  spiral  horns,  found  in  the  island 
of  Crete. 

STRIKE.  A  measure  of  capacity,  con- 
taining four  bushels. 

STRONTIA.  A  sort  of  ponderous  earths. 

STROUDS.  The  several  twists  at  the 
end  of  a  cable. 

STRUMA.  A  scrofulous  swelling. 

STUCCO.  A  composition  of  white  mar- 
ble pulverized  and  mixed  with  plaster  of 
lime.  It  is  used  on  walls,  or  in  making 
ornamental  figures. 


SUB 

STUD.  A  stock  of  breeding  mares,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  finer  sort. 

STUDDING  SAILS.  Light  sails  ex- 
tended beyond  the  skirts  of  the  principal 
sails. 

STUDENT.  One  studying  for  his  de- 
grees at  the  university;  also  one  who  is 
preparing  himself  for  the  bar. 

STUFF.  Any  sort  of  thin  cloth  made 
of  wool  or  other  matter. 

STUM.  Wine  revived  by  a  new  fer- 
mentation. 

STURGEON.  A  large  kind  of  fish, 
which  inhabits  the  sea,  but  ascends  the 
rivers  annually.  The  flesh  of  all  the  spe- 
cies is  good. 

STYLE.  Asort  of  bodkin  with  which 
the  ancients  wrote  on  wax  or  on  lead, 
now  used  for  writing  on  ivory,  leaves,  and 
paper  particularly  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

STYLE  (in  Dialling).  The  pin  which, 
by  its  shadow,  points  out  the  hour. 

STYLE  (in  Botany).  The  columnar 
portion  of  the  pistil. 

STYLE.  A  name  which,  in  several  sci- 
ences, denotes  a  particular  rule  or  method, 
as  in  rhetoric  and  grammar,  the  manner 
of  expressing  one's  sentiments. 

STYLE  (in  Chronology).  The  manner 
of  computing  time,  which  is  either  old 
style  or  new  style.  By  the  old  style  the 
year  consisted  of  365  days  and  6  hours; 
but  the  new  or  Gregorian  style  was  made 
to  correspond  more  nearly  with  the  period 
of  the  sun's  revolution,  reckoning  the  year 
to  be  365  days  5  hours  49  minutes  20  se- 
conds, by  retrenching  II  days  from  the 
old  st3'le.  The  new  style  was  introduced 
into  Germany  in  1700,  and  in  1752  into 
England  by  act  of  parliament,  whereby 
the  2d  of  September  in  that  year  was 
reckoned  the  14th. 

STYLE  (in  Architecture).  A  particular 
mode  of  erecting  buildings,  as  the  Gothic 
style,  Saxon  style,  &c. 

STYPTICS.  Substances  which  have  a 
binding  quality,  and  are  used  to  stop 
bleeding,  &c. 

SUB.  A  prefix  which  denotes  inferiority 
of  rank  or  defect  of  quality,  as  subaltern, 
subordinate. 

SUBALTERN.  An  inferior  officer,  act- 
ing under  the  immediate  direction  of 
another,  as  cornets,  ensigns,  &c. 

SUBDIVISION.  A  division  or  part 
under  anotlier  or  greater  division. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD.  A  mood  of 
verbs  which  imply  a  condition  annexed 
to  an  affirmation. 

SUBLIMATE.  Any  substance  procured 
by  the  process  of  sublimation,  particularly 


UC 


33 


the  sublimate  of  mercur}-,  an  extremely 
acrid  and  violently  poisonous  preparatio;-, 

SUBLIMATION.  A  process  by  wliicli 
volatile  substances  are  raised  by  heat,  anJ 
again  condensed  in  the  solid  form. 

SUBMARINE.  An  epithet  for  what  is 
or  happens  under  the  sea  or  water,  as  a 
submarine  explosion  or  submarine  naviga- 
tion, &LC. 

SUBMULTIPLE.  A  number  or  quan- 
tity contained  in  another  number  or  quan- 
tity a  certain  number  of  times  exactly,  as 
4,  which  is  the  submultiple  of  24. 

SUBORNATION.  A  hiring  or  getting 
pereons  to  swear  falsely. 

SUBPCENA  (in  Law).  A  writ  for  sum- 
moning witnesses. 

SUBSCRIPTION.  The  signing  or  set- 
ting one's  hand  to  a  paper  ;  also  the  giving 
a  sum  of  money,  or  engaging  to  give  it, 
for  the  furtherance  of  some  common  ob- 
ject in  which  several  are  interested,  as 
subscriptions  in  support  of  charitable  in- 
stitutions, and  the  like. 

SUBSCRIPTION  (among  Booksellers). 
The  engaging  to  take  a  certain  number  of 
copies  of  any  new  work  from  the  pub- 
lisher. 

SUBSCRIPTION  TO  THE  THIRTY- 
NINE  ARTICLES.  The  solemn  testifying 
one's  assent  to  the  thirty-nine  articles  of 
the  Church  of  England,  by  taking  an  oath 
and  signing  one's  name  thereto,  as  occa- 
sion requires. 

SUBSIDIARY  TROOPS.  Troops  hired 
to  serve  for  a  given  sum. 

SUBSIDY.  In  England,  an  aid  or  tax 
granted  by  act  of  parliament  to  the  king 
upon  any  urgent  occasion  ;  also  money  giv- 
en to  a  foreign  pov/er. 

SUBSTANTIVE,  Another  name  for  a 
noun. 

SUBSTITUTE  (in  Law).  One  delegated 
to  act  for  another. 

SUBSTITUTE  (in  the  Militia).  One 
engaged  to  serve  in  the  room  of  another. 

SUBSTRATUM.  A  stratum  underneath. 

SUBTENSE  OF  AN  ARC.  A  right  line 
opposite  to  an  angle,  supposed  to  be  drawn 
between  the  two  extremities  of  the  arc. 

SUBTERRANEAN.  Underground,  or 
within  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  as  subter- 
ranean caverns  or  subterranean  fires. 

SUBTRACTION.  The  taking  of  one 
number  or  quantity  from  another,  ex- 
pressed by  this  character  — ;  as  5 — 3=:2. 

SUBTRAHEND.  The  quantity  to  be 
subtracted. 

SUCCEDANEUM.  A  medicine  substi- 
tuted for  another. 

SUCCINIC  ACID.  An  acid  drawn 
from  amber. 


338 


SUI 


SUCCOTRINE  ALOES.  A  sort  of 
aloes  obtained  from  a  species  of  the  aloe, 
namely,  the  aloe  perfoliata  of  Linnaeus. 

SUCCULENTS.  One  of  the  Linnsean 
natural  orders  of  plants,  including  the 
juicy  evergreens,  as  the  mesymbrianthe- 
mum,  &c. 

SUCKER.  The  piston  of  a  pump;  also 
a  piece  of  leather  laid  wet  upon  a  stone, 
which  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, adheres  very  closely,  and  is  not  to 
be  pulled  off  without  great  force. 

SUCKER  (in  Botany),  A  young  twig 
shooting  from  the  stock. 

SUCKER  (in  Ichthyology).  A  sort  of 
fish,  that  adheres  so  firmly  that  it  cannot 
be  removed  without  great  difficulty. 

SUCKING-FISH.  A  fish  having  a  fat 
nailed  head  and  a  naked  body,  which  ad- 
lieres  very  firmly  to  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  vessels.  It  was  called  by  the  ancients 
remora,  and  in  the  Linnssan  system  echi- 
neis  remora. 


SUFFLRAACE.  A  term  in  law,  ap- 
plied to  tenants.  A  tenant  at  sufferance, 
is  one  that  continues  after  his  estate  is 
ended,  and  wrongfully  holdeth  against 
another. 

SUFFRAGAN.  A  bishop  that  is  sub- 
ordinate to  an  archbishop. 

SUFFRAGE.  A  vote  at  an  election  in 
favour  of  a  person. 

SUGAR.  A  sweet  substance  procured 
from  many  plants  or  parts  of  plants,  as 
from  the  stem  of  the  maple,  birch,  &c.; 
the  root  of  the  carrot,  beet,  &;c.;  the  leaf 
of  the  ash,  the  grain  of  wheat,  &lc.;  but 
particularly  from  the  sugar-cane  by  boiling 
the  expressed  juice  with  quick  lime  or 
vegetable  alkali.  Sugar  is  made,  principal- 
ly in  the  West  Indies  and  in  the  Southern 
United  States. 

SUGAR-BAKING.  The  process  of  re- 
fining the  raw  sugar  after  it  comes  from  the 
sugar  plantations. 

SUGAR-CANE.  A  plant  growing  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  other  trop- 
ical countries,  which  consists  of  a  knotted 
reed,  that  rises  sometimes  to  the  height  of 
twenty  feet,  but  reeds  of  a  more  moderate 
size  are  preferred,  that  are  full  of  juice. 
From  this,  sugar  and  molasses  are  made. 

SUGAR  OF^LEAD.     Acetate  of  lead. 

SUI  GENERIS.  Of  its  own  nature  or 
kind. 

SUIT.     An  action  at  Law. 

SULPHATES.      Salts  formed  by  the 


SUN 

union  of  sulphuric  acid  with  different 
bases,  as  the  sulphate  of  soda,  called  Glau- 
ber's salts;  the  sulphate  of  magnesia,  called 
Epsom  salts;  so  the  sulphate  of  copper,  the 
sulphate  of  zinc. 

SULPHITES.  Salts  formed  by  the 
union  of  sulphurous  acid  with  the  different 
bases. 

SULPHUR.  A  simple  combustible  sub- 
stance, vulgarly  called  brimstone,  which  is 
found  pure  in  great  abundance.  In  com- 
bination with  metals  it  forms  the  ores 
called  pyrites.  It  is  a  nonconductor  of 
electricity,  and  becomes  electric  negatively 
by  friction.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.990,  &c. 
SULPHUR,  Flowers  of.  A  powdei 
procured  from  sulphur  when  it  is  heated 
to  the  point  of  170  degrees. 

SULPHURETS.  Compounds  of  sulphur 
with  different  alkaline  earths  and  metallic 
bases,  as  the  sulphuret  of  lime,  of  potash, 
&c. 

SULPHURIC  ACID.  An  acid  contain- 
ing sulphur  (its  basis),  and  oxygen.  Con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  is  called  oil  of 
vitriol. 

SULPHUROUS  ACID.  An  acid  form- 
ed by  the  combination  of  sulphur  with  a 
less  degree  of  oxygen  than  is  requisite  to 
form  sulphuric  acid. 

SULTAN.  The  title  of  the  emperor  of 
the  Turks.  He  resides  at  Constantinople. 
Many  inferior  Arabic  princes  are  styled 
sultans. 

SUMACH.  A  shrub  which  grows  natu- 
rally in  Syria,  Palestine,  Spain,  and  Por- 
tugal. From  its  roots,  when  dried  and 
ground  at  the  mill,  is  procured  a  powder 
used  in  tanning  and  dyeing. 

SUMMER.  One  of  the  four  seasons  of 
the  year,  beginning,  in  the  northern  hem- 
isphere, when  the  sun  enters  Cancer, 
about  the  21st  of  June. 

SUMMER  (in  Architecture).  A  main 
piece  of  timber  that  supports  a  building. 

SUMMONS  (in  Law).  A  citation  by 
virtue  of  which  any  man  is  called  to  ap- 
pear before  a  magistrate  or  judge. 

SUMPTUARY  LAWS.  Laws  regu- 
lating dress  and  domestic  diet. 

SUN.  The  great  luminary,  supposed, 
according  to  the  Copernican  system,  to  be 
the  immoveable  centre  of  the  universe, 
having  all  the  planets  revolving  around 
him  at  different  distances,  and  in  different 
periods  of  time.  He  is  marked  thus,  0 
SUNDAY.  The  sabbath  or  Lord's  Day. 
SUN-FLOWER.  A  plant,  the  yellow 
flower  of  which  expands  like  the  rays  of 
the  sun. 

SUPER.  A  prefix  signifying  excess,  as 
superabundant,  superannuated,  &c. 


SUR 

SUPERANNUATED.  Past  the  fixed 
or  stated  time.  Soldiers  are  superannuated 
who  are  too  old  for  active  service  :  boys 
are  superannuated  when  they  are  too  old 
to  be  admitted  into  any  institution. 

SUPERCARGO.  One  who  takes  charge 
of  a  cargo  or  lading. 

SUPERFICIES.  A  magnitude  bounded 
by  lines. 

SUPERLATIVE.  The  highest  degree 
of  comparison  expressed  by  adjectives. 

SUPERNATURAL.  Beyond  or  out  of 
the  course  of  nature. 

SUPERNUMERARY.  Above  the  fixed 
or  stated  number,  as  soldiers  attached  to  a 
regiment  which  has  already  its  complete 
number. 

SUPERSCRIPTION.  A  writing  on 
the  outside  of  a  paper  or  any  other  object. 

SUPERSEDING  (in  Law).  In  Eng- 
land, setting  aside  a  bankruptcy. 

SUPERSEDING  (in  the  Army  and 
Navy).  Taking  the  place  of  another  by 
special  appointment. 

SUPPLIES.  In  England,  extraordina- 
ry grants  to  government  by  parliament. 

SUPPORTERS  (in  Heraldry).  Orna- 
ments without  the  escutcheon,  which,  as 
in  the  annexed  figure,  seem  to  bear  it  up 
or  support  it. 


SAVA 


339 


SUPPORTERS  (in  Architecture). 
Images  which  serve  to  bear  up  any  part 
of  a  building  in  the  place  of  a  column. 

SUPPRESSION.  The  stoppage  of  any 
fluid. 

SUPPURATION.  The  gathering  of  pus 
or  matter  in  a  boil  or  wound. 

SUPREMACY  (in  England).  The  su- 
preme and  undivided  authority  of  the  king 
over  all  persons  and  things  in  his  realm, 
whether  spiritual  or  temporal,  which  is 
denied  to  him  by  the  members  of  the  Ro- 
mish church  according  to  the  tenets  of  their 
religion. 

SURCHARGE.  Any  extra  charge  made 
by  assessors,  upon  such  as  neglect  to  make 
due  returns  of  the  taxes  to  which  tiiey  are 
liable, 

SURCINGLE.  The  girdle  with  which 
clergymen  bind  their  cassocks  ;  also  a  girth 
for  horses. 


SURD.  A  number  or  quantity  that  is 
incommensurable  to  unity,  as  the  square 
root  of  2  or  the  cube  root  of  10, 

SURETY.  One  that  gives  security  for 
another. 

SURF.  The  swell  of  the  sea  breaking 
upon  the  shore. 

SURGE.  A  large  wave  rising  above 
the  waters  of  the  sea. 

SURGEON.  One  who  cures  by  manual 
operation  or  external  applications. 

SURGERY.  The  art  of  curing  or  alle- 
viating diseases  by  local  and  external  ap- 
plications, or  operations  by  means  of  the 
hand  or  of  instruments. 

SURRENDER.  A  deed  or  instrument 
testifying  that  the  tenant  yields  up  the  es- 
tate to  him  that  hath  the  immediate  estate 
in  remainder  or  reversion. 

SURRENDER  OF  A  BANKRUPT. 
The  surrendering  or  giving  up  all  his  pro- 
perty into  the  hands  of  his  creditors  or 
their  assignees. 

SURVEYING.  The  art  of  measuring 
the  area  or  superficial  contents  of  lands, 
grounds,  fields,  &lc.  by  the  help  of  proper 
instruments. 

SURVEYOR.  One  who  follows  the  art 
or  business  of  surve}'ing. 

SURVEYOR  (in  Law).  One  who  sur 
veys  or  superintends  any  business,  as  the 
surveyor  of  the  highways,  a  parochial 
officer  who  sees  that  they  are  kept  in  re- 
pair, &c. 

SURVIVOR  (in  Law).  The  longer  liver 
of  two  tenants. 

SUSPENSION,  or  Points  of  Suspen- 
sion. Those  points  in  the  axis  or  beam 
of  a  balance,  wherein  the  weights  are 
applied,  or  from  which  they  are  suspend- 
ed. 

SUTLER.  A  victualler  that  follows  a 
camp. 

SUTURE.  The  union  of  bones  by  means 
of  dentiform  margins. 

SWALLOW.     A  bird  that  builds  its 


nest  in  the  corners  of  barns.    The  swal- 
low is  the  harbinger  of  spring. 


340 


SYC 


SWAN.  A  noble  bird,  nearly  allied  to 
the  goose,  with  which  it  is  classed  by  Lin- 
neeus  under  the  generic  name  of  the  anus. 
A  species  entirely  black  has  been  recently 
discovered  in  New-Holland. 


SWARD.  The  coat  of  grass  on  a  mea- 
dow. 

S WARTH .  The  row  of  grass  as  it  falls 
from  the  scythe  of  the  mower. 

SWEEPS.  Large  oars  used  on  board 
ships  of  war. 

SWEEPSTAKES.  The  different  stakes 
laid  down  by  several  persons,  which  all 
go  by  a  sweep  to  one. 

SWEET  PEA.  An  annual  which  bears 
a  beautiful  sweet-smelling  flower. 

SWIFT.  A  sort  of  lizard  which  moves 
very  swiftly  •,  also  a  sort  of  bird. 

SWIMMING.  The  act  of  sustaining  tlie 
body  in  water,  and  moving  in  it  a^  fishes 
and  other  animals  do  naturally,  and  as 
man  also,  by  an  acquired  art,  may  do. 

SWINE-STONE.  A  sort  of  calcareous 
earth. 

SWIVEL.  A  small  piece  of  artillery, 
that  may  be  turned  on  a  pivot  in  any  di 
rection. 

SWORD.  A  weapon  of  offence,  worn 
by  a  soldier's  side. 

SWORD-BEARER  (in  England).  An 
officer  who  carries  the  sword  of  state  before 
a  magistrate. 

SWORD-CUTLER.  One  who  prepares 
swords  for  use. 

SWORD-FISH.  A  fish  furnished  with 
a  swordlike  snout  with  which  it  attacks 
other  fish,  p  -rticularly  the  whale. 


SYCAMORE.  A  large  tree  like  a  fig- 
tree,  that  grows  very  fast,  and  is  used  in 
plantations  and  pleasure-grounds.  It  is 
vulgarly  called  Button  ball. 

SYCOPHANT.      An    informer   among 


SYN 

the  Athenians,  who  gave  information  of 
those  that  exported  figs  contrary  to  law 
now  taken  for  a  cringing,  sneaking  flat- 
terer. 

SYLLABLE.  An  articulate  sound  form- 
ed by  a  vowel  alone,  or  a  vowel  aiad  con- 
sonant. 

SYLLABUS.  A  list  of  the  chief  heads 
of  a  book. 

SYLLOGISM.  A  logical  argument  con- 
sisting of  three  propositions,  called  the 
major  and  minor,  which  are  the  premises; 
and  the  question  which,  after  it  is  drawn 
from  the  other  two,  is  called  the  conse- 
quence or  concliision:  thus,  '  every  animal 
has  life;  man  has  life;  therefore  man  is 
an  animal.' 

SYMBOL.  The  emblem  or  representa- 
tion of  some  moral  quality  by  some  ani- 
mal or  thing  supposed  to  possess  the  sam^e 
quality:  as,  a  lion  is  the  symbol  of  courage; 
two  hands  joined  together,  a  symbol  of 
union.  These  symbols  Avere  much  used 
by  the  ancients  in  representing  their  dei- 
ties, as  the  eagle,  attributed  to  Jupiter  is 
the  symbol  of  his  power. 

SYjIMETRY.  a  due  proportion  of  all 
the  parts  to  one  another  and  to  the  whole. 

SYxMPATHETIC  ink.  a  kind  of  ink 
which,  when  written  with,  is  invisible 
until  it  is  held  to  the  fire.  It  is  made 
from  the  solution  of  lead,  bismuth,  gold, 
and  sreen  vitriol. 

SYMPATHETIC  POWDER.  A  pow- 
der prepared  from  green  or  blue  vitriol. 

SYMPPIONY.  A  consonance  or  concert 
of  several  sounds  agreeable  to  the  ear, 
whetlier  vocal  or  instrumental. 

SYMPTOM.  A  sign  or  mark  by  which 
the  nature  of  the  disorder  is  discovered. 

SYNALOEPHA.  a  contraction  of  two 
vowels  into  one. 

SYNCHRONOUS.  Happening  at  the 
same  time. 

SYNCOPE  (in  Medicine).  A  fainting 
or  swooning. 

SYNCOPE  (in  Grammar).  Taking  a 
letter  out  of  a  word. 

SYNCOPE  (in  Rhetoric).  A  concise 
form  of  speech. 

SYNCOPE  (in  Music).  The  division  of 
a  note. 

SYNDIC.    A  magistrate  in  Germany. 

SYNOD.     An  assembly  of  the  clergy. 

SYNOD  (in  Astronomy).  A  conjunction 
of  heavenly  bodies,  or  concourse  of  two 
planets  in  the  same  optica)  place  of  the 
heavens. 

SYNODICAL  MONTH.  The  period 
wherein  the  moon  departing  from  the  sun, 
returns  to  a  conjunction  with  him  again; 
this  is  twenty-nine  days,  twelve  hours. 


TAC 

forty-eight  minutes,  twenty-eight  seconds. 
SYNGENESIA  (in  Botany).     One   of 
the  Linnagan  classes,  containing  plants  the 
stamina  of  which  form  a  cylinder. 


TAL 


341 


SYNONYMES.  Words  of  the  same  or 
similar  signification,  which  serve  to  am- 
plify a  subject. 

SYNOPSIS.  A  general  view  of  a  sub- 
ject. 

SYNOVIA.  An  unctuous  fluid  secreted 
within  the  capsular  ligaments  of  the  joints, 
which  serves  to  lubricate  them  and  facili- 
tate their  motion. 

SYNTAX.  That  part  of  grammar  which 
treats  of  concord  and  government. 

SYNTHESIS  (in  Mathematics).  A  meth- 
od of  composition,  as  opposed  to  analysis. 


SYPHON,  or  SIPHON.  A  bent  tube 
used  in  drawing  off  wine,  liquors,  and 
other  fluids  out  of  a  vessel. 

SYRINGA.  A  flowering  shrub  planted 
in  gardens. 

SYRINGE.  An  instrument  that  admits 
of  any  fluid,  and  expels  it  again  at  plea- 
sure. 

SYRUP.  A  thick  composition,  formed 
from  the  juices  of  herbs  and  fruits  boiled 
with  sugar. 

SYSTEM.  An  assemblage  or  chain  of 
principles,  the  several  parts  of  which  de- 
pend upon  or  are  connected  with  each 
other.  Systems  vary  in  different  sciences, 
according  to  the  hypothesis  on  which  they 
are  founded,  as  in  astronomy,  the  Coper- 
nican  or  Ptolemaic  system  ;  in  botany,  the 
system  of  Tournefort,  Ray,  Linnaeus,  &.c. 

SYSTEM  (in  Music).  An  interval  com- 
pounded or  supposed  to  be  compounded  of 
several  lesser  intervals. 

SYZIGY  (in  Astronomy),  The  con- 
junction or  opposition  of  any  planet  in 
regard  to  the  sun. 


T. 


T,  the  twentieth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
stands  as  an  abbreviation  amongst  the 
Roman  writers  for  Titus,  Tiberius,  &c. 

TABBY.  A  rich  kind  of  silk  that  has 
undergone  the  process  of  being  tabbied. 

TABBYING.  The  passing  any  silk  or 
stuff  through  a  calender,  the  rollers  of  which 
are  vaiiously  engmven,  so  as  to  give  the 
surface  a  wavy  appearance. 

TABLE.  A  level  surface  raised  above 
the  ground,  of  various  forms,  and  used  for 
meals  and  various  other  purposes. 

TABLE  (in  Perspective).  The  transpa- 
rent or  perspective  plane. 

TABLE  (in  Arithmetic).  Any  series  of 
numbers  formed  so  as  to  expedite  calcu- 
lations, as  the  tables  of  weights  and  mea- 
sures. 

TABLE  (in  Astronomy).  Computations 
of  tlie  motions  and  other  pheenomena  of 
the  heavenly  bodies. 

TABRET.  A  small  drum. 

TACIT.  Not  expressed,  as  a  tacit  con- 
fession, one  that  may  be  inferred  some- 
times from  a  person's  silence. 

TACKING.  Changing  the  course. 

TACKLE,  or  Tackling.  The  general 
furniture  of  a  ship,  particularly  the  ropes 
and  the  assemblage  of  blocks  by  which 
heavy  bodies  are  moved. 

TACTICS.    The  science  of  disposing 
either  an  army  or  a  fleet  of  ships,  and 
29* 


regulating  their  movements  for  the  more 
effectual  attainment  of  the  ends  proposed. 

TADPOLE.  A  frog  in  its  unformed 
state. 

TAFFETY.  A  fine  sort  of  silk  remark- 
ably glossy. 

TALC.  A  soft  kind  of  earth,  soapy  to 
the  touch,  and  composed  of  magnesia, 
alumine,  and  silica. 

TALENT.  A  money  of  account  among 
the  Jews  and  Greeks.  The  Jewish  talent 
of  silver  was  equal  to  about  342Z.  and  that 
of  the  Greeks  to  193Z.  155.  The  Jewish 
talent  of  gold  was  equal  to  4574Z. 

TALENT.  A  weight  among  the  Jews, 
containing  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine 
pounds  eight  ounces  fifteen  pennyweights 
and  seventeen  grains.  The  talent  among 
the  Egyptians  and  Greeks  did  not  weigh 
so  much. 

TALES  (in  Law).  Jurors  atlded  to  make 
up  the  number  wanted. 

TALLOWCHANDLER.  A  maker  and 
vender  of  tallow  candles,  as  distinguished 
from  a  waxchandler.  The  company  of 
tallowchandlers  in  London,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1461. 

TALLOW  TREE,  A  tree  in  China 
which  produces  an  unctuous  juice,  of 
which  candles  are  made. 

TALLY.  A  cleft  pieceof  wood  on  which 
an  account  is  scored. 


342 


TAR 


TALMUD.  The  book  of  the  oral  law  of 
the  Jews,  containing  their  laws,  customs, 
and  traditions. 

TAMARIND.  The  fruit  of  an  Indian 
tree,  which  has  an  agreeable  acidity  com- 
bined with  sweetness.  It  is  used  very 
much  in  medicine. 

TAMBOUR  (in  Fortification).  A  kind 
cf  work  formed  of  palisades. 

TAN.  The  bark  of  the  oak  or  other  tree 
ground  or  chopped,  and  used  in  tanning 
leather. 

TANGENT.  A  line  touching  a  circle  or 
other  curve  without  cutting  it. 


TANNIN.  The  substance  procured  from 
ta,n,  by  macerating  it  in  cold  water ;  this 
has  the  property  of  forming  with  animal 
gelatine  a  tough  insoluble  matter,  and  is 
therefore  used  in  converting  skins  into 
leather  by  the  process  of  tanning. 

TANNING.  The  process  of  preparing 
leather  from  the  skins  of  animals,  which, 
after  being  cleared  of  the  hair,  wool,  and 
fleshy  parts  by  the  help  of  lime,  scraping, 
and  other  means,  are  macerated  in  an 
astringent  liquor  formed  from  the  bark  of 
the  oak  tree.  This  is  usually  done  by 
putting  into  the  tan  pit,  layers  of  ground 
oak-bark  and  skins  alternately,  with  the 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  water. 

TANREE.  A  small  animal  covered  with 
prickles  mixed  with  hair,  found  in  some 
parts  of  Asia. 

TANTALUS.  A  sort  of  birds. 

TAPESTRY.  Cloth  woven  in  figures. 

TAPEWORM.  A  kind  of  worms  re- 
sembling a  tape  in  its  form,  which  infests 
the  intestines  of  the  Inmian  body,  and 
causes  many  disorders. 

Tx\PIOCA.  The  starch  of  the  cassava 
root. 

TAPIR.  A  genus  of  animals  of  the  class 
mammalia,  order  belluinse,  that  inhabits 
South  America. 

TAR.  A  thick,  black,  unctuous  sub- 
stance, obtained  from  old  pines  and  fir  trees. 

TARANTULA.  The  largest  of  all  Eu- 
ropean spiders,  the  bite  of  which  was 
formerly  supposed  to  be  venomous. 

TARE.  An  allowance  to  the  buyer  forthe 
outside  package  in  the  weighing  of  goods. 

TARES.  A  sort  of  vetches  much  used 
as  spring  fodder  for  cattle. 


TEA 

TARGET.  A  kind  of  shield  anciently 
used  by  the  Scotch ;  a  mark  set  up  to  be 
fired  at. 

TARGUM.  The  Chaldee  paraphrase  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

TARIFF.  A  table  of  the  rates  or  duties 
agreed  upon  between  two  states  to  be 
paid  upon  the  goods  of  their  respective 
countries. 

TARPAULIN.  A  canvass  cloth  to  keep 
off" the  rain. 

TARTAN.  A  small  coasting  vessel  in 
the  Levant,  having  one  mast  and  a  bow- 
sprit. 

TARTAR.  The  concreted  substance 
formed  on  the  sides  of  wine  casks. 

TARTAR,  Cream  of.  A  powder  com- 
pounded of  tartaric  acid  and  potash. 

TARTARIC  ACID.  An  acid  procured 
by  the  solution,  filtration,  and  crystalliza- 
tion of  the  tartar. 

TARTRATES.  Salts  formed  by  the 
combination  of  tartaric  acid  with  different 
bases, 

TATTOOING.  Puncturing  the  skin  and 
rubbing  in  a  dye,  which  is  practised  among 
the  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

TASTE.  One  of  the  five  senses,  by  which 
the  savour  or  relish  of  any  thing  is  per- 
ceived. This  resides  principally  in  th« 
papillae  of  the  tongue  and  palate. 

TAURUS.  The  second  sign  of  the  zodiac, 
marked  thus  ^  ;  it  contains  among  other 
stars  the  two  clusters  called  the  Pleiades 
and  Hyades. 

TAUTOLOGY.  Useless  repetition. 

TAXES.  Impositions  laid  upon  the  sub- 
ject by  act  of  government. 

TEA.  The  leaf  of  a  Chinese  tree,  from 
which  a  useful  beveraffe  of  the  same  name 


has  been  made  ever  since  its  first  intro- 
duction into  Europe  in  the  seventeenth 
century.    The  tea  plant  is  a  native  of 


TEL 

China,  Japan,  and  Tonquin,  and  has  not 
been  found  growmg  spontaneously  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  It  affects  valleys, 
tlie  sloping  sides  of  mountains,  and  the 
banks  of  rivers  exposed  to  the  southern 
rays  of  the  sun.  There  are  two  principal 
sorts  of  tea,  namely,  the  Green  and  the 
Bohea,  or  black ;  these  are  distinguished 
into  different  species,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  leaf,  as  of  the  Greens,  the 
Imperial,  Hyson,  and  Singlo;  of  the  Bo- 
heas,  the  Souchong,  Camho,  Congo,  Pekoe, 
and  Common  Bohea. 

TEAK  TREE.  The  Indian  oak,  not 
equal  in  durability  to  the  British  oak. 

TEAL.  The  smallest  of  the  duck  kind. 

TEARS  (in  Anatomy).  The  limpid  fluid 
secreted  by  the  lachrymal  glands. 

TEARS  (in  Chymistry).  Any  fluid  fall- 
ing in  drops,  as  gums  or  resins  exuding 
in  the  form  of  tears. 

TECHNICAL.  Pertaining  to  arts  and 
sciences,  as  technical  terms,  terms  of  art. 

TEETH.  The  hardest  and  smoothest 
bones  of  the  body,  fixed  in  the  alveoli  or 
sockets  of  the  two  jaws,  which  begin  to 
appear  about  the  seventh  or  eighth  month 
after  the  birth,  first  the  dentes  incisuri  or 
incisores,  the  four  front  teeth  of  the  upper 
and  lower  jaw ;  then  the  canini,  or  eye 
teeth,  one  on  each  side  the  incisores  in 
each  jaw  ;  and  then  the  molares,  or  grind- 
ears,  mostly  ten  in  each  jaw,  making  alto- 
gether thirty-two,  although  the  number 
varies  in  different  subjects.  In  the  seventh 
year  new  teeth  are  formed,  and  in  the 
twenty-first  the  two  last  of  the  molares 
mostly  spring  up,  called  the  dentes  sapien- 
tiae. 

TEGUMENTS  (in  Anatomy).  Cover- 
ings of  the  body,  as  the  cuticle,  rete  mu- 
cosum,  skin,  and  adipose  membrane. 

TEINT.  An  artificial  colour. 

TELEGRAPH.  A  machine,  as  repre- 
sented underneath,  which  serves  to  convev 


TEL 


343 


intelligence  by  means  of  motions  employed 
as  the  signs  of  words.    That  such  a  means 


of  quick  communication  at  a  distance  was 
early  in  use,  is  clear  from  the  scene  in  the 
Greek  play,  in  which  a  watchman  descends 
from  a  tower  in  Greece  and  gives  the  in- 
formation that  Troy  was  taken,  adding  '  I 
have  been  looking  out  these  ten  years  to 
see  when  that  would  happen,  and  this  night 
it  is  done.' 

TELESCOPE.  An  optical  instrument 
composed  of  lenses,  so  situated  as  to  bring 
remote  objects  near  to  the  view.  To  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  the 
powers  of  this  instrument  is  not  precisely 
known.  Wolfius  infers  from  a  passage  in 
the  '  Magia  Natural  is'  of  John  Baptista 
Porta,  that  he  was  the  first  who  made  a 
telescope,  and  this  inference  is  the  more 
probable  as  Baptista  Porta  had  particu- 
larly directed  his  attention  to  optical  in- 
struments ;  but  no  certain  mention  is  made 
of  any  telescope  before  1590,  thirty  years 
afterwards,  when  a  telescope  sixteen  inches 
long  was  made  and  presented  to  Prince 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  by  a  spectacle  maker 
of  Middleburg,  whose  name  is  not  exactly 
known,  being  called  Luppersheim,  Jansen, 
and  also  Hansen .  No  advances  were,  how- 
ever, made  in  the  construction  of  tele- 
scopes before  the  time  of  Galileo,  who 
while  at  Venice  accidentally  heard  that  a 
sort  of  optic  glass  was  made  in  Holland, 
which  brought  distant  objects  nearer,  and 
considering  how  this  tiling  might  be,  he 
set  to  work  and  ground  two  pieces  of  glass 
into  a  form,  as  well  as  he  could,  and  fitted 
them  to  the  two  ends  of  an  organ  pipe, 
with  which  he  produced  an  eflect  that 
delighted  and  astonished  all  beholders. 
After  exhibiting  the  wonders  of  this  inven- 
tion to  the  Venetians  on  the  top  of  the 
tower  of  St.  Mark,  he  devoted  himself 
wholly  to  the  improving  and  perfecting 
the  telescope,  in  which  he  was  so  success- 
ful that  it  has  been  usual  to  give  him  the 
honour  of  being  the  inventor.  An  anecdote 
mentioned  by  F.  IMabillon  in  his  Travels, 
of  having  met,  in  a  monastery  of  his  own 
order,  with  a  manuscript  copy  of  the 
works  of  Commestor,  written  by  one  Con- 
radus  in  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  and  con- 
taining a  portrait  of  Ptolemy  looking 
through  a  tube  at  the  stars,  would  seem  to 
justify  the  supposition  that  this  contrivance 
of  facilitating  tlie  view  of  distant  objects 
was  of  earlier  date  than  is  generally  con- 
sidered ;  but  we  are  not  informed  whether 
the  tube  was  furnished  with  glasses,  and 
very  probably  tubes  were  then  used  to 
defend  and  direct  the  sight,  and  render  the 
object  more  distinct  by  singling  it  from  all 
other  objects  in  the  vicinity.  It  must  not, 
however,  be  denied  that  the  optical  prin- 


344 


TEM 


ciples  upon  which  the  effect  of  telescopes 
is  founded  are  as  old  as  Euclid  at  least, 
and  wanted  nothing  but  accident  or  re- 
flection to  lead  to  this  mode  of  applying 
them. 

Telescopes  are  either  refracting  or  reflect- 
ing ;  the  former  consist  of  different  lenses 
tlirough  which  the  objects  are  seen  by  rays 
refracted  by  them  to  the  eye,  and  the  latter 
consist  of  specula  from  which  the  rays  are 
reflected  and  passed  to  the  eye.  The  lens 
or  glass  turned  to  the  object  is  called  the 
object  glass,  and  that  next  to  the  eye  the 
eye  glass,  and  when  the  telescope  consists 
of  more  than  two  lenses  all  but  that  imme- 
diately next  the  object  are  called  eye 
glasses.  Great  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  construction  of  telescopes, 
botli  reflecting  and  refracting.  That  ccm- 
structed  under  Dr.  Herschel's  direction  is 
the  largest  instrument  of  the  kind,  and  pos- 
sesses the  highest  magnifying  power  of  any 
that  was  ever  made.  The  tube  of  this 
telescope  is  thirty-nine  feet  four  Inches,  it 
measures  four  feet  ten  inches,  and  every 
part  of  it  is  of  iron  that  is  rolled,  or  sheet 
iron,  joined  together  by  a  kind  of  seaming, 
like  the  iron  funnel  of  a  stove.  In  order 
to  command  every  altitude,  the  point  of 
support  is  moveable,  and  its  motion  is 
effected  by  the  help  of  pulleys,  so  that  it 
maybe  moved  backward  or  forward  and 
set  to  any  altitude  up  to  the  very  zenith. 
The  tube  is  also  made  to  rest  with  the 
point  of  support  in  a  pivot  which  permits 
it  to  be  turned  sidewise. 


TELLER.  One  in  a  bank,  who  receives, 
and  pays  out  money. 

TELLERS.  Those  who  reckon  the  votes 
in  any  legislature. 

TELLERS.  In  England,  officers  of  the 
exchequer,  who  receive  all  moneys  due  to 
the  crown. 

TELLURIUM.  A  kind  of  metal  of  a 
blue  white  colour,  soft,  brittle,  and  easily 
reducible  to  powder.  It  melts  in  a  heat 
something  above  the  fusing  point  of  lead. 

TELLUS  (in  Heathen  Mythology).  The 
goddess  of  the  earth  :  the  earth  itself. 

TEMPERAMENT  (in  Music).  The 
accommodation  or  adjustment  of  imper- 
fect sounds. 

TEMPERATURE.  The  constitution  of 
the  air  according  to  the  diversity  of  the 
seasons,  or  the  different  situations  of  climate 
and  other  circumstances. 


TEN 

TEMPERING  (in  Iron  Works).  Making 
iron  and  steel  of  a  suitable  degree  of  hard- 
ness or  softness. 

TEMPERING  (among  Brickmakers). 
The  duly  mixing  the  materials  of  which 
bricks  are  made,  that  they  may  be  more 
easily  cut  and  reduced  to  the  proper  shape. 

TEMPLARS,  or  Knights  Templars. 
An  ancient  order  of  knighthood,  which 
was  abolished  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 

TEMPLE.  A  place  appropriated  for  the 
performance  of  public  worship. 

TEMPLE  (in  Anatomy).  The  upper  part 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  where  the  pulse 
is  felt. 

TEMPORAL.  Not  spiritual;  as  the 
temporal  revenues  of  the  church  in  Eng- 
land, called  the  temporals,  or  temporalities. 

TEMPORAL  (in  Anatomy).  Pertaining 
to  the  temples,  as  the  temporal  arteries, 
&c. 

TENACITY.  The  degree  of  force  with 
which  the  particles  of  bodies  cohere  or  are 
held  together;  a  term  applied  particularly 
to  metals  v/hich  may  be  drav/n  into  wire, 
as  gold  and  silver. 

TENAILLE.  An  outwork  of  a  fortress. 

TENANT  (in  Law).  One  who  holds 
lands  by  any  right,  particulai-ly  one  who 
occupies  lands  or  tenements  at  a  yearly 
rent,  for  life,  years,  or  will. 

TENCH.  A  fish  with  a  golden  body 
and  transparent  fins,  that  inhabits  rivers 
and  ponds. 

TENDER  (in  the  Navy).  A  small  ship 
that  attends  a  larger. 

TENDER  (in  Law).  The  ofl^ering  of 
money  in  payment  of  a  debt. 

TENDON  ACHILLES.  That  which 
connects  the  calf  of  the  leg  with  the  heel. 

TENDONS.  The  extremities  of  the 
muscles. 

TENDRIL.  The  curling  part  of  plants, 
as  in  the  vine,  with  which  they  lay  hold 
of  any  thing  for  support. 

TENEMENT  (in  Law).  Any  thing 
which  may  be  hoi  den,  particularly  houses 
or  any  other  buildings. 

TENNIS.  A  game  with  a  ball,  driven 
by  a  racket. 

TENNIS-COURT.  The  place  where  the 
game  of  tennis  is  played. 

TENON.  The  square  end  of  a  piece  of 
timber. 

TENOR  (in  Music).  The  middle  part 
between. 

TENSE.  That  part  of  a  verb  which  de- 
notes time,  as  the  present  tense,  denoting 
the  time  that  now  is;  the  preterit  or  past, 
the  time  that  was;  and  the  future,  the  time 
that  will  be     Some  tenses  likewise  denote 


TER 

the  state  of  the  action,  as  to  its  complete- 
ness or  otherwise,  in  a  certain  degree  or 
time,  as  the  imperfect  tense,  which  denotes 
an  unfinished  action  at  a  certain  time;  the 
perfect,  a  finished  action  at  any  time; and 
the  pluperfect,  a  finished  action  before  a 
certain  time. 

TENSION.  The  act  of  stretching  or  be- 
ing stretched,  as  the  tension  of  the  muscles 
when  the  body  is  in  motion. 

TENTER  (in  the  Cloth  Manufacture). 
A  railing  constructed  to  stretch  cloths  upon. 

TENTERHOOK.  A  particular  hook 
on  which  things  are  hung  that  are  to  be 
stretched. 

TENURE  (in  Law).  The  conditions  on 
which  lands  and  tenements  are  held. 

TERCE.  A  wine  vessel  containing  for- 
ty-two gallons. 

TERM  (in  Geometry).  The  extremity 
or  bound  of  a  magnitude. 

TERM  (in  Law).  A  fixed  and  limited 
time  within  which  courts  of  judicature  are 
open. 

TERM  (in  the  Universities).  The  fixed 
periods  within  which  students  are  obliged 
to  reside  for  the  prosecution  of  their 
studies. 

TERJMES.  The  white  ant,  a  genus  of 
insects,  inhabitants  of  the  East  Indies, 
Africa,  and  South  America,  which  are 
said  to  exceed  the  comm.on  ant,  the  bee, 
and  the  beaver  in  their  skill,  ingenuity, 
and  good  government.  They  build  pyra- 
midal structures  ten  or  twelve  feet  high, 
that  resemble  villages  in  extent,  and  divide 
them  oft' into  several  apartments,  as  maga- 
zines, chambers,  galleries,  &c.  They  are 
no  less  dexterous  and  remarkable  in  their 
manner  of  providing  themselves  with  food, 
for  they  destroy  food,  furniture,  books,  and 
timber  with  such  rapidity,  that  a  beam  will 
be  eaten  by  them  to  a  mere  shell  in  a  few 
hours. 


TES 


345 


TERMINI.  Figures  used  by  the  Romans 
for  the  support  of  entablatures,  in  the  place 
of  columns  ;  the  upper  part  consisted  of  the 
head  and  breast  of  a  human  body,  and  the 
lower  of  the  inverted  frustum  of  a  cone. 
They  were  so  called  because  they  were 
principally  used  as  boundary  marks,  and 
represented  their  god  Terminus. 

TERMS  OF  AN  EaUATION.  The 
members  of  which  it  is  composed. 

TSRN.  A  bird  of  v/hich  there  are  seve- 


ral varieties,  as  the  great,  lesser,  black 
and  striated.  They  live  on  fish,  and  ar£ 
sometimes  called  sea-swallows. 

TERRACE.  A  platform  or  bank  of  earth 
raised  and  breasted,  particularly  in  fortifi- 
cations; also  a  raised  walk. 

TERRA  FIRMA.  Main  land;  the  name 
particularly  given  to  a  country  of  South 
America,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  extent  of  1300 
miles. 

TERRA  JAPONICA.  Japan  earth,  the 
inspissated  juice  of  a  species  of  acacia. 

TERRAR,  or  Terrier.  A  land  roll, 
containing  the  quantity  of  acres,  tenants' 
names,  and  the  like. 

TERRESTRIAL  GLOBE.  An  artificial 
representation  of  the  earth's  surface,  by 
the  help  of  which  many  problems  in  as- 
tronomy and  geography  are  worked. 

TERRIER.  A  kind  of  dog  that  hunts 
underground. 


TEST  (in  England).  An  oath  prescribed 
by  act  of  parliament  for  renouncing  the 
pope's  supremacy,  &c.;  also  the  Sacramen- 
tal Test,  which  was  formerly  required  as 
the  qualification  of  taking  an  office,  but  is 
now  abolished. 

TEST  (in  Chymistry).  A  term  applied 
to  any  substance  which  serves  to  detect 
the  presence  of  a  poisonous  ingredient  in 
a  composition;  also  a  cupel  or  pot,  for 
separating  base  metals  from  gold  or  silver. 

TESTACEA.  Testaceous  animals,  or 
shell  fish;  the  third  order  of  animals  under 
the  class  vermes,  in  the  Linncean  system. 

TEST  ACT  (in  England).  An  act  of 
parliament  which  required  all  persons  to 
take  the  sacrament  according  to  the  rites 
of  the  church  of  England,  on  their  accep- 
tance of  a  public  office.  This  act  is  so  far 
repealed  as  relates  to  the  sacramental  test, 
for  which  a  declaration  is  substituted,  sig- 
nifying that  the  party  will  do  nothing  to 
the  injury  of  the  established  religion  of 
England. 

TESTAMENT  (in  Law).  The  solemn 
act  whereby  a  man  declares  his  last  will 
as  to  the  disposal  of  his  estate  after  his 
death. 


346 


THA 


TESTAMENT  (in  Theology).  Each  of 
the  volumes  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  that 
is  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament. 

TESTATOR.  A  man  who  makes  his 
will. 

TESTATRIX.  A  female  who  makes 
her  will. 

TESTUDO.  A  machine  among  th^  an- 
cients, Avhich  served  to  screen  the  soldiers 
when  they  approached  the  walls  to  mine. 

TESTUDO  (in  Zoology).  A  genus  of 
animals,  including  the  marine  turtle,  the 
river  turtle,  and  the  land  tortoise. 

TETANUS.    A  locked  jaw. 

TETR ADYNAMIA.  One  of  the  Lin- 
nsean  classes  of  plants,  including  those 
plants  the  flowers  of  which  have  six  sta- 
mens, four  of  them  longer  than  the  other 
two,  as  ceuidytuft,  wallflower,  cabbage, 
&C. 


TETRAGYNTA.  An  order  of  plants 
under  several  classes,  in  the  Linnaean 
system,  the  flowers  of  which  have  four 
pistils. 

TETRANDRIA.  One  of  the  Linna3an 
classes,  comprehending  plants  the  flowers 
of  which  have  four  stamens,  as  the  scabi- 
ous, holly,  plantain,  &.c. 


TETRARCH.  Anciently  the  governor 
of  the  fourth  part  of  a  province. 

TEXT.  The  original  part  of  an  author's 
work,  as  distinguished  from'  any  note  or 
commentary. 

TEXT.  A  passage  of  scripture  chosen 
as  the  subject  of  a  sermon. 

TEXT  (in  Printing  or  Writing).  A  par- 
ticular kind  of  handwriting  or  form  of 
letters,  used  by  lawyers  and  others. 

THANE.      A  baron  among  the  Saxons. 

THAUMATURGUS.  A  worker  of  mira- 
cles; a  title  given  by  the  Roman  Catholics 
to  some  of  their  saints. 


THE 

THEATRE.  A  building  constructed  for 
dramatic  exhibitions,  with  a  stage  for  the 
performers,  and  pit,  boxes,  and  galleries 
for  the  audience. 

THEOCRACY,  A  government  whereof 
God  himself  is  the  king,  as  that  of  the 
Jews  before  they  were  governed  by  king 
Saul. 

THEODOLITE.  An  instrument  used 
in  surveying,  for  taking  angles,  &c.  This 
instrument  is  supported  on  three  stafls, 
screwed  into  bell  metal  joints  that  are 
moveable,  having  a  limb,  or  a  strong 
bell  metal  ring,  upon  which  are  three 
moveable  indexes,  a  bell  metal  double 
sextant,  within  which  is  a  spiral  level,  and 
over  it  a  telescope,  all  suitably  adjusted 
with  screws. 

THEOLOGY.  The  study  of  religion,  or 
the  science  which  instructs  in  the  know- 
ledge of  God  and  divine  things. 

THEOREM.  A  position  laid  down  as 
truth. 

THEORY.  A  doctrine  which  confines 
itself  to  the  speculative  parts  of  a  subject, 
without  regard  to  its  practical  application 
or  illustration. 

THERAPEUTICS.    The  healing  art. 

THERMS.    Hot  baths. 

THERMOMETER.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  temperature  of  the  air,  as 
respects  heat  and  cold,  founded  on  the 
principle  that  the  expansions  of  matter 
are  proportional  to  the  augmentations  of 
the  temperature.  The  invention  of  the 
thermometer  has  been  ascribed  to  different 
authors,  to  Cornelius  Drebbet  of  Alcmaar 
by  his  countrymen  Boerhaave  and  Mus- 
chinbroeck;  to  Father  Paul,  by  his  bio- 
grapher Fulgenzio;  to  Galileo  by  Vincenzio 
Viviani;  but  Sanctorino  assumes  the  inven- 
tion to  himself,  and  his  claim  is  fully 
admitted  by  Malpighi  and  Borelli.  The 
first  form  of  this  invention  was  the  air 
thermometer,  consisting  of  a  glass  tube 
connected  at  one  end  with  a  large  glass 
ball,  and  at  the  other  end  immersed  in  an 
open  vessel  or  terminating  in  a  ball  with  a 
narrow  bottom.  The  vessel  was  filled  with 
a  coloured  liquor  that  would  not  easily 
freeze,  as  aquafortis  thiged  with  a  solution 
of  vitriol  or  copperas.  The  ball  at  the 
top  being  then  moderately  warmed,  the 
air  contained  in  it  was  in  part  expelled, 
and  then  tlie  liquor  pressed  by  the  external 
air  entered  at  the  lower  ball  and  rose  to  a 
certain  height  in  the  tube,  according  to 
the  temperature.  The  air  being  found  not 
so  fit  for  measuring  with  accuracy  the 
variations  of  heat  and  cold  according  to 
this  form  of  the  thermometer,  which  was 
first  adopted,  alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine, 


THR 

was  used  by  the  Florentine  academy,  en- 
closed in  a  very  fine  cylindrical  glass  tube, 
having  a  hollow  ball  at  one  end,  and  her- 
metically sealed  at  the  other.  To  the  tube 
is  applied  a  scale,  divided  from  the  middle 
into  one  hundred  parts,  upwards  and  down- 
wards. As  spirit  of  wine  is  capable  of  a 
very  considerable  degree  of  rarefaction 
and  condensation  by  heat  and  cold,  when 
the  heat  of  the  atmosphere  increases  the 
spirit  dilates,  and  consequently  rises  in  the 
tube ;  and  when  the  heat  decreases  the 
spirit  descends.  As  inconveniences  were 
found  to  attend  each  of  these  thermome- 
ters, as  also  that  of  M.  Reaumur,  which 
was  constructed  in  a  similar  manner,  Mr. 
Fahrenheit  first  employed  mercury  for  this 
purpose,  which  has  since  been  universally 
adopted.  The  method  of  constructing  his 
thermometer,  of  which  a  representation  is 
here  given,  is  as  follows,  a  small  ball  is 
blown  at  the  end  of  a  glass  tube,  of  an 
uniform  width  throughout.  The  ball  and 
part  of  the  tube  are  then  to  be  filled  with 
quicksilver  which  has  been  previously 
boiled  to  expel  the  air,  the  open  end  of 
the  tube  then  being  hermetically  sealed,  a 
scale  is  constructed  by  taking  the  two  fixed 
points,  namely,  32^  for  the  freezing  point 
and  212°  for  the  boiling  point,  and  divid- 
ing the  intermediate  space  into  equal  parts, 
or  180°. 


TIG 


347 


THISTLE.  A  prickly  weed  that  infests 
corn  fields. 

THORACIC.  An  order  of  fishes  in  the 
Linnasan  system,  which  have  the  ventral 
fins  placed  directly  under  the  thorax. 

THORAX.  The  chest,  situated  between 
the  neck  and  the  abdomen. 

THOROUGH  BASS  (in  Music).  That 
which  includes  the  fundamental  rules  in 
composition. 

THRAVE,  or  THREAVE  OF  CORN. 
Twenty-four  sheaves,  or  four  shocks  of  six 
sheaves. 

THREAD.  A  small  line  made  of  a  few 
fibres  of  silk,  cotton,  or  hemp,  from  which 
it  derives  its  names  of  silk,  cotton,  or  thread 
properly  so  called. 


THRESHING.  The  beating  the  grain 
out  of  the  ears  of  wheat  with  a  flail. 

THRESHING  MACHINE.  A  machine 
for  threshing  wheat,  instead  of  the  old  prac- 
tice of  threshing  with  a  flail. 

THRUSH  (in  Ornithology).  A  genus  of 
birds,  the  turdus  of  LinuEeus,  of  which  the 
principal  species  are  the  missel  thrush,  the 
throstle  or  song  thrush,  in  England,  the 
fieldfare,  and  the  black  bird.  The  thrush 
or  throstle,  properly  so  called,  is  one  of 
the  finest  singing  birds  in  tliis  country.  Its 
song,  which  is  rich  and  varied,  commences 
early  in  the  season,  and  continues  for  nine 
months. 

THRUSH  (in  Medicine).  A  distemper 
in  the  mouths  of  children. 

THUNDER.  The  noise  occasioned  by 
the  explosion  of  electrical  clouds. 

THUNNY.  A  kind  of  mackerel. 

THURSDAY.  The  fifth  day  of  the 
week,  so  called  from  Thor,  the  god  of  the 
Saxons  and  other  northern  tribes. 

THYME.  A  fragrant  herb. 

TIARA,  or  Papal  Crow^t.  An  orna- 
mental  cap  formerly  worn  by  the  Persians, 
and  since  adopted  by  the  Pope.  See 
Papal  Cro-\tn. 

TIBIA.  The  largest  bone  of  the  leg. 

TIC  DOLOUREUX.  A  painful  affection 
of  the  nerves. 

TICK.  A  little  insect,  one  species  of 
which,  called  the  dog-tick,  infests  dogs. 

TIDE.  The  regular  periodical  current  of 
water,  which  v.- hen  it  rises  is  called  the 
flux,  and  when  it  goes  back  is  the  ebb  or 
reflux.  This  is  ascribed  by  Newton  to 
the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon,  but 
particularly  to  the  latter,  owing  to  its 
proximity  to  the  earth. 

TIDE  WAITER.  A  customhouse  officer 
who  sees  to  the  goods  landed  on  the  quay. 

TIER.  A  range  of  cannon  mounted  on 
one  side  of  a  deck. 

TIERCE.  A  measure  of  liquids  contain- 
ing forty-two  gallons. 

TIGER.  A  large  ferocious  beast,  of  the 


cat  tribe,  classed  by  Linneeus  with  the 
cat,  under  the  generic  name  felis.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  hot  climates  of  Asia,  where 


348 


TIT 


it  is  considered  as  a  scourge.  It  is  of  so 
fierce  and  sanguinary  a  nature  that  it  is 
not  to  be  tamed. 

TILE.  A  thin  piece  of  clay  in  a  flat 
fonn,  dried  and  baked  so  as  to  fit  it  for 
covering  tlie  roofs_  of  houses. 

TILLAGE.  The  art  and  practice  of  cul- 
tivating the  gi-ound,  by  ploughing,  harrow- 
ing, rolling,  and  other  works  of  husbandry. 

TILLER  OF  A  SHIP.  A  piece  of  wood 
fastened  in  the  head  of  the  rudder,  by 
which  it  is  moved.  In  small  ships  and 
boats  it  is  called  the  helm. 

TIMBER.  The  wood  of  trees  felled  and 
seasoned  for  the  use  of  the  carpenter,  as 
the  wood-^of  the  oak,  fir,  elm,  ash,  beech, 
chestnut,  walnut,  lime,  sycamore,  and 
birch  5  of  these,  however,  the  oak,  ash, 
and  elm  are  properly  denominated  timber 
trees.  Felling  of  timber  commences  about 
the  end  of  April  in  England. 

TIME.  A  certain  measure  or  poilion  of 
eternity  distinguished  by  the  motion  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

TIME  (in  Music).  The  measure  of  sounds 
in  regard  to  their  continuance  or  duration. 

TIMEKEEPER.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  time. 

TIN.  A  metal  which  is  very  rarely 
found  native.  It  is  one  of  the  lightest 
metals,  its  specific  gravity  when  hammered 
being  no  more  than  7-299,  but  it  is  so  fusible 
as  to  melt  at  about  442°  of  Fahrenheit. 

TINCTURE.  A  solution  of  any  sub- 
stance in  spirit  of  wine. 

TINMAN.  A  manufacturer  of  tin. 

TINNING.  The  art  of  covering  iron  or 
copper  with  a  coat  of  tin,  by  immersing 
the  plates  into  melted  tin.  This  is  one  of 
tlie  most  useful  purposes  for  which  tin  is 
employed,  as  it  renders  iron  fit  for  various 
uses  which,  on  account  of  its  tendency  to 
rust,  would  otherwise  be  unavailable. 

TIN  PLATE,  otherwise  called  White 
Iron.    Iron  covered  with  tin. 

TIPSTAFFS  (in  England).  Officers  that 
attend  upon  the  judges  of  the  King's 
Bench,  and  also  take  persons  into  cus- 
tody. 

TIRE.  The  iron  brace  that  goes  round 
a  wheel. 

TISSUE.  Stuff  made  of  silk  and  silver. 

TITANIUM.  A  newly  discovered  metal 
of  an  orange  red  colour.  It  is  very  brittle, 
but  so  refractory  that  it  can  scarcely  be 
reduced. 

TITHE  (in  England).  The  tenth  part  of 
all  fruits,  which  is  due  to  the  parson  of  the 
parish.  The  great  tithes  are  chiefly  corn 
hay,  and  wood  :  otlier  things  of  less  value 
are  comprehended  under  the  name  of  small 
tithes. 


TOB 

TITHING.  A  community  of  ten  men, 
into  which  all  England  was  divided  in 
the  time  of  the  Saxons. 

TITLE  (in  Law).  Any  right  which  a 
person  has  to  the  possession,  or  an  authentic 
instmment  whereby  he  can  prove  hie 
right. 

TITMOUSE.  A  small  European  bird 
which  feeds  on  the  brains  of  other  birds, 
which  it  attacks  with  great  ferocity. 


TOAD.  A  reptile  of  unsightly  appear- 
ance, which  was  formerly  accounted  ven- 
omous, but  now  considered  as  harmless. 


It  is  nearly  allied  to  the  frog,  with  which 
it  is  classed  by  Linnaeus  under  the  generic 
name  rana. 

TOBACCO.  An  herbaceous  plant,  re- 
markable for  its  narcotic  properties,  which 


is  used  either  in  the  leaf,  when  it  is  chew- 
ed, or  cut,  Avhen  it  is  smoked.     It  originally 


TOR 

came  from  the  island  of  Tobago,  and  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh. 

TODDY.  A  compound  spirituous  liquor. 

TOGA.  The  mantle  worn  by  Roman 
citizens. 

TOLERATION  ACT,  An  act  passed  in 
the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  in  favour 
of  Dissenters. 

TOLL.  A  payment  in  towns,  markets, 
and  fairs  for  goods  and  cattle  bought  and 
sold;  also  on  passing  through  a  turnpike 
gate. 

TOLUFERA.  A  balsam  of  the  tolu 
tree,  less  healing  and  stimulating  than  the 
balm  of  Gilead. 

TOMBAC.  A  met<il  composed  of  copper 
and  arsenic. 

TON.     Twenty  hundred  weight. 

TONE.  The  degree  of  elevation  which 
any  sound  has,  so  as  to  determine  its 
acuteness  or  gravity. 

TONGUE.  A  soft  fleshy  viscus,  which 
is  the  organ  of  taste  and  speech  in  man. 

TONIC.  A  medicine  which  braces  the 
nerves. 

TONNAGE.  A  duty  paid  at  a  certain 
rate  for  every  ton  of  goods  exported  or 
imported. 

TONSURE.  The  act  of  cutting  off  the 
hair. 

TONTINE.  A  sort  of  increasing  annu- 
ity ,  or  a  loan  given  by  a  number  of  persons 
with  the  benefit  of  survivorship. 

TOPAZ.  A  precious  stone  of  the  colour 
of  gold. 

TOPICS.  Common  places,  or  the  heads 
of  a  discourse. 

TOPOGRAPHY.  A  description  or 
draught  of  some  particular  place  or  tract 
of  land,  as  of  any  particular  county,  city, 
town,  castle,  &c. 

TORPEDO.  A  fish  which  is  endowed 
with  a  strong  electric  power. 


TOU 


349 


TORPEDO,  otherwise  called  the  In- 
fernal Machine  (in  Naval  Affairs).  An 
invention  contrived  by  an  American  for 
the  purpose  or~T)lowing  up  the  British 
vessels  by  a  submarine  explosion. 

TORNADO.  A  sudden  and  vehement 
gust  of  wind  from  all  parts  of  the  com- 
pass, frequent  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  It 
commences  very  suddenly,  several  clouds 

an 


being  previously  drawn  together,  when  a 
gust  of  wind  rushing  from  them  strikes 
the  ground  in  around  spot  of  a  few  perches 
diameter,  and  thus  proceeds  for  the  dis- 
tance of  a  mile  or  more,  not  in  a  straight 
line,  but  in  all  directions,  tearing  up  all 
before  it.  i 

TORRID  ZONE.  That  region  at  the 
distance  of  twenty-three  and  a  half  degrees 
from  the  equator,  where  the  heat  of  the 
sun  is  most  violent. 

TORTOISE.  An  amphibious  animal 
that  is  covered  with  a  hard  shell;  there 
are  tortoises  both  on  the  land  and  in  the 
water. 


TORTOISESHELL.  The  shell  which 
covers  the  tortoise  is  used  in  inlaying,  and 
for  various  ornamental  purposes. 

TORY.  A  name  given  to  those  who 
hold  high  principles  of  government. 

TOUCAN.  A  bird  of  South  America 
that  has  a  very  large  bill. 


TOUCH,  or  Feeling.  One  of  the  five 
senses,  which  is  formed  by  the  nervous 
papillffi  of  the  skin.  The  sensations  ac- 
quired by  the  sense  of  feeling  are  those  of 
heat,  hardness,  solidity,  roughness,  dry- 
ness, motion,  distance,  figures,  &c. 

TOUCH  (in  Coining).  A  trial  of  gold 
and  silver  in  the  Mint. 

TOUCHHOLE.  The  vent  through  which 
the  fire  is  conveyed  to  the  powder  in  a 
gun. 

TOUCPI-NEEDLE  (among  Assayers 
and  Refiners).  Little  bars  of  gold,  silver, 
and  copper  combined  together  in  all  the 
different  proportions  and  degrees  of  mix- 
ture. These  are  used  in  the  trial  cslied 
the  touch,  to  discover  the  purity  of  any 
piece  of  gold  or  silver  by  comparing  the 


S50 


TRA 


mark  it  leaves  on  the   touchstone    with 
tliose  of  the  bars. 

TOUCHSTONE.  A  siliceous  sort  of 
stone  used  in  trying  metals. 

TOUCHWOOD.  A  sort  of  agaric  that 
is  used  as  tinder. 

TOURNAMENTS.  Military  sports, 
where  knights  used  to  display  their  gal- 
lantry by  encountering  each  other  on 
horseback  with  spears  or  lances. 

TOURNEaUET.  An  instrument  for 
stopping  the  flow  of  blood  after  an  am- 
putation. 

TO>YER.  A  fortress  or  citadel,  as  the 
Tower  of  London. 

TOXICOLOGY.  The  doctrine  of  poi- 
sons. 

TRACHEA.    The  windpipe,  a  cartilagi- 
nous   and    membranous    canal,    through 
which  the  air  passes  into  the  lungs. 
I  TRADE  WINDS.     The  monsoons. 

TRAGACANTH.  A  gum  which  exudes 
from  a  prickly  bush,  the  astragalus  traga- 
cantha  of  Linnsus,  which  grows  wild  in 
warm  climates.  The  tragacanth  is  most- 
ly brought  from  Turkey  in  lumps. 

TRAGEDY.  A  drama  representing  some 
grand  and  serious  action,  and  mostly  ter- 
minating in  some  fatal  event. 

TRAJECTORY.  The  path  described 
by  any  moving  body,  as  a  comet  describ- 
ing a  curve. 

TRAIN.  A  line  of  gunpowder,  forming 
a  communication  with  any  body  that  is  to 
be  set  on  fire. 

TRAMMEL.  A  drag  net,  or  large  fish- 
ing net;  also  a  long  net  for  catching  birds. 

TRAMMELS.  An  instrument  for  draw- 
ing ovals  on  a  board;  also  a  kind  of 
shackles  for  a  horse. 

TRANSCRIPT.  The  copy  of  any  orig- 
inal writing. 

TRANSFER.  The  making  over  stock, 
&c.  from  the  seller  to  the  buyer. 

TRANSFER  DAYS.  Particular  days 
appointed  for  the  transfer  of  particular 
stocks. 

-  TRANSFORMATION.  The  change  out 
of  one  form  into  another,  as  applied  to 
insects. 

TRANSIT.  The  passage. of  any  planet 
just  by  or  over  a  fixed  star  or  the  sun's 
disk,  particularly  the  transit  of  Mercury 
and  Venus,  which  are  interesting  phe- 
nomena. 

TRANSITIVE  VERB.  A  verb  which 
in  its  meaning  passes  over  to  an  object,  as 
to  love  or  hate. 

TRANSMIGRATION.  The  passing  of 
the  human  soul  out  of  one  body  into  ano- 
ther, a  doctrine  which  is  ascribed  to  Py- 
thagoras. 


TRE 

TRANSMUTATION,  A  supposed  pow- 
er of  changing  the  base  metals  into  gold, 
which  alchymists  pretended  to  possess. 

TRANSMUTATION  (in  Chymistry). 
Any  operation  by  which  the  properties  of 
mixed  bodies  are  changed. 

TRANSPARENCY.  The  property  of 
some  bodies  of  giving  passage  to  the  rays 
of  light,  as  distinguished  from  opacity. 

TRANSPARENCY  (among  Painters). 
Any  painting  illuminated  behind,  so  as  to 
render  it  perfectly  visible  at  night. 

TRANSPORT.  A  vessel  in  which  sol- 
diers are  conveyed  by  sea. 

TRANSPORTATION  (in  England). 
Sending  away  criminals  into  a  distant 
country,  either  for  a  term  of  years  or  for 
life. 

TRANSPORTATION  (in  Commerce). 
The  carrying  of  goods  by  land  to  a  dis- 
tance. 

TRANSPOSITION  (in  Music).  The 
change  made  in  a  composition  by  wliich 
the  whole  is  removed  into  a  higher  or 
lower  key, 

TRANSPOSITION  (in  Algebra),  The 
bringing  any  term  of  an  equation  over  to 
the  other  side. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION,  The  con- 
version of  the  bread  and  wine  according 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  church  into 
the  actual  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  miraculously  wrought 
by  the  consecration  of  the  priest, 

TRANSVERSE.  A  cross,  as  a  trans- 
verse axis  in  conic  sections. 

TRAP.  A  sort  of  mountai-n  rock,  com- 
posed of  horizontal  strata. 

TRAPEZIUM,  An  irregular  quadrilate- 
ral figure, 

TRAVERSE  (in  Law),  That  which  the 
defendant  pleads  in  bar  to  avoid  the  plain- 
tiff's bill. 

TRAVERSE  (in  Fortification).  A  trench 
made  quite  across  the  mote  of  a  place. 

TRAVERSE  (in  Navigation).  The  va- 
riation or  alteration  of  a  ship's  course, 

TRAVESTIE.    The  burlesque  imitation 
of  an  author's  style  and  composition. 
TREACLE,    The  scum  of  sugar, 
TREASON  in  England  is  divided  into 
High  Treason  and  Petty  Treason,     High 
Treason  is  an  oftence  against  the  king  or 
his  government,  whether  it  be  by  imagina- 
tion, word,  or  deed.    Petty    Treason    is 
the  crime  of  a  wife  killing  her  husband, 
or  a  servant  his  master.    Treason  in  the 
United  States,  consists  in  overt  acts,  man- 
ifesting a  design  against  the  government. 
TREASURER.  An  ofiieerto  whose  care 
the  treasury  of  the  country  or  of  any  com- 
pany is  committed.     The  Lord  High  Trea- 


surer  of  England  has  the  charge  of  all 
the  king's  money,  &c.  in  the  Exchequer. 
TREADMILL.  A  mill  for  grinding  corn, 
which  is  moved  by  persons  stationed  on 
the  main  wheel.  It  has  been  introduced 
into  prisons  as  a  sort  of  punishment. 


TRI 


351 


TREASURE-TROVE  (in  Lav/).  Mo- 
ney or  any  other  treasure  found  hidden 
under  the  earth,  which  belongs  to  the  king 
or  some  other  who  claims  by  the  king's 
grant  or  by  prescription. 

TREASURY.  The  place  where  the 
public  money  is  deposited. 

TREBLE  (in  ]\[usic).  The  acutest  or 
highest  note  adapted  to  the  voice  of  fe- 
males or  boys. 

TREBLE  NOTE.  The  note  in  the 
treble  stave,  placed  on  the  line  with  the 
cliff. 


TREE.  A  plant  with  a  woody  trunk. 

TREFOIL.  Three  leaved  grass. 

TREMOLITE.  A  sort  of  calcareous 
earth. 

TRENCHES.    Ditches  in  fortifications. 

TREPAN.  A  surgical  instrument,  like 
a  saw,  for  removing  a  broken  bone  from 
the  skull. 

TRESPASS  (in  Law).  Any  wrong 
done  by  one  private  man  to  another,  eith- 
er to  his  person  or  his  property. 

TRET.  An  allowance  for  waste,  or 
for  the  dirt  that  may  be  mixed  with  any 
commodity. 

TRIAD  (in  Music).  The  common  chord, 
consisting  of  the  third,  fifth,  and  eighth. 

TRIx\L.  The  examination  of  causes 
before  a  proper  judge,  which,  as  regards 
matters  of  fact,  are  to  be  tried  by  a  jury, 
as  regard  matters  of  law  by  the  judge, 
and  as  regards  records  by  the  record  itself. 

TRIANDRIA.  One  of  the  Linncean 
classes,  comprehending  plants  the  flowers 


of  which  have  three  stamens,  as  the  cro- 
cus, gladrole,  valerian,  &c. 

TRIANGLE.  A  figure  bounded  by  three 
sides. 

TRIBUNE.  An  officer  among  the  Ro- 
mans, chosen  from  among  the  people  to 
defend  their  rights. 

TRICOCC^.  One  of  Linnteus's  natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  comprehending  such 
as  have  a  three  armed  capsule,  as  the  eu- 
phorbia, &:c. 

TRIDENT.    A  three  forked  instrument. 

TRIENNIAL.  Every  three  years,  as 
triennial  parliaments. 

TRIGGER.  The  catch  of  a  gun  lock, 
which  when  pulled  disengages  the  cock 
and  causes  it  to  strike  fire. 

TRIGLYPII.  A  member  of  the  Doric 
frieze. 

TRIGONOMETRY.  The  art  of  mea- 
suring the  sides  and  angles  of  triangles. 
The  business  of  this  science  is  to  find  the 
angles  where  the  sides  are  given ;  and  the 
sides  of  their  respective  ratios  when  the 
angles  are  given. 

TRILLION  (in  Arithmetic).  A  billion 
of  billions. 

TRIM  OF  A  SHIP.  Her  best  posture, 
proportion  of  ballast,  and  hanging  of  her 
masts,  &c.  for  sailing. 

TRINITARIANS.  Those  who  believe 
in  the  Trinity. 

TRINITY.  The  doctrine  of  three  per- 
sons in  the  Godhead,  namely,  the  Father, 
the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 

TRIO  (in  Music).  A  piece  for  three 
voices. 

TRIUxMPHAL    CROWN.      A     crown 


among  the  Romans  given  to  a  victorious 
general ;  it  was  made  at  first  of  wreaths 
of  laurel,  and  afterwards  of  gold. 

TRIUMVIRATE.  A  form  of  govern- 
ment in  which  three  persons  bear  rule,  as 
the  Roman  triumvirate  of  Pompey,  Cffisar, 
and  Crassus,  and  afterwards  that  of  Au- 
gustus, Marc  Antony,  and  Lepidus. 

TRIPLE  CROWN.  The  tiara,  or  pa- 
pal crown. 


352 


TRU 


TRIPLE  TIME  (in  JMusic).  A  time 
consisting  of  tliiee  measures  in  a  bar. 

TRIPOD.  Tlie  sacred  seat,  supported 
by  three  feet,  on  which  the  priestesses 
among  tlie  ancients  used  to  deliver  the 
oracles. 

TRIPOLI.  A  mineral  of  an  earthy 
texture,  but  for  the  most  part  found  con- 
siderably indurated. 

TRISECTION.  The  dividing  a  thing 
into  three  parts. 

TRISYLLABLE.  A  word  consisting 
of  three  syllables. 

TRITON.    A  sea  god. 

TROCAR.  An  instrument  used  in  tap- 
ping for  tlie  dropsy. 

TROOP.  A  certain  number  of  horse 
soldiers. 

TROOPER.  A  horse  soldier. 
"  TROPICS  (in  Astronomy).  Circles 
drawn  at  the  distance  of  twenty-three  and 
a  half  degrees  on  each  side  the  equator, 
that  on  the  north  side  called  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,  that  on  the  south  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn. 

TROPICS  (in  Geography).  The  regions 
on  the  earth  which  lie  within  the  tropical 
circles. 

TROUBADOURS.  Ancient  bards  of 
Provence  and  Normandy. 

TROVER.  An  action  which  a  man  has 
against  any  one  who,  having  found  his 
goods,  or  having  them  unjustly  in  his  pos- 
session, refuses  to  deliver  them  up. 

TROUGH.  A  hollow  piece  of  wood, 
which  serves  to  hold  water  or  any  other 
fluid. 

TROUT.    A  fish  of  the  salmon  tribe. 

TROWEL.  A  bricklayer's  tool  for 
spreading  mortar. 

TROY  WEIGHT.  A  weight  of  twelve 
ounces  to  the  pound,  twenty  penny- 
weights to  the  ounce,  and  twenty-four 
grains  to  the  pennyweight,  used  for  weigh- 
ing gold  and  silver.  It  is  so  called  from 
Troyes,  a  town  in  France. 
.  TRUCE.    A  suspension  of  hostilities. 

TRUFFLES.    A  sort  of  mushrooms. 

TRUMPET.  The  loudest  of  all  wind 
instruments,  consisting  of  a  folded  tube, 
generally  of  brass. 


^i>='i^= 


TRUMPETER.  The  soldier  who  sounds 
the  trumpet. 

TRUMPETER-BIRD.  A  bird  of  South 
America,  so  called  from  its  harsh  cry,  like 
a  child's  trumpet. 

TRUSS  (in  Surgery).    An  elastic  ban- 


TUR 

dage  worn  in  cases  of  hernia  or  ruptures. 

TRUSS  (among  Mariners).  Amachine 
for  pulling  a  yard  home  to  the  mast. 

TRUSS  (in  Commerce).  A  bundle  of 
hay  or  straw,  containing  fifty-six  pounds 
of  hay  and  thirty-six  pounds  of  straw. 

TRUST  (in  Law).  A  right  to  receive 
the  profits  of  land  5  and  in  equity  to  dis- 
pose of  the  land. 

TRUSTEE  (in  Law).  One  who  has  an 
estate  or  money  put  into  his  hands  for  th6 
use  of  another. 

TUBE.  Any  pipe  or  canal  which  serves 
as  a  passage  for  air  or  any  other  fluid. 

TUFAS.    Beds  of  lime. 

TULIP.  A  kind  of  plants  which,  for 
the  diversity  and  beautiful  arrangement  of 
their  colours  have  fetched  extraordinarily 
high  prices. 

TUMBRIL.    A  dung  cart. 

tumour!  a  preternatural  or  hard 
swelling. 

TUN,  or  TON.  A  vessel  for  wine  and 
other  liquors  ;  also  a  certain  measure  of 
capacity,  containing  242  gallons  5  also  a 
weight  equal  to  2240  pounds,  whereby  the 
burden  of  ships  is  estimated. 

TUNIC.  An  under  garment  in  use 
among  the  Romans. 

TUNING  (in  Music),  Rectifying  the 
false  sounds  of  musical  instruments. 

TUNISTEN.  An  opaque  mineral  of  a 
white  colour  and  great  weight,  composed 
of  lime  and  other  earthy  substances. 

TUNNEL.  A  subterraneous  passage 
cut  through  hills,  mountains,  and  even  in 
some  cases  under  water. 

TURBOT.  A  sort  of  fish  inhabiting  the 
European  seas,  which  grows  sometimes 
to  t'airSy  pounds  weight. 

TURKEY.  A  large  domestic  bird,  tlite 
young  of  which  ai'e  exceedingly  tender.' 
The  cock  is  very  proud  and  irascible, 
and  struts  about  with  his  tail  expanded, 
when  moved  either   by  pride  or  anger» 


This  bird  is  found  in  a  wild  state,  in  the 
western  country.  The  domestic  turkey 
is  the  wild  turkey  tamed. 


ULT 

TUMERIC.  A  drug  procured  from  an 
Indian  tree,  the  curcuma  of  Linnasus, 
which  is  used  in  dyeing. 

TUSCAN  ORDER.  An  order  of  ar- 
chitecture first  used  in  Tuscany  in  Italy, 
which  has  but  few  ornaments  or  mould- 
ings. 


UMB 


353 


Z^ 


TUSKS.  The  great  teeth  that  stand 
out  in  a  boar's  mouth. 

TURNER.  One  who  follows  the  art  of 
turning.  The  company  of  turners  m  Lon- 
don, was  incorporated  in  1603. 

TURNING.  The  art  of  forming  wood, 
ivory,  and  other  Irard  substances  into  a 
round  or  oval  shape,  by  means  of  a  ma- 
chine called  a  lathe,  and  several  instru- 


ments, as  gouges,  chisels,  drills,  formers, 
and  screw  tales,  with  which  the  turner 
works  the  thing  into  the  desired  form,  as 
the  lathe  is  turning. 

TURNPIKE,  A  gate  set  across  a  road, 
through  which  all  travellers  passing  either 
on  horseback  or  in  a  conveyance,  must 
pay  toll;  also  the  road  which  has  such  a 
gate. 

TURNSPIT.  A  sort  of  dog  that  used  to 
be  taught  to  turn  a  spit  before  the  intro- 
duction of  smoke  jacks. 

TURPENTINE.  A  resinous  substance 
procured  from  dift'erent  species  of  the  pine 
and  fir.  The  best  sort  grows  in  North 
America.  Tlie  method  of  obtaining  it  is 
by  making  a  series  of  incisions  in  the  bark 
of  the  tree,  from  which  the  turpentine 
exudes,  and  falls  down  into  holes  or  other 
receptacles  prepared  to  catch  it. 

TURTLE.  A  species  of  the  tortoise  that 
mostly  inhabits  the  sea.  Its  flesh  is  held 
to  be  a  great  delicacy. 

TURTLE  DOVE.     See  Dove. 

TUTTY.    A  gray  oxide  of  zinc. 

TWELFTH  DAY,  or  Epiphany.  The 
twelfth  day  after  Christmas. 

TWILIGHT.  That  period  of  light  be- 
tween darkness  and  the  rising  or  setting 
of  the  sun. 

TYMPAN.  A  frame  belonging  to  a 
printing  press. 

TYMPANIUJL  The  drum  or  barrel  of 
the  ear,  in  which  are  lodged  the  bones  of 
the  ear. 

TYPES.  Pieces  of  metal  cut  or  cast, 
which  are  employed  in  printing. 

TYPHUS.  A  violently  contagious  fever, 
accompanied  with  a  tendency  in  all  the 
fluids  to  putrefaction. 

TYPOGRAPHY.  A  description  of  ail 
that  relates  to  the  use  of  types  in  the 
formation  of  books;  a  history  of  the  art 
of  printing. 


U. 


U,  the  twenty-first  letter  of  the  alphabet. 

UBiaUITY.  The  property  of  being 
every  where;  the  attribute  of  God. 

UDDER.  The  milk  bag  of  a  cow  or 
other  four-footed  beast. 

ULCER.  A  purulent  wound  or  runninf 
-sore. 

ULLAGE.  A  want  of  measure  in  a  cask, 

ULTIMATUM.  The  final  conditions 
on  which  any  party  consents  to  treat  for 
peace. 

ULTRAMARINE.     The  finest  sort  of 
Mue  paint,  prepared  from  lapis  lazuli, 
30* 


UMBEL.  A  sort  of  inflorescence  like 
an  umbrella. 

UMBELLATE.  One  of  the  Linnasan 
natural  orders,  comprehending  umbel- 
liferous plants,  or  those  which  have  flow- 
ers in  the  form  of  an  umbel,  as  fennel,  dill, 
&c. 

UMBER.  A  dark  yellow  colour  usei 
in  shading. 

UMBRELLA.  A  kind  of  screen  heli 
over  the  head  to  keep  off"  the  sun  ani 
rain.  It  was  introduced  into  England  St 
Jhe  close  of  the  -last  century. 


354 


VAC 


UNA  VOCE.  With  one  voice,  unani- 
mously. 

UNCTION.  Anointing  with  consecrated 
oil,  a  practice  among  the  Jews  in  conse- 
crating kings  and  priests;  also  still  in  use 
at  coronations,  and  in  the  Romish  church 
on  different  occasions.  The  anointing  of 
persons  who  are  on  their  deathbed  is  cal- 
led extreme  unction. 

UNCTUOUS.  Oily,  or  like  an  oint- 
ment. 

UNDECAGON.  A  figure  having  eleven 
sides. 

UNDER  SHERIFF.  An  assistant  to 
the  high  sheriff. 

UNDERTAKERS.  Persons  who  con- 
duct funerals. 

UNDERTAKING  (in  Law).  An  en- 
gagement to  do  a  particular  thing. 

UNDERWRITER.  The  person  who 
undertakes  to  insure  against  losses  at  sea. 

UNDULATION.  The  tremulous  or  vi- 
bratory motion  in  a  liquid. 

UNICORN.  An  animal  said  to  have 
but  one  horn  in  the  forehead. 

UNIFORMITY.  One  form  of  public 
worship,  as  prescribed  by  differentstatutes 
to  be  observed  in  England. 

UNION.  The  bringing  of  two  countries 
under  one  form  of  government,  as  the 
Union  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  the 
Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  In 
the  United  States  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  confederation  of  the  several  states  un- 
der one  general  government. 

UNISON.  Unity  of  sound,  mostly  ap- 
plied to  that  which  proceeds  from  differ- 
ent voices. 

UNIT.  A  figure  expressing  the  number 
one. 

UNITARIANS.  Those  who  deny  the 
divinity  of  our  Saviour,  and  consequently 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

UNIVALVE.  A  shell  consisting  of  one 
valve  or  piece. 

■  UNIVERSITY.  An  institution  estab- 
lished by  public  authority  for  the  educa- 
tion of  youth  in  the  liberal  arts,  and  con- 


VAD 

ferring  degrees  in  the  several  faculties. 
In  England  an  university  consists  of  seve- 
ral colleges  under  the  government  of  a 
chancellor,  vieechancellor,  proctors,  and 
beadles,  besides  the  heads  of  the  several 
houses,  as  in  the  universities  of  Cambridge 
and  Oxford. 

URANIUM.  A  newly  discovered  metal, 
soft  and  brittle,  but  hardly  fusible  before 
the  blowpipe;  but  with  phosphate  of  soda 
and  ammonia  melts  into  a  grass-green 
glass. 

URETER.  The  membranous  canal 
which  conveys  the  urine  from  each  kid- 
ney to  the  urinary  bladder. 

URETHRA,  A  membranous  canal 
which  serves  as  a  passage  for  the  discharge 
of  the  urine. 

URN.  A  vessel  among  the  Romans,  in 
which  they  put  the  names  of  those  who 
were  to  engage  at  the  public  games, 
taking  them  in  the  order  in  which  they 
were  drawn  out.  In  such  a  vessel  also 
they  threw  in  the  notes  of  their  votes  at 
the  elections. 

URSA.  The  name  of  two  northern 
constellations,  namely,  Ursa  Major  and 
Ursa  Minor,  the  Great  and  Little  Bear. 

URSUS.  A  genus  of  animals  in  the 
Linnagan  system,  including  the  bear,  bad- 
ger, racoon,  glutton,  &;c. 

USANCE.  A  determinate  time  fixed 
for  the  payment  of  a  bill  of  exchange, 
reckoned  either  from  the  day  of  the  bill's 
being  accepted,  or  from  the  day  of  its 
date,  and  so  called  because  it  is  regulated 
by  the  usage  or  custom  of  the  place. 

USHER  (in  Law).  An  officer  who  has 
the  care  and  direction  of  the  door  of  a 
court  or  hall. 

USHER  (in  Schools).  An  assistant  or 
lower  master. 

USHER  OF  THE  BLACK  ROD  (iai 
England).  An  officer  whose  business  it  is 
to  bear  the  rod  before  the  king  at  the  feast 
of  St.  George  and  other  solemnities. 

USURY.  The  taking  more  interest  for 
the  loan  of  money  than  is  allowed  by  law. 


V,  the  twenty-second  letter  in  the  alpha- 
bet, stands  as  a  numeral  for  5,  and  former- 
ly with  a  dash  over  it,  thus  V,  for  5000; 
as  an  abbreviation,  V.  G.  Verbi  gratia, 
V.  L.  videlicet,  &c. 

VACANCY  (in  Law).  A  post  or  bene- 
fice wanting  the  regular  officer  or  incum- 
bent. 

VACATION  (in  Law).  The  period  be- 
tween the  end  of  one  term  and  the  be- 


ginning of  another :  and  the  same  in  the 
Universities. 

VACCINATION.  Inoculation  with 
the  cow  pox,  intended  as  a  preserv- 
ative against  infection  from  the  small 
pox. 

VACUUM  (in  Philosophy).^  A  space 
supposed  to  be  devoid  of  all  matter  or 
body.      '  ..  ;       ■ 

VADE  MECUM.     The  nanie  of  ahy 


VAR 

small  book  that  may  be  carried  about  with 
one. 

VAGRANTS  (in  Law).  Beggars, strol- 
ling and  idle  persons  who  wander  from 
place  to  place. 

VALET.  Formerly  a  young  gentleman 
of  family,  but  now  applied  to  a  serving- 
man  of  low  degree. 

VALLAR  CROWN.  A  crown  bestowed 
among  the  Romans  on  a  general  who  first 
entered  an  eneiwy's  camp. 


VEN 


355 


VALVE,  A  kind  of  lid  or  cover  to  a 
tube  or  vessel,  contrived  to  open  one  way. 

VALVES  (in  Conchology).  The  princi- 
pal pieces  of  which  a  slieil  is  composed; 
by  their  shells  they  are  distinguished  into 
univalves,  for  such  as  have  only  one  piece; 
bivalves,  for  those  that  have  two  pieces; 
and  multivalves,  for  those  that  have  three 
or  more  pieces. 

VALVE,  Safety.  An  orifice  vi'hich 
allows  the  escape  of  steam  when  the 
pressure  is  so  great  as  to  endanger  the 
apparatus. 

VAMPIRE.  An  animal  of  the  bat 
tribe. 

VAN  (in  the  Army).  The  front  of  the 
army,  or  the  first  line. 

VAN  (in  the  Navy).  The  foremost 
division  of  a  naval  armament. 

VANE.  A  device  on  the  top  of  build- 
ings to  show  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

VAPOUR.  A  watery  exhalation  that, 
being  rarefied  by  heat,  ascends  to  a  cer- 
tain height  in  the  atmosphere. 

VASE.    An  ornamental  urn. 


VASES  (in  Architecture.).  Ornaments 
placed  on  cornices,  socles,  or  pediments, 
representing  such  vessels  as  the  ancients 
used  in  sacrifices,  &c.- 

VARL-^TION  (in  Geography  and  Navi- 


gation). A  deviation  of  the  raagnetical 
needle  in  the  mariner's  compass. 

VARIETY.  Any  individual  plant  or 
animal  that  differs  from  the  rest  of  the 
species  in  some  accidental  circumstances. 

VARIORUM  EDITIONS.  Editions  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  with  the 
notes  of  different  critics. 

VARNISH.  A  thick,  viscid,  shining 
liquor,  used  by  painters  and  other  artifi- 
cers to  give  a  gloss  to  their  works.  Resin 
is  the  principal  constituent  of  varnish. 

VEGETABLE.  An  organic  body  desti- 
tute of  sense  and  spontaneous  motion,  but 
furnished  with  pores  and  vessels,  by  the 
help  of  which  it  draws  nourishment  from 
other  bodies. 

VEGETABLE  MARROW.  The  fruit 
of  a  plant  of  the  gourd  kind  growing  in 
Persia.  Its  flesh  is  very  tender,  soft,  and 
of  a  buttery  quality. 

VEIN  (among  Miners).  A  space  con- 
taining ores,  spar,  clay,  &c. :  when  it 
bears  ore  it  is  called  a  quick  vein,  when 
no  ore  a  dead  vein. 

VEINS  (in  Anatomy).  The  long  mem- 
braneous canals  which  return  the  blood 
from  the  arteries  to  the  heart, 

VELLUM.  The  finest  kind  of  parch- 
ment. 

VELOCITY.  That  affection  of  motion 
whereby  a  moveable  body  is  disposed  to 
run  over  a  certain  space  in  a  certain  time. 

VELVET.  A  sort  of  fine  shagged  silk 
or  cotton. 

VENA  CAVA,  the  Hollow  Vein  (in 
Anatomy).  The  largest  vein  in  the  body, 
so  called  from  its  great  cavity  or  hollow 
space  into  which,  as  a  common  channel, 
all  the  lesser  veins,  except  the  pulmona- 
ris,  empty  themselves.  This  vein  receives 
the  blood  from  the  liver  and  other  parts, 
and  carries  it  to  the  heart. 


VENEERING,  A  kind  of  inlaying  of 
thin  slices  of  fine  woods  of  different  kinds 
and  colours.  ; 


356  VER 

VENA  PORTA.  The  great  vein  situat- 
■ed  at  the  entrance  of  the  liver. 


VENTILATOR.  A  contrivance  for  sup- 
plying rooms  with  fresh  air. 

VENTRICLE.  A  cavity  of  the  heart  or 
brain. 

VENTRILOaUIST.  One  who  by  art, 
or  by  a  particular  conformation  of  organs, 
is  enabled  in  speaking  to  make  the  sound 
appear  to  come  from  the  stomach,  or  from 
a  distance. 

VENUE  (in  Law).  The  neighbourhood 
whence  juries  are  to  be  summoned  for  the 
trial  of  causes. 

VENUS.  The  goddess  of  beauty,  and 
"daughter  of  Jupiter. 


VENUS  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
inferior  planets,  but  the  brightest  and  to 
appearance  the  largest  of  all,  marked  by 
this  character  $  . 

VEPRECUL^.  One  of  Linnajus's  na- 
tural orders,  containing  briarlike  plants, 
as  the  bramble,  thorn,  &c. 

VERB.  A  part  of  speech  which  serves 
to  express  action,  passion,  or  existence  ;  it 
is  either  active,  passive,  or  neuter. 

VERBATIM.  Word  for  word. 

VERDEGRIS.  An  acetate  of  copper 
used  as  a  pigment ;  it  is  the  rust  of  brass 
gathered  by  laying  plates  of  that  metal  in 
teds  with  the  husks  of  pressed  grapes,  and 
then  scraping  it  off  the  plates. 

VERDICT.  The  report  or  determination 
'of  ajury  upon  any  cause. 

VERDITER,  A  green  paint. 


VES 

VERGE.  In  England,  the  compass  of  the 
king's  court. 

VERGER.  In  England,  an  officer  of  a 
court  or  a  cathedral,  who  carries  a  rod 
before  the  judge  or  the  bishop. 

VERJUICE.  The  expressed  juice  of  the 
wild  appl«  or  crab. 

VERMES.  Worms,  a  class  of  animals 
in  the  Linnssan  system,  that  are  slow  of 
motion,  of  a  soft  substance,  extremely 
tenacious  of  life,  capable  of  reproducing 
parts  that  have  been  destroyed,  and  in- 
habiting moist  places. 
VERMICELLI.  An  Italian  dish. 
VERSE.  A  line  in  poetry,  consisting  of 
a  number  of  long  and  short  syllables  ;  also 
the  division  of  a  chapter  in  the  Bible. 

VERSIFICATION.  The  art  and  prac- 
tice of  making  verses. 

VERSION.  A  translation  out  of  one 
language  into  another. 

VERT.  In  England,  every  thing  in  a 
forest  that  bears  a  green  leaf  which  may 
serve  as  a  cover  for  deer. 

VERT  (in  Heraldry).  The  colour  of 
green  on  coats  of  arms,  represented  in 
engraving  by  lines  drawn  from  the  dexter 
chief  to  the  sinister  base. 

VERTEBRAE.  A  chain  of  little  bones 
reaching  from  the  neck  down  to  the  back, 
and  forming  the  spine. 

VERTEX  (in  Geometry).  The  top  of 
any  line  or  figure,  as  the  vertex  of  a 
triangle. 

VERTEX  (in  Anatomy).  The  crown  of 
the  head. 

VERTICAL.  Pertaining  to  the  vertex 
or  zenith :  a  star  is  said  to  be  vertical 
when  it  is  in  the  zenith. 

VERTICAL  CIRCLE.  A  great  circle 
of  the  sphere  passing  through  the  zenith 
and  nadir,  and  cutting  the  horizon  at  right 
angles. 

VERTICAL  POINT  (in  Astronomy), 
That  point  in  the  heavens  which  is  over 
our  heads,  otherwise  called  the  zenith. 

VERTICELLAT^.  One  of  the  Lin- 
nsean  natural  orders  of  plants,  including 
those  whose  flowers  grow  in  the  form  of  a 
whorl,  as  the  mint,  &c. 
VERTIGO.  Giddiness. 
VERVAIN.  A  perennial,  a  sort  of 
mallow. 

VESICLE.  Any  small  vessels,  either  in 
the  animal  body  or  in  plants. 

VESPERS.  The  evening  prayers  in  the 
Romish  church. 

VESPERTILTO.  A  genus  of  animals 
in  the  Linneean  system,  comprehending 
the  species  of  the  bat  and  the  vampire. 

VESSEL.  Any  sort  of  utensil  used  for 
holding  liquids. 


VET 

VESSEL  (among  Mariners).  Every  kind 
of  ship,  large  or  small,  that  serves  to  carry 
men  or  goods  on  water. 

VESSELS  (in  Anatomy).  The  conduits 
or  canals  for  conveying  the  blood  or  other 
juices  to  the  different  parts  of  the  animal 
body,  as  the  arteries,  veins,  &;c. 

VESSELS  (in  Botany).  The  channels 
or  reservoirs  which  convey  the  sap  or  air 
to  different  parts  of  plants  for  their  nutri- 
ment. 

VESTA  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology). 
The  daughter  of  Rhea  and  Saturn,  and 
the  goddess  of  fire. 

VESTA.  A  newly  discovered  planet. 

VESTAL  VIRGINS.  Priestesses  to  the 
goddess  Vesta  among  the  Romans,  to  whom 
was  committed  the  care  of  the  vestal  fire. 

VESTIBULE.  The  entrance  to  a  house, 
or  an  open  space  before  a  door. 

VESTIBULUM.  A  cavity  in  the  bone 
of  the  ear. 

VESTRY.  A  small  apartment  adjoining 
a  church,  where  the  vestments  of  the 
clergyman  are  kept,  and  where  the  pa- 
rishioners assemble  for  the  discharge  of 
parochial  business  ;  also  the  persons  assem- 
bled in  the  vestry.  In  England,  a  select 
vestry  is  a  certain  number  of  persons  per- 
manently appointed  to  conduct  the  affaurs 
of  the  parish,  who  are  chosen  from  among 
the  higher  orders,  and  fill  up  their  own 
vacancies. 

VESTRY  CLERK.  A  scrivener  who 
keeps  the  parish  accounts. 

VESTRYMEN.  Members  of  the  vestry 
who  conduct  the  affairs  of  the  parish, 

VESUVIAN.  A  mineral  found  in  lava, 
especially  on  Mount  Vesuvius,  which  is 
often  confounded  with  hyacinth ;  the  prim- 
itive form  of  its  crystal  is  a  cube. 

VETCH.  A  kind  of  pulse  or  peas,  bear- 
ing a  papilionaceous  flower. 

VETERINARY  ART,  otherwise  called 
Farriery.  The  art  of  managing  cattle, 
and  curing  their  diseases,  whence  a  vete- 
rinary surgeon,  vulgarly  called  a  horse 
doctor  or  farrier,  and  the  veterinary  col- 
lege, where  horses  are  taken  in  for  cure, 
and  persons  resort  to  acquire  practice  and 
information  in  all  that  relates  to  the  care 
of  animals.  The  principal  diseases  to  which 
horses  are  subject  are  the  water  farcy,  or 
dropsy  of  the  skin  ;  ascites,  or  dropsy  of 
the  belly  ;  broken  wind,  supposed  to  arise 
from  a  rupture  of  the  cells  in  the  lungs  ; 
cracks  in  the  heels,  from  gross  habit  or 
from  filth ;  farcy,  an  infection  of  the  skin  ; 
foot-foundering,  when  a  horse  is  unable  to 
rest  on  any  of  his  feet ;  greasy  heels,  from 
weakness  or  overlabour ;  larapers,  a  swell- 
ing of  the  bars  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  j 


VIC 


357 


mange,  an  affection  of  the  skm,  when  the 
hair  falls  off;  staggers,  a  sort  of  lethargy, 
and  mad  staggers,  a  sort  of  frenzy  from 
a  pressure  on  the  brain  ;  strangles,  a  dig- 
ease  attended  with  a  fever,  cough,  and 
running  at  the  nose  ;  thrush,  a  discharge 
from  the  frog  of  the  foot ;  pole  evil,  arising 
from  friction  of  the  collar  at  the  back  of 
the  ears  ;  besides  inflammations,  fevers, 
dysenteries,  and  other  disorders  which 
they  have  in  common  with  human  sub- 
jects. 

VETURINO.  A  hirer  of  horses  in  Italy ; 
also  a  guide  to  travellers. 

V.  G.  Verbi  gratia,  as  for  instance. 

VIA  LACTEA.  The  milky  way. 

VIBRATION.  The  alternate  motion  of 
any  suspended  body,  like  the  pendulum  of 
a  clock,  which  swings  this  way  and  then 
that.  The  regular  motion  of  the  pendulum 
of  a  clock  is  3600  vibrations  in  an  hour. 
Vibration  is  also  a  quivering  motion  that 
acts  by  quick  returns. 

VICAR  (in  England).  One  that  acts  in 
the  stead  of  another ;  more  particularly 
taken  for  the  parson  of  a  parish  where  the 
tithes  are  impropriated. 

VICE  (in  Smithery).  An  instrument 
used  for  holding  fast  any  piece  of  iron  wJiicIj 
the  aitificeris  working  upon. 


VICE  (among  Glaziers).  A  machine  for 
drawing  lead  into  flat  rods  for  case  win- 
dows. 

VICE.  In  the  stead  or  turn  ;  hence  the 
compounds  vice-gerent,  vice-admiral,  &c. 

VICEADMIRAL.  In  England,  the  se- 
cond commander  in  a  fleet ;  the  admiral  who 
commands  the  second  squadron  in  a  fleet. 

VICECHAMBERLAIN.  In  England, 
the  ofiicer  next  to  the  chamberlain,  who 
acts  in  his  stead. 

VICECHANCELLOR.  In  England,  an 
officer  appointed  to  assist  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor ;  in  the  Universities,  the  superior 
acting  officer,  who  performs  the  duties  of 
the  Chancellor. 

VICEGERENT.  A  governor  acting  with 
a  delegated  power. 

VICEROY.  The  lord  lieutenant  of  a 
kingdom,  as  the  Viceroy  of  Ireland, 


358  VIP 

VICE  VERSA.  On  the  contrary,  the 
side  being  turned  or  changed. 

VIDELICET,  generally  written  Viz, 
That  is,  namely. 

VI  ET  ARMIS  (in  Law).  By  force  of 
arms,  terms  in  an  indictment  charging  a 
forcible  and  violent  commission  of  tres- 
pass. 

VIGIL.  The  service  used  in  the  Romish 
churcli  on  tlie  night  preceding  a  holyday. 

VIGILS.  Certain  fasts  preceding  festi- 
vals. 

VIGNETTE.  A  frontispiece,  or  an  or- 
namental picture  preceding  the  title  page. 

VILLAINS  (in  England).  Men  of  base 
and  servile  condition,  who  in  the  feudal 
times  were  immediately  attached  to  the 
Icind,  and  bound  to  the  lord  to  do  services 
for  him. 

VINCULUM  (in  Algebra).  A  mark  or 
line  drawn  over  a  quantity,  thus,  a-X-b, 
denoting  it  to  be  one  quantity. 

VINE.  A  plant  that  flourishes  most  in 
warm  countries,  as  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  France,  where  its  cultivation  forms  a 
part  of  husbandry.  It  grows  in  those  parts 
in  the  open  fields,  and  is  not  suffered  to 
rise  much  higher  than  gooseberry  or  cur- 
rant bushes.  The  fruit  of  the  vine  is  there 
an  important  article  of  trade. 

VINEGAR.  Wine  or  any  other  liquor 
exposed  to  the  sun,  until  it  is  become  acid. 
In  this  country  vinegar  is  chiefly  made 
from  cider. 

VINEYARD.  A  place  set  apart  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine. 

VIOL.    A  musical  stringed  instrument. 

VIOLIN.  A  common  musical  stringed 
Instrument,  which  requires  great  skill  in 
the  performer  to  make  it  agreeable 


VIOLONCELLO.    A  small  bass  viol. 
VIPER.    An  animal  of  the  snake  tribe, 
the  bite  of  which  is  more  or  less  venomous 


every  where;  in  hot  countries  it  is  almost 
instantly  fatal. 


VIR 

VIOLET.  A  plant  bearing  a  blue  sweet 
scented  flower;  also  the  colour  of  the  vio- 
let, or  purple. 

VIRGO.  The  sixth  sign  of  the  zodiac, 
marked  thus  TT]^,  and  a  constellation  con- 
taining from  32  to  110  stars,  according  to 
different  authors. 

VIRTUOSO.  One  skilled  in  antique  or 
natural  curiosities  ;  a  lover  of  the  liberal 
arts. 

VISCERA.    The  intestines. 

VIS  INERTIA.  The  power  in  bodies 
that  are  in  a  state  of  rest,  to  resist  any 
change  that  is  endeavoured  to  be  made 
upon  them  to  change  their  state.  This, 
according  to  Newton,  is  implanted  in  all 
matter.  ^ 

VISCOUNT  (in  England).  A  nobleman  ' 
next  in  degree  to  an  earl.  The  first  vis- 
count was  created  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

VISCOUNT'S  CORONET.  Has  nei- 
ther flowers  nor  points  raised  above  tlie 
circle,  like  those  of  superior  degree,  but 
only  pearls  placed  on  the  circle  itself. 


Vise  US.  Any  organ  having  an  appro- 
priate use  in  the  human  body,  as  the 
liver,  gall,  bladder,  occ.  ;  but  particularly 
the  intestines. 

VISION.  The  sensation  in  the  brain, 
produced  by  the  rays  of  light  passing  or 
acting  on  the  optic  nerves  of  the  eye. 

VISITATION  (in  England).  An  act  of 
jurisdiction,  whereby  the  bishop  once  in 
three  years,  and  the  archdeacon  once 
every  year,  visits  the  churches  within  his 
diocess  or  district,  to  see  that  the  discipline 
of  the  church  is  observed. 

VISITOR  (in  Law).  An  inspector  into 
the  government  of  a  corporation. 

VISUAL  ANGLE.  An  angle  under 
which  an  object  is  seen. 

VISUAL  POINT.  A  point  in  the  hori- 
zontal line  wherein  all  the  ocular  rays 
unite. 

VITAL  AIR,  now  called  Oxygex. 
The  air  of  which  the  atmosphere  is  prin 
cipally  composed,  which  is  essential  to 
the  support  of  life  in  animals  and  plants. 

VITAL  FUNCTIONS.  Those  functions 
or  faculties  of  tlie  body,  on  which  life 
immediately  depend?;. 

VIRTREOUS  HUMOUR.  The  pellucid 
body  wliirh  fills  the  whole  bulb  of  the 
eye  behind  the  crystalline  lens, 


WAD 

VITRIOL.  A  salt,  of  a  very  caustic 
taste.  It  is  a  sulphate  generally  found  in 
mines  in  a  capillary  state,  or  in  a  loose 
powdery  efflorescence.  The  three  princi- 
pal sorts  are  tiie  green  vitriol,  copperas, 
or  sulphate  of  iron;  the  blue  vitriol,  or 
sulphate  of  copper;  and  the  white  vitriol, 
or  sulphate  of  zinc. 

VITRIOL,  Oil  of.   Sulphuric  acid. 

VITUS' DANCE,  or  St.  Vitus' Dance. 
A  nervous  disease  accompanied  with  in- 
voluntary gesticulations. 

VIVA  VOCE.    By  word  of  mouth. 

VIVIPAROUS.  An  epithet  for  animals 
which  bring  forth  living  young. 

VOCAL  MUSIC.  Musical  sounds  pro- 
ceeding from  the  human  voice;  also  com- 
positions for  the  voice. 

VOCATIVE  CASE.  The  fifth  case  in 
Latin  nouns. 

VOLATILE.  An  epithet  for  bodies  that 
are  apt  to  evaporate. 

VOLATILE  ALKALIES.  Ammonia 
and  carbonic  acid. 

VOLATILIZATION.  The  process  by 
wliich  bodies  are  resolved  into  air. 

VOLCANO.  A  burning  mountain,  such 
as  Vesuvius,  ^Etna,  and  Hecla,  in  Europe; 
which  send  forth  flame,  ashes,  lava,  stones, 
smoke,  &c. 

VOLTAIC  BATTERY.    See  Battery. 

VOLUME  (in  Music).  The  compass  of 
a  voice  from  grave  to  acute. 

VOLUME  (in  Literature).  A  book,  or 
any  thing  folded  into  the  form  of  a  book. 

VOLUNTARY  (in  Music).  An  extem- 
porary performance  upon  the  organ,  intro- 
duced as  an  incidental  part  of  divine 
service. 

VOLUTE.  A  spiral  scroll  in  the  Ionic 
and  Composite  capitals. 

VOMICA.    See  Nux  Vomica. 

VOWEL.  A  letter  which  affords  acpm- 
plete  sound  of  itself. 

VOX  POPULI.  The  popular  or  uni- 
versal opinion. 

VULGATE.  A  very  ancient  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  which  was  translated 


WAF 


3o9 


from  the  Greek  of  the  Septuagint.  It  is 
the  only  one  acknowledged  by  the  Romish 
church  to  be  authentic. 

VULCAN.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno, 
and  the  god  of  fire.  He  is  commonly  re- 
presented with  a  hammer,  anvil  &,c. 


VULTURE.  A  bird  common  in  all 
warm  climates,  that  lives  chiefly  on  putrid 
flesh,  and  is  very  useful  in  removing  ftlth, 
that    would  otherwise    produce  disease. 


-^;r«'/^. 


The  turkey  buzzard,  common  in  the 
southern  states,  is  a  species  of  vulture  so 
useful  in  clearing  away  offensive  mat- 
ter, as  to  be  protected  by  law  in  large 
cities. 


w. 


W,  the  twenty-third  letter  of  the  alphabet,  ]  Black  wadd  is  an  ore  of  manganese,  foimd 
composed  of  two  Vs.    It  was  not  known  -    _     .      - 

to  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  or  Romans,  being 
peculiar  to  the  Teutones  and  other  north- 
ern tribes. 

WACKE.    An  argillaceous  earth. 

WADD.    Plumbago     or     black     lead. 


in  Derbyshire  in  England. 

WADDING.  A  stopple  of  paper  or  tow 
forced  into  a  gun,  to  keep  in  the  powder 
and  shot. 

WAFER.  Paste  made  of  flour,  eggs, 
isinglass,  &c.  cut  into  a  thin  round  cake^ 


360  WAL 

and  coloured,  for  the  purpose  of  sealing 
letters. 

WAFER  (in  the  Romish  Church).  A 
thin  piece  of  consecrated  bread  used  at 
the  holy  rite  of  the  sacrament. 

WAGER  OF  BATTLE.  A  mode  of 
trial  by  single  combat,  which  has  lately 
been  abolished  in  England. 

WAGER  OF  LAW.  In  England,  a  mode 
of  trial  in  an  action  of  debt  by  simple  con- 
tract, where  the  defendant  by  his  own 
oath,  with  that  of  eleven  other  persons 
called  compurgators,  declaring  that  he 
owes  the  plaintiff  nothing,  may  discharge 
himself. 

WAGES,  Money  paid  for  labour. 

WAGGON.  A  large  kind  of  four- 
wheeled  conveyance,  much  used  in  hus- 
bandry. 


WAGTAIL.  A  bird  that  is  continually 
wagging  its  tail. 

WAIFS  (in  England).  Goods  stolen,  and 
afterwards  waived  or  abandoned,  which 
are  forfeited  to  the  king. 

WAIST.  That  part  of  a  ship  between 
the  quarterdeck  and  forecastle, 

WAITERS  (in  Law).  Officers  appointed 
to  see  that  goods  are  not  landed  clandes- 
tinely. Those  who  go  on  board  the  vessels 
are  called  tide-waiters  ;  those  who  do  this 
duty  on  shore  are  land-waiters. 

WAITS.  In  England,  nightly  musicians, 
who  go  their  rounds  in  the  night-time  and 
play  just  before  Christmas. 

WALKING  LEAF.  A  singular  insect 
of  China,  that  has  a  neck  longer  than  the 
rest  of  the  body. 

WALLFLOWER.  A  plant  bearing  a 
sweet-scented  flower. 

WALRUS.  An  animal  of  the  seal  kind 
inhabiting  the  northern  seas,  which  in  form 
resembles  an  ox. 


WALTZ.  A  particular  kind  of  dance, 
introduced  into  England  from  Germany. 


WAS 

It   is    mostly  performed   by  the   parties 
going  with  measured  steps  in  circles. 

WAPENTAKE.  The  same  as  a  Hun- 
dred. 

WARD  (in  Law).  A  district  or  portion 
of  a  city  committed  to  the  ward  or  special 
charge,  of  one  of  the  aldermen  ;  also  one 
in  the  care  of  a  guardian,  or  in  particular 
cases  in  England,  under  the  special  care  of 
the  court  of  Chancery. 

WARDEN  (in  England).  One  who  has 
the  charge  or  keeping  of  any  person  or  thing 
by  virtue  of  his  office,  as  the  warden  of 
the  Fleet,  who  has  charge  of  the  prisoners 
committed  there ;  so  likewise  the  warden 
of  a  college,  or  the  warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports,  &c. 

WARDMOTE.  The  court  of  each  ward 
in  the  city  of  London, 

WARDROBE.  A  place  for  keeping 
clothes  ;  also  the  clothes  themselves. 

WARDROBE,  Clerk  of  the.  In  Eng- 
land, an  officer  who  takes  charge  of  the 
king's  wardrobe. 

WAREHOUSE.  A  place  where  mer- 
chandises are  kept. 

WARNING-WHEEL,  The  third  or 
fourth  wheel  of  a  clock,  according  to  its 
distance  from  the  first  wheel. 

WARP.  The  thread  extended  lengthwise 
on  the  weaver's  loom,  which  is  crossed  by 
the  workman  in  forming  the  cloth,  stuff, 
or  silk. 

WARRANT  (in  Law).  A  writ  com- 
manding an  officer  of  justice  to  take  up 
any  offender. 

WARRANT  OF  ATTORNEY.  An 
authority  given  to  an  attorney  by  his 
client  to  appear  and  plead  for  him. 

WARRANT,  Press  (in  the  Navy).  In 
England  is  issued  by  the  admiralty,  au- 
thorizing an  officer  to  impress  seamen. 

WARRANTING  (among  Horsedealers), 
An  assurance  given  by  the  seller  to  the 
buyer,  that  the  horse  sold,  is  free  from  all 
defects  at  the  time  of  sale. 

WARREN  (in  Law).  In  England,  a 
franchise  or  privileged  place  for  keeping 
beasts  and  fowls  of  the  warren,  as  hares, 
partridges,  and  pheasants. 

WART.  A  spongy  substance  growing 
near  the  eye  of  a  horse. 

WASHES.  A  dangerous  shore  in  Nor- 
folk, England. 

WASHING  (among Goldsmiths).  Draw- 
ing particles  of  silver  and  gold  out  of  ashes. 

WASHING  (among  Painters).  Colour- 
ing a  pencil  design  with  one  colour,  as 
Indian  ink,  &c. 

WASP.  A  stinging  insect  resembling  a 
bee. 
I     WASTE  (in  Law).   A  spoil  or  destruc- 


WAT 

tion  made  in  houses,  woods,  and  lands,  by 

the  tenant  for  life  or  years. 
WASTE-BOOK.  A  book  containing  an 

account  of  a  merchant's  transactions  in 

the  order  of  time  as  they  occur. 
WASTE-LANDS.    Such  as  are  not  in 

any  man's  occupation,  that  lie  common. 
WATCH  (in  the  Navy).    The  space  of 

time  during  which   one  division  of  tlie 

ship's  crew  remains  on  deck,  to  keep 

watch  at  night. 

WATCH  (in  the  Police).  Persons  ap- 
pointed to  guard  the  streets  or  particular 

places  at  night. 
WATCH.    A  small  portable  machine, 

constructed  with  wheels,  that  serves  to 

show  the  hour  of  the  day.  A  watch  con- 
sists of  a  spiral  steel  spring,  which  is  the 

moving  power:  the  barrel,  a  brass  box, 
for  receiving  the  spring  when  coiled  up; 
the  worm-wheel,  which  is  turned  round 
by  a  worm;  the  fusee,  which  receives  the 
chain  when  the  Avatch  is  wound  up;  the 
ratchet  wheel,  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
fusee;  the  great  wheel,  which  has  forty- 
eight  teeth;  the  centre  wheel,  which  has 
fifty-four  teeth;  the  third  wheel,  which 
has  forty-eight  teeth;  the  centrate  wheel, 
which  has  forty-eight  teeth:  and  the  bal- 
ance wheel,  which  has  fifteen  teeth:  be- 
sides the  arbour  of  the  balance  wheel, 
called  the  verge,  and  the  two  pallets  be- 
longing to  this  arbour,  &;c. 

WATCH-GLASS.  Hour  and  half-hour 
glasses  of  sand,  employed  on  board  vessels 
to  measure  the  period  of  the  watch 


WAT 


S61 


WATCHMAKER.  One  who  puts  to- 
gether the  different  parts  of  a  watch,  so 
as  to  make  the  whole  machine  act. 

WATER.  A  simple  substance  in  the 
opinion  of  the  ancients,  and  one  of  the 
five  elements.  It  is  now  considered  as  a 
compound  fluid  consisting  of  two  gases, 
hydrogen  gas  and  oxygen  gas. 

WATER  (among  Lapidaries).  The  lus- 
tre of  precious  stones. 

WATER  (among  Manufacturers).  A 
lustre  imitating  waves,  set  on  silks,  mo- 
hair, &c. 

WATER  (among  Farriers).  A  filthy 
humour  issuing  from  a  wound  in  a  horse. 

WATER-BAILIFF  (in  Law).  An  offi- 
cer in  seaport  towns  who  searches  ships, 
31 


and  in  London  has  particular  charge  of  the 
fish  brought  to  market. 

WATERCOLOURS.  Colours  made  of 
water  instead  of  oil.  The  principal  of  the 
water-colours  are  as  follow:  White— Ce- 
ruse, white  lead,  Spanish  white,  flake 
white,  spodium  :  Black— Burnt  cherry 
stones,  ivory  black,  lamp  black  :  Green- 
Green  bice,  green  verditer,  grass  green,  sap 
green,  verdigrise  distilled  :  Blue— Sanders 
blue,  terre  blue,  blue  verditer,  indigo  lit- 
mus, smalt,  Prussian  blue,  light  blue,  ul- 
tramarine, blue  bice  :  Brown— Spanish 
brown,  Spanish  liquorice,  umber,  bistre, 
terra  de  Sienna  burnt  and  unburnt:  Red- 
Native  cinnabar,  burnt  ochre,  Indian  red, 
red  lead,  minium,  lake,  vermilion,  car- 
m.ine,  red  ink,  Indian  lake:  Yellow— Eng- 
lish ochre,  gall  stones,  gamboge,  masticot, 
ochre  de  luce,  orpiment,  Roman  ochre, 
Dutch  pink,  saffron  water,  king's  yellow, 
gold  yellow,  French  berries. 

WATER-COURSE.  Any  natural  or 
artificial  stream  of  water,  as  a  river,  a 
canal,  and  the  like. 

WATER  HEN.  An  European  bird  that 
swims  well,  and  runs  swiftly  on  the  land. 
WATER-LEVEL.  A  kind  of  level  used 
in  agriculture  for  finding  the  level  of  roads 
or  grounds  by  means  of  a  surface  of  water 
or  other  fluid,  founded  on  the  principle 
that  water  always  finds  its  own  level.  It 
consists  of  a  long  wooden  trough,  as  rep- 
resented underneath,  which,  being  filled 
with  water,  shows  the  line  of  level. 


WATERMAN.  One  who  plies  with  a 
boat  upon  a  river.  The  company  of  wa- 
termen in  London,  was  incorporated  in  the 
reign  of  Philip  and  Mary. 

WATERMARK.  The  utmost  limit  of 
the  rise  of  the  flood. 

WATERMARK.  The  mark  visible  in 
paper,  which  is  made  in  the  manufacturing 
of  it. 

WATER-SPOUT.  An  aqueous  meteor, 
most  frequently  observed  at  sea,  rising  at 
first  in  the  form  of  a  small  cloud,  which 
afterwards  enlarges,  and,  assuming  the 
shape  of  a  cylinder  or  cone,  emits  thun- 


362 


WED 


WHA 


der,  lightning,  as  also  rain  and  hail,  in 
such  quantities  as  to  inundate  vessels,  and 
overset  trees,  houses,  and  every  thing  else 
which  comes  in  its  way. 

VVATERMILL.  A  mill  that  is  put  in 
motion  by  means  of  water. 

WATER- WHEEL.  An  engine  for  rais- 
ing water  out  of  a  well. 

WATERWORKS.  All  kinds  of  ma- 
chines employed  in  raising  or  sustaining 
water,  as  watermills,  sluices,  aqueducts, 
and  the  like. 

WATTLK.  A  kind  of  hurdle  used  in 
making  sheepfolds. 

WATTLES.  Fleshy  appendages  at  the 
sides  of  the  lower  mandibles  in  some  birds, 
as  turkeys. 

WAX.  A  soft,  yellowish,  and  tenacious 
matter  wherewith  t'ne  bees  form  cells  for 
the  reception  of  the  honey.  It  is  a  vege- 
table substance,  that  may  be  extracted 
from  several  plants  :  also  a  tenacious  sub- 
stance made  of  wax  for  the  purpose  of 
sealing  letters. 

WAXCHANDLSR.  One  who  makes 
candles  of  wax.  The  company  of  wax- 
chandlers  in  London,  was  incorporated  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  III. 

WAY.    A  road,  as  the  highway. 

WAY  (among  Seamen).  The  ship's 
course. 

WAYS  AND  MEANS  (in  England). 
The  supplies  for  meeting  the  expenditure 
of  the  year,  either  voted  by  parliament  or 
drawn  from  other  sources. 

WEAR,  or  WEIR.  A  dam  made  to 
stop  water. 

W^EASEL.  An  animal  of  the  same 
genus  or  kind  as  the  otter,  but  otters  live 
mostly  in  the  water,  and  weasels  on  the 
land.  It  is  a  name  for  several  of  the  spe- 
cies of  the  viverra  and  mustela  of  Linns- 
us.     See  Ermine. 


WEATHER-GLASSES.  Instruments 
contrived  to  show  the  state  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, as  barometers,  thermometers,  &c. 

WEAVING.  The  art  of  forming  single 
threads  of  silk,  cotton,  or  flax,  into  a  close 
fabric  in  a  loom  with  a  siiuttle. 

WEDGE.  One  of  the  mechanical  pow- 
ers, which  has  one  end  thick,  that  gradu- 


ally tapers  to  a  thin  edge.    It 
ticularly  in  cleaving  wood. 


used  par- 


WEDNESDAY.  The  fourth  day  of  the 
week. 

WEEK,  A  division  comprising  seven 
days.     Fifty-two  weeks  make  the  year. 

WEEPERS.  Pieces  of  white  cambric, 
crape,  or  muslin,  sewed  upon  the  sleeves 
in  deep  mourning. 

WEIGHT  (in  Mechanics).  Any  thing 
that  is  to  be  sustained,  raised,  or  moved 
by  a  machine. 

WEIGHT  (in  Commerce).  Any  body 
of  a  known  weight  that  is  made  the  mea- 
sure of  weighing  other  bodies.  Two  sorts 
of  weights  are  admitted  in  England, 
namel3',  Troy  weight  and  avoirdupois 
weight. 

WELD.  A  sort  of  herb  that  grows  in 
Kent,  Herefordshire,  and  other  parts  of 
England,  the  stalk  and  root  of  which  are 
used  in  dyeing  bright  yellow  and  lemon 
colours. 

WELDING.  Working  two  pieces  of 
iron  together  by  means  of  heat,  until  they 
form  one  mass. 

WELL.  A  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  of 
sufficient  depth  to  admit  the  water  to 
spring  up.  When  the  water  is  got  out  of 
it  by  means  of  a  line  and  a  bucket,  it  is  a 
well  properly  so  called,  but  when  the 
water  is  raised  by  means  of  a  pump,  it  is 
called  a  pump. 

WEST.  One  of  the  four  cardinal  points 
of  the  horizon,  at  v/hich  the  sun  sets. 

WHALE.  A  huge  animal  that  inhabits 
most  parts  of  the  ocean  and  particularly 
the  northern  seas,  and  is  said  to  measure 
sometimes  from  50  to  100  feet.  The  blubber 


of  the  whale  contains  the  oil,  v/hich  is  an 
article  of  commerce,  and  the  horny  laminae 
in  the  upper  jaw  yield  what  is  called 
whalebone. 


WIN 

WHARF,  or  Q.uay.  A  structure  raised 
on  the  shore  of  a  road  or  harbour. 

WHEAT.  A  valuable  grain,  of  which 
bread  is  made. 

WHEAT-EAR.  An  European  bird  of 
the  finch  kind. 

WHEEL.  One  of  the  most  important 
of  the  six  mechanical  powers,  which  is 
employed  in  the  structure  of  almost  every 
machine. 

WHIG.  In  England,  the  name  of  those 
who  uphold  the  rights  of  the  people  in  op- 
position to  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown. 

WHIPPOORWILL.  A  solitary  bird  of 
America,  whose  mournful  song  is  often 
heard  at  night.  It  consists  of  a  repetition 
of  the  word  whippoorwill,  generally  utter- 
ed with  great  rapidity,  in  a  tone  of  exqui- 
site sweetness. 

WHIRLPOOL.  An  eddy  or  vortex. 

WHIRLWIND,  An  exceedingly  rapid 
and  impetuous  wind,  that  rises  in  a  whirl- 
ing direction,  and  continues  in  the  same 
way  for  some  time. 

WHISPERING  GALLERIES.  Places 
which,  like  the  gallery  in  St.  Paul's  Ca- 
thedral London,  by  their  peculiar  construc- 
tion enable  any  one  who  whispers  on  the 
wall  on  the  one  side,  to  be  heard  by  a  per- 
son standing  on  the  opposite  side. 

WHITE.  A  colour  supposed  by  Newton 
to  be  a  composition  of  all  the  other  colours. 

WHITE  LEAD.  The  rust  of  lead. 

WHITING.  A  fish  of  the  cod  tribe. 

WHITSUNDAY.  A  festival  in  the 
Christian  church,  that  falls  on  the  fiftieth 
day  after  Easter. 

WHITTLE.  A  woollen  shawl. 

WICKLIFFITES.  The  followers  of 
John  Wicklifffe,  who  first  opposed  the  see 
of  Rome,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
Reformation  in  England. 

WIGEON.  A  bird  of  the  duck  tribe. 


WIN 


363 


WILL.  The  solemn  act  by  which  a 
man  declares  his  will  as  to  the  disposal  of 
his  estate  after  his  death.  If  by  word  of 
mouth,  it  is  a  nuncupative  will ;  but  if  by 
a  written  deed,  it  is  a  testament. 

WIND.  The  current  or  stream  of  the 
air,  together  with  the  vapours  that  the  air 
carries  along  it,  wliich  are  supposed  to  be 


rarefied  and  put  into  motion  by  the  force 
ofheat. 

WILD  MAN.  A  species  of  the  monkey 
in  the  East  Indies. 


WILD  TURKEY.  The  original  stock  of 
the  tame  turkey,  peculiar  to  North  Amer- 
ica. Flocks  of  this  noble  bird  are  still 
found  in  the  woods  of  the  western  coimtry. 


WINDBOUND.  An  epithet  for  a  ship 
that  cannot  leave  the  port  on  account  of 
unfavourable  winds. 

WINDLASS.  A  kind  of  crane  by  which 
great  weights  are  raised,  as  guns,  stones, 
&c.  into  a  vessel. 

WINDWARD.  Towards  the  wind;  as 
a  windward  tide,  a  tide  that  runs  against 
the  wind. 

WINE.  The  fermented  juice  of  the 
grape,  which  is  found  to  contain  an  acid, 
alcohol,  tartar,  extract,  aroma,  and  colour- 
ing matter. 


364 


WOL 


WINGS.  The  right  and  left  divisions 
of  an  army. 

WINGS  (in  Fortification).  The  large 
projecting  sides  of  hornwork. 

WINNOWING.  Separating  corn  from 
the  chaff  by  the  help  of  the  wind. 

WINDMILL.  A  mill  that  is  put  in 
motion  by  means  of  the  wind  acting  on 
the  sails,  as  in  the  subjoined  figure. 


WINTER.  That  season  of  the  year 
when,  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the 
sun  is  in  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  or  in 
his  greatest  declination  from  the  equator. 

WIRE.  A  piece  of  metal  drawn  out  to 
the  size  of  a  thread,  or  even  smaller,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  hole  which  it  is 
made  to  pass  through.  One  single  grain 
of  gold  admits  of  being  drawn  out  into  a 
wire  98  yards  long. 

WITNESS  (in  Law).  One  sworn  to  give 
evidence  in  a  cause. 

WOAD;  A  plant  growing  in  France 
and  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  from  which 
a  blue  dye  of  the  same  name  is  extracted. 
It  is  cultivated  in  the  United  States. 

WOLF.  A  fierce  animal  of  the  dog  tribe, 
found  in  almost  all  cold,  and  temperate 
climates.  When  pressed  by  hunger  they 
become  very  bold  and  will  attack  men  and 


large  animals.  They  sometimes  assemble 
together  upon  the  mountains,  and  encir- 
cling the  deer  will  rush  upon  them  and  drive 
them  over  the  precipices,  where  they  are 
killed  and  become  the  prey  of  the  wolves. 


WRI 

WOOD  ENGRAVER.  An  artist  who  cuts 
figures  and  letters  in  wood,  to  serve  the 
purpose  of  engraving  on  copper.  This  art 
has  been  carried  to  very  great  perfection, 
and  in  many  respects  will  be  found  to 
eflTect  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as  the 
sister  art  of  copperplate  engraving. 

WOODCOCK.  A  wild  fowl,  and  a  bird 
of  passage,  which  is  esteemed  for  its  flesh. 


WOODPECKER.  A  bird,  so  called 
because  it  pecks  holes  in  the  bark  of 
trees. 

WOOL.  The  covering  of  sheep,  which 
is  an  important  article  of  commerce  in 
this  country.  Much  attention,  therefore,  is 
paid  to  the  breed,  and  also  to  the  feeding 
of  sheep,  to  render  their  wool  as  perfect 
as  possible. 

WOOLPACK.  Literally,  a  pack  of 
wool ;  a  name  for  the  seat  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  Eng- 
land. 

WOOLSTAPLER,  One  who  deals  in 
wool,  and  collects  it  for  the  manufacturer- 

WORD.  An  articulate  sound  that  repre- 
sents  some  idea  to  the  mind ;  in  Military 
Affairs,  a  watchword,  or  peculiar  word 
that  serves  as  a  token  or  mark  for  all  sen- 
tinels to  detect  spies  or  other  persons  who 
may  wish  to  intrude  into  a  camp. 

WORM.  A  long  winding  pevv^ter  pipe, 
placed  in  a  tub  of  water  to  cool  and 
thicken  the  vapours  in  the  distillation  of 
liquors. 

WORM  (in  Gunnery).  The  instrument 
used  for  drawing  the  charge  out  of  a  gun. 

WRECK.  The  ruins  of  a  ship  at  sea 
that  has  been  dashed  to  pieces. 

WREN.  A  small  singing  bird. 


WRIT  (in  Law).  A  precept  issuing  out 
of  some  court  of  law,  commanding  some- 
thing to  be  done  touching  some  suit. 


ZEO 


ZON 


863 


XandY. 


X,  the  twenty-fourth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
stands  as  a  numeral  for  10 ;  and  with  a  line 
over  it  thus,  X,  it  stood  formerly  for  10,000. 
XEBEC.  A  small  three-masted  vessel 
navigated  in  the  Mediterranean. 


y,  the  twenty-fifth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
stood  as  a  numeral  for  150  j  and  with  a 
line  over  it  thus,  Y,  for  150,000. 

YAM.  A  tropical  tree,  the  fruit  of  which 
is  much  eaten  by  the  natives. 

YARD.  A  long  measm-e  containing  3 
feet. 

YAKD  (in  Shipbuilding).  A  long  piece 
of  timber  suspended  upon  the  masts  of  a 
ehip  to  extend  the  sails  to  the  wind. 

YARD-ARM.  That  half  of  the  yard 
that  is  on  either  side  of  the  mast  when  it 
lies  athwart  the  ship. 

YARN.  One  of  the  threads  of  which 
rope  is  made. 

YEAR.  The  time  that  the  sun  takes  in 
performing  his  apparent  revolution  through 
the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac. 


YACHT.  A  small  ship  with  one  deck, 
carrying  four,  eight,  or  twelve  guns,  and 
thirty  or  forty  men.  They  are  in  general 
employed  as  vessels  of  state. 


YEAST.  The  head  or  scum  that  rises 
on  beer. 

YELLOWBIRD.  The  American  Gold- 
finch. 

YELLOWHAMMER.  A  small  European 
bird,  whose  song  resembles  that  of  the 
Linnet. 

YEOMAN  (in  Law).  The  first  degree 
of  freeholders,  who  have  lands  of  their 
own  and  live  by  husbandry. 

YEOMEN  OF  THE  GUARD.  A  cer- 
tain description  of  foot-guards,  a  hundred 
in  number,  who  always  attend  imme- 
diately on  the  person  of  the  king. 

YEW-TREE.  A  tree  which  is  a  native 
of  Britain  and  most  other  countries  of 
Europe,  as  also  of  North  America.  It  ia 
an  evergreen,  and  remarkable  for  the 
hardness  of  its  wood. 


Z. 


Z,  the  twenty-sixth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
formerly  stood  as  an  abbreviation  for  an 
ounce  and  other  weights. 

ZAFFRE.  The  oxide  of  cobalt,  em- 
ployed for  painting  pottery  of  a  blue 
colour. 

ZEBU.  An  animal  common  in  India, 
resembling  the  cow,  that  is  used  both  for 
draught,  and  carrying  burdens. 

ZENITH.  The  vertical  point  of  the 
heavens,  90  degrees  distant  from  the  ho- 
rizon. 

ZEOLITHE.  A  sort  of  argillaceous 
earths. 

'      31* 


ZERO.  The  cipher  (0). 

ZINC.  A  metal  of  a  bluish  white  colour, 
somewhat  brighter  than  lead,  possessing 
but  little  either  of  malleability  or  ductility. 
Specific  gravity,  7.190. 

ZODIAC.  An  imaginary  belt  in  the 
heavens,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  the 
ecliptic  or  sun's  path.  It  has  also  twelve 
constellations  within  its  space,  which  are 
called  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

ZONE.  A  division  of  the  earth's  surface, 
of  which  there  are  five  in  number,  dis- 
tinguished according  to  the  degree  of  heal 
to  which  each  part  is  exposed,  into  two 


ZOOLOGY. 


temperate,  two  frigid,  and  one  torrid  zone. 
ZEBRA.    An    African  animal  of   the 
horse  tribe,  about  the  size  of  a  mule.    It 
is  beautiful,  swift,  and  wild. 


ZOOLOGY.  That  branch  of  natural  his- 
tory which  treats  of  animals.  That  which 
treats  of  quadnipeds  is  also  called  by  the 
general  name  of  zoology,  to  distinguish  it 
from  ornithology,  which  treats  of  birds ; 
ichthyology,  which  treats  of  fishes ;  ento- 
mology, which  treats  of  insects  3  helmin- 
thology,  which  treats  of  worms  ;  erptology, 
which  treats  of  creeping  things. 

General  zoology  comprehends  the  whole 
animal  kingdom,  as  this  class  of  natural 
objects  is  styled  by  Linnasus.  Jt  is  divided 
into  six  classes3  these  classes  are  subdivided 
into  orders,  and  the  orders  into  genera,  and 
the  genera  into  species. 

The  first  class.  Mammalia,  comprehends 
seven  orders,  namely,  the  primates,  bruta, 
ferag,  glires,  pecora,  belluinse,  and  cete. 
Under  the  Primates  are  four  genera,  name- 
ly, homo,  man ;  simia,  the  ape,  baboon, 
and  monkey;  lemur,  the  lemur;  vesper- 
tilio,  the  bat.  Of  the  Bruta  there  are  the 
following  genera,  namely,  bradypus,  the 
sloth;  myrmecophaga,  the  ant-eater;  dasy- 
pus,  the  armadillo;  rhinoceros,  tlie  rhino- 
ceros ;  sokotyro  ;  elephas,  the  elephant ; 
trichechus,  the  morse  and  walrus,  and  the 
manis.  The  Feras  consist  of  ten  genera, 
namely,  phoca,  the  seal ;  canis,  the  dog, 
the  wolf,  the  fox,  and  the  hyssna;  felis, 
the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  tiger-cat,  the  lynx, 
and  the  cat;  viverra,  the  weasel,  the  shank, 
the  civet,  the  genet,  and  the  fitchet;  mus- 
tela,  the  otter,  the  marten,  the  ferret,  the 
polecat,  the  ermine,  and  the  stoat;  ursus, 
the  bear,  the  badger,  the  racoon,  and  the 
glutton;  didelphis,  the  opossum,  the  mar- 
mose,  the  phalanger,  and  the  kanguroo; 
talpa,  the  mole;  sorex,  the  shrew;  erina- 
ceus,  the  hedgehog.  The  Glires  consist  of 
histrix,  the  porcupine;  cavia,  the  cavy; 
castor,  the  beaver;  mus,  the  rat,  musk-rat, 
and  the  mouse;  arctomys,  the  marmot; 
sciurus,  the  squirrel;  myoxus,the  dormouse; 


dipup,  the  jerboa;  lepus,  the  hare  and  the 
rabbit;  and  the  hyrax.  The  Pecora  con- 
sist of  camelus,  the  camel  and  the  llama; 
moschus,  the  musk;  cervus,  the  stag,  the 
deer,  the  moose  or  elk;  camelopardalis, 
the  camelopard  or  giraffe;  antilopus,  the 
antelope;  capra,  the  goat;  ovis,  the  sheep; 
and  bos,  the  ox.  The  Belluinse  consist  of 
equus,  the  horse,  the  ass,  and  the  mule; 
hippopotamus,  the  river-horse;  tapir,  the 
tapir;  and  sus,  the  hog.  The  Cetse  consist 
of  monodon,  the  monodon;  baljena,  the 
whale;  physeter,  the  cachelot;  delphinus, 
the  porpoise,  the  dolphin,  and  the  grampus. 
The  second  class,  Aves,  is  divided  into 
six  orders,  namely  accipitres,  picBB,  anseres, 
grallffi,  gallinae,  and  passeres.  The  Accipi- 
tres consist  of  four  genera,  namely,  vultur, 
the  vulture  and  tlie  condur;  falco,  the  eagle, 
the  kite,  the  buzzard,  the  falcon,  and  the 
liawk;  strix,  the  owl;  lanius,  the  shrike, 
rlie  butcher-bird,  and  the  woodchat.  The 
Picas  consist  of  the  following  genera, 
namely,  ramphastos,  the  toucan;  momotug, 
the  motraot;  psittacus,  the  parrot,  the  ma- 
caw, the  parroquet,  the  cockatoo,  and  the 
lory;  buceros,  the  hornbill;  crotophaga, 
theani;  glaucopis,  the  wattle-bird;  corvus, 
the  crow,  the  rook,  the  raven,  the  jackdaw, 
and  the  jay;  coracoas,  the  roller;  oriolus, 
the  oriole;  gracula,  the  grackle;  paradisea, 
the  bird  of  paradise;  buceo,  the  barbet; 
trogon,  the  curucui;  cuculus,  the  cuckoo; 
yurex,  the  wryneck;  picus,the  woodpecker; 
sitta,  tlie  nutha.tch ;  todus,  the  toddy ;  alcedo, 
the  kingfisher;  galbula,  the  jacama;  me- 
rops,  the  bee-eater;  upupa,  the  hoopoe; 
certhia,  the  creeper;  trochilus,  the  hum- 
ming-bird; buphaga;  and  scythrops.  The 
Anseres  consist  of  anus,  the  swan,  the 
goose,  the  duck,  theshoveler,  and  the  teal; 
mergus  the  merganser,  the  goosander,  the 
dunn-diver,  and  the  smew;  alca,  the  auk 
or  razorbill;  apterodytes,  the  penguin;  pro- 
cellaria,  the  petrel,  diomedea,  the  alba- 
tross or  man-of-war  bird;  pelicanus,  the 
pelican,  the  cormorant,  the  shag,  the  crane, 
the  gennet,  and  the  booby;  plotus,  the 
darter;  phston,  the  tropic  bird;  colymbus, 
the' guillemot,  the  diver,  and  the  grebe; 
larus,  the  gull,  and  the  tarrock  or  kittiwake; 
sterna,  the  tern;  rynchops,  the  skimmer. 
The  Grallffi  consist  of  the  phoenicopteros, 
the  flamingo;  platalea,  the  spoonbill;  pa- 
lamedea,  the  screamer;  mycteria,  the  ja- 
bira;  cancroma,  the  boatbill;  scopus,  the 
umbre;  ardea,  the  heron,  the  crane,  the 
stork,  and  the  bittern;  tantalus,  the  ibis; 
cori'ira,  the  courier;  scolopax,  the  curlew, 
the  whintril,  the  snipe,  the  woodcock,  the 
godwit,  and  the  red-shank;  tringa,  the 
sandpiper,  the  phalarop,  and  the  purre; 


ZOOLOGY. 


367 


charadrius,  the  plover  and  the  dotterel  ; 
recurvirostra,  the  avocet}  hsematopus,  the 
sea-pie  or  pied  oyster,  and  the  catcher; 
glarcoia,  the  pratincole  ■,  falica,  the  galli- 
niile,  the  moorhen,  and  the  coot;  vaginalis, 
the  sheath-bill;  parra,  the  jacama;  rallus, 
the  rail,  the  crake  or  land-raii,  the  brook- 
ouzel  or  water-rail,  and  the  scree;  psophia, 
the  trumpeter.  The  Gallinae  consist  of  the 
oils,  the  bustard;  struthio,  the  ostrich;  and 
the  cassowary  or  emeu;  didus,  the  dodo  ; 
pavo,  the  peacock;  meleagris,  the  turkey; 
penelope,  the  guam  and  the  yacow;  crux, 
the  curassow;  phasianus,  the  pheasant; 
numidia,  the  pintado  or  guinea-hen;  te- 
traoj  the  grouse,  the  moorcock,  the  par- 
tridge, the  quail,  and  the  tinamon.  The 
Passeres  consist  of  columba,  the  pigeon, 
the  ring-dove,  the  turtle-dove,  &;c.;alauda, 
the  lark  ;  sturnus,  the  stare  or  starling  ; 
and  the  crake  or  water-ouzel;  turdus,  the 
thrush,  the  fieldfare,  the  blackbird,  and  the 
ring-ouzel;  ampelis,  the  chatterer;  colius, 
the  coly;  loxia,  the  grossbeak;  the  crossbill, 
and  the  hawfinch;  emberiza,  the  bunting; 
tanagra,  the  tanager  ;  fringilla,  the  finch, 
the  chaffinch,  the  siskin,  the  redpole,  the 
linnet,  the  twite,  and  the  sparrow;  phyto- 
toma,  the  phytotoma;  muscicapa,  the  fly- 
catcher; motacilla,  the  wagtail  or  warbler, 
the  nightingale,  the  hedge-sparrow,  the 
wren,  the  white-throat,  the  wheat-ear,  and 
the  red-start;  pipra,  the  minnakin;  parus, 
the  titmouse;  hirundo,  the  swallow  and 
the  swift;  caprimulgus,  the  goatsucker. 

Amphibia,  the  third  class,  is  divided  into 
two  orders,  namely,  reptilia,  reptiles;  and 
serpentes,  serpents.  The  Reptilia  consist 
of  the  following  genera,  namely,  testudo, 
the  tortoise  and  the  turtle;  rana,  the  toad, 
the  frog,  and  the  natterjack;  draco,  the 
flying  dragon;  lacerta,  the  crocodile,  the 
alligator,  the  lizard,  the  guana,  the  newt, 
the  salamander,  the  chameleon,  and  the 
eft;  syren,  the  syren.  The  Serpentes  con- 
sist of  crotelus,  the  rattle-sunke;  boa,  the 
boa  constrictor;  coluber,  the  viper  and 
the  asp;  anguis,  the  snake  and  the  blind- 
worm;  achrocordus,  the  warled  snake; 
the  amphisbcEna;  and  caecilia. 

Pisces,  the  fourth  class,  is  divided  into 
six  orders,  namely,  apodal,  jugular,  thora- 
cic, abdominal,  branchiostegous,chondrop- 
terigious.  The  Apodal  order  contains  the 
following  genera,  namely,  murcena,  the 
eel ;  anarhicas,  the  wolf-fish  ;  xiphias,  the 
sword-fish;  ammodytes,  thelaunce;  gym- 
notus,  ophidium;  stromateus;  stylephorus, 
&c.  The  jugular  order  contains  the  fol- 
lowing genera,  namely,  callionymus,  the 
dragonet;  trachinus,  the  sting-bull  or  wea- 
ver; gadus,  the  cod-fish,  bib,  whiting,  coal- 


fish,  hake,  barbot,  and  rockling;  blennius, 
the  blenny,  &c.  The  Thoracic  order  con- 
tains the  following  genera;  echineis,  the 
sucking-fish;  gobius,  the  goby;  coitus,  the 
bull-head,  father-lasher,  and  miller's- 
thumb;  zeus,  the  John-doree;  pleuronectes, 
the  flounder,  plaice,  dab,  sole,  smeardab, 
pearl,  and  turbot;  sparus,  the  gilt-head  and 
the  pudding-fish;  labrus,  the  wrasse,  gold- 
finny,  the  camber,  and  the  cook;  perca,  the 
perch,  basse,  lufFe,  black-fish,  and  squirrel- 
fish;  seomber,  the  mackerel,  thunny,  scad, 
and  yellow-tail;  trigla,  the  gurnard, piper, 
tub-fish,  &c.  The  Abdominal  order  con- 
tains the  following  genera,  namely,  cobi- 
tis,  the  loche  and  the  mud-fish;  salmo,  the 
salmon,  trout,  salmon-trout,  bull-trout, 
charr,  smelt,  gurniad,  and  lavaret;  fistula- 
ria,  the  tobacco-pipe-fish;  esox,  the  pike 
and  gar-fish;  mugel,  the  mullet;  excocoe- 
tus,  the  flying-fish;  clupea,  the  herring, 
pilchard,  sprat,  shad,  and  anchovy;  cypri- 
nus,  the  carp,  barbel,  gudgeon, tench,  gold- 
fish, dace,  roach,  bleak,  bream,  minnow, 
graining,  &:c.  The  Branchiostegous  order 
contains  the  following  genera:  tetrodon, 
the  sun-fish  ;  syngnathus,  the  pipe-fish 
and  needle-fish;  lophius,  the  fishing-frog, 
and  angler  or  frog-fish,  &:c.  The  Chon- 
dropterigious  order  contains  the  following 
genera,  namely,  accipenser,  the  sturgeon; 
chimaBra,  the  sea-monster;  squalus,  the 
shark,  dog-fish,  tope,  sea-fox,  and  angel- 
fish;  pristis,  the  saw-fish;  raia,  the  ray, 
skate,  thornback;  petromyzon,  the  lam- 
prey and  the  pride;  gastrobranchus,  the 
hag  or  hag-fish. 

Insecta,  the  fifth  class,  is  divided  into 
seven  orders,  namely,  coleoptera,  hemip- 
tera,  lepidoptera,  neuroptera,  hymenop- 
tera,  diptera,  and  aptera.  The  order  Co- 
leoptera contains  the  following  genera, 
namely,  scarabteus,  the  beetle;  dermestes, 
the  leather-eater;  ptinus,  the  death  watch; 
forficula,  the  earwig  ;  lampyris,  the  fire- 
fly;  hydrophilus,  the  water-clock,  &.c.  The 
order  Hemiptera  contains  blatta,  the  cock- 
roach; gryllus,  the  locust,  grasshopper,  and 
cricket;  fulgora,  the  lantern-fly;  notonectEj 
the  boat-fly;  nepa,  the  water-scorpion;  ci- 
mex,  the  bug  ;  aphis,  the  plant-louse;  coc- 
cus, the  cochiueal,  &c.  The  order  Lepi- 
doptera contains  papilio,  the  butterfly  ; 
sphinx,  the  hawk-moth;  phalasna,  the 
moth.  The  order  Neuroptera  contains  11- 
bellula,  the  dragon-fly;  ephemera,  the  day 
fly;  myrmeleon,  the  lion-aiit,  &c.  The 
order  Hymenoptera  contains  cynips,  the 
gall-fly;  teuthredo,  the  saw-fly;  sirex,  the 
tailed  wasp;  ichneumon,  the  ichneumon  ; 
chrysis,  the  golden  fly  ;  vespa,  the  wasp  ; 
apis,  the  bee;  formica,  the  ant  or  emmet, 


868 


ZOOLOGY. 


&c.  The  order  Diptera  contains  ostrus, 
the  gad-fly  and  breeze  ;  tipula,  the  crane- 
fly  ;  musca,  the  fly  ;  culex,  the  gnat ;  bom- 
bylius,  the  humblebee,  &c.  The  order 
Aptera  contains  podura,  the  spring-tail ; 
termes,  the  white  ant ;  pediculus,  the 
louse  and  crab-louse;  acarus,  the  tick,  har- 
vest-bug, and  itch-mite  ;  aranea,  the  spi- 
der ;  Scorpio,  the  scorpion  ;  cancer,  the 
crab,  lobster,  prawn,  shrimp,  and  squill ; 
pulex,  the  flea,  &c. 

The  sixth  class,  Vermes,  is  divided  into 
five  orders,  namely,  intestina,  mollusca, 
testacea,  zoophytes,  and  infusoria.  The 
order  Intestina  contains  the  following  ge- 
nera, namely,  fasciola,  the  gourd-worm  or 
fluke;  trenia,  the  tape-worm;  godius,  the 
hair-worm;  lumbricus,  the  earth-worm,  the 
dew-worm,  and  the  lug;  hirsudo,  the  leech; 
and  sipunculus,  the  tube-worm,  &c.  The 
order  Mollusca  contains  laplisia,  the  sea- 
hare;  doris,  the  sea-lemon;  actinia,  the 
sea-daisy,  sea-marigold,  and  sea-carnation ; 
sepia,  the  cuttle-fish;  asterias,  the  star-fish 
and  sea-star;  echinus,  the  sea-urchin,  &c. 
The  order  Testacea  contains  lepas,  the 
acorn-shell,  area,  the  ark;  conus,  the  cone; 
turbo,  the  wreath;  helix,  the  snail  ;  halio- 
tis,  the  sea  ear;  dentalium,  the  tooth-shell; 
ostrea,  the  oyster;  cardium,  the  cockle  ; 
mytilus,  the  mussel;  argonauta,  the  sailor; 
buccinum,  the  whelk,  &c.  The  order  Zoo- 
phytes contains  spongia,  the-sponge;  isis, 
the  coral;  hydra,  the  polype;  tubipora;  the 
tubipore,  &c.  The  order  Infusoria  con- 
tains the  genera  voticella,  monas  voivox, 
gonium,  &c. 

CUVIER'S  ARRANGEMENT. 

DIVISION  I.   VERTEBRATEU   ANIMALS,  or 

those  having  a  vertebral  coUimu  or  back  bone. 
DIVISION  II.  MOLLUSCA,  animals  of  soft  tex- 
ture. 
DIVISION  III.  ARTICULATED,  or  jointed  ani- 
mals. 
DIVISION  IV.  ZOOPHITES,  animal  plants,  or 
radiated  animals. 
DIVISION    I.    VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS. 

Four  classes.. Class  I.  Mammalia,  animals  which 

give  suck.  Order  I,  Bimana,  or  two-handed;  man 
only.  Order  II,  Q,uadrumaiia,  or  four-handed;  mon- 
keys of  all  kinds.  Order  III,  Carnassiers,  or  flesh- 
eating.  Subdivision  I,  Cheiroptear;  winged-hands; 
as  the  bat.  Subdivision  II,  Insectivora;  living  on  in- 
sects; as  the  hedge-hog,  shrew-mouse,  and  mole. 
Subdivision  III.  Cai-nivora;  carnivorous.  A.  Planti- 
grade; which  walk  on  the  soles  of  the  feet;  as  the 
bear,  raccoon,  badger,  and  glutton.  B.  Digitigrade; 
which  walk  on  the  toes;  as  (a)  weasels.  (A)  The 
dog  kind;  domestic-dog,  wolf,  fox.  (c)  Civet-cat. 
(fl)  Hyena,  (e)  The  cat  kind;  lion,  tiger,  leopard, 
panther,  lynx,  common  cat.  C.  Some  of  the  amphi- 
bious; as  seals  and  walrusses.  D.  Marsujjial  or 
pouched  animals;  as  kangaroos  and  opossums.  Or- 
der IV,  Rongeurs,  rodentia,  or  gnawers;  as  castors, 
beavers,  rats,  mice,  marmots,  squirrels,  porcupines, 
hares,  rabbits,  guinea-pigs.  Order  V,  Edentes, 
edentata,  or  toothless:  as  the  sloth,  armadillo,  pan- 
golin, ormithorynchus.  Order  VI,  Pachydermata,  or 
thick  skinned;  as  the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  pig, 
rhinoceros,  horse,  ass,  zebra,  quagga.  Order  VII, 
Ruminant;  as  the  deer,  antelope,  goat,  sheep,  cow, 
buflalo.    Order  VIII,  Cetacea,  the  whale-tribe.—— 


Class  11,  Birds.  Order  I,  Birds  of  prey.  Subdivl- 
sion  I,  Diurnal:  as  the  vulture,  eagle,  falcon,  hawk. 
Subdivision II,  Nocturnal:  as  the  owl.  Order  II, 
Passereax,  or  the  sparrowtribe:  as  the  magpie,  swal. 
low,  thrush,  sparrow,  crow,  wren.  Order  III,  Grim- 
peurs,  or  climbers:  as  the  woodpecker,  cuckoo,  toucan, 
parrot.  Order  IV,  Gallinaces:  the  gallinaceous  or 
poultry  tribe:  as  the  peacock,  turkey,  pheasant,  barn- 
door  fowl,  partridge,  pigeon.  Order  V,  Echassiers, 
the  stilted  or  waders:  as  the  ostrich,  cassowary,  plo- 
ver, crane,  heron,  stork.  Order  VI,  Palmipedes,  or 
web-footed:  as  the  pelican,  duck,  swan,  and  goose. 

Class  III,  Reptiles:     Order  I,  Cheloniens,  or 

tortoises.  Order  II,  Sauriens,  the  lizard  tribe:  astha 
crocodile,  lizard,  gecko  andchammelion.  Order  III, 
Ophidiens,  the  serpent  tribe:  includi.ig  the  boa  con- 
strictor, and  such  serpents  as  are  not  venomous,  aa 
well  as  the  venomous  serpents.  Order  IV,  Batrici- 
ens,  the  frog  tribe:  including  frogs,  toads,  salaman- 
ders, theproteus,  and  syren. Class  IV.  Fishes. 

Scries  I,  Chondropterygiens,  or  the  cartilaginous:  aa 
the  lamprey,  shark, skate,  thornback,  sturgeon.  Se- 
ries II,  Asseux,  the  bony,  whose  divisions  are  prin- 
cipally taken  from  the  gills,  jaws,  or  fins,  and  are, 
Order  I,  the  Plectognathes:  as  the  sun-fish,  trunk-fish, 
Orderll,  the  Lophobranches:  as  the  pipe-fish,  and  pe- 
gasus.  Order  III,  the  Malacopterygiens:  as  the  sal- 
mon, herring,  sein-fish,  pike,  carp,  loche,  silurus: 
codjturbot,  sole,  remora,  eel.  Order  IV,  the  Acan- 
thopterygiens:  as  the  perch,  mackerel,  dolphin. 

DIVISION  II,  MOLLUSCA.  Six  Classes, princi- 
pally constituted  from  the  organs,  and  mode  of  pro- 
gi-ession. Classl,  the  Cephalopodes;  as  the  cuttle- 
fish and  nautilus. Class  II,  the  Pteropodes  ;  s.9 

the  clio,  cleodore,  andhyalea.     Class  III,  the  Gaster- 

opodes;  as  the  slug,  snail,  and  limpet. Class  IV, 

the  Acephales,  (without  heads);  as  the  oyster  and 
muscle. —  ClassY,  theBrachiopodes;  as  the  Ungula, 

and  terebratula. Class  VI,  the  Cirrhopodes  ;  aa 

the  barnacle. 

DIVISION    III,  ARTICULATED    ANIMALS. 

Four    classes. Class   I,    Annelides,    or  worms. 

Order  I,  the  Tubicoles,  forming  a  calcareous  tube 
around  them:  as  the  scopula,  sabella,  and  terebella. 
Order  II.  the  Dorsibranches,  the  limbs  dift'used  over 
the  body;  as  the  nereide  and  aphrodite.  Order  III, 
the  Abranches,  (without  limbs);  as  the  earth-worrn 
and  leech.- — Class  II,  the  Crustaceous.  Five  or- 
ders, formed  from  the  number,  or  position  of  their 
organs  of  motion.  Order  I,  the  Decapodes:  as  the 
crab,  lobster,  and  prawn.  Orderll,  the  Stomapodes: 
as  the  squill.  Order  III,  the  Amphipodes:  as  the 
garaniarusi  Order  IV,  the  Isopdes:  as  the  wood- 
louse.     Order  V,  the  Branchiopodes;  as  the  mono- 

cuUus. Class  III,  the  Arachnides,  or  spider  tribe. 

Two  orders,  formed  from  respiration  being  effected 
by  pulmonary  cells:  or  by  tracheas,  or  openings  in  the 
skin.  Order  I,  the  Polmonaires;  as  the  spider,  taran- 
tula and  scorpion.     Order  II,  the  Tracheennes:   aa 

the  phalangium,   and   mite. Class  IV,   Insects, 

Twelve  orders,  derived  principally  from  the  number 
of  their  feet  and  wings.  Order  I,  the  Myriapodes, 
have  numerous  feet:  as  the  iulus,  centipes.  Order  II, 
the  Hysanoures,  having  appendages  to  their  tails:  as 
thelepisma,  or  wood-fish,  and  podura.  Order  III, 
the  Parasites:  as  the  louse.  Order  IV,  the  Succurs: 
as  the  flea.  Order  V,  the  Coleopteres,  having  cased 
wings:  as  the, carabus,  beetle,  lady-bird,  glow-worm,' 
Order  VI,  the  Orthopteres,  having  straight  wings: 
as  the  earwig,  locust,  grasshopper,  and  mole  cricket. 
Order  VII,  the  Hemiptei-es,  or  half-winged:  as  the 
bug,  the  water  scorpion,  lantern-fly,  "aphis,  and 
cochineal.  Order  VIII,  the  Neuropteres,  having 
net-work  wings:  as  the  dragon-fly,  and  ephemera. 
Order  IX,  the  Hymenopteres,  having  merahranoua 
wings:  as  the  ichneumon,  ant,  sphex,  wasp, and  bee. 
Order  X,  tlie  Lepidopteres,  having  scaly  wings  :  as 
the  butterfly,  and  moth.  Order  XI,  the  Rhipipterea, 
having  fan-like  wings:  as  the  xenos,  and  stylops. 
Order  XII,  the  Dipteres,  having  two  wings:  as  the 
gnat,  and  liouse-fiy. 

DIVISION  IV.    ZOOPHITES. _    Four  classes, 

Classl,  the  Echynodennes;  spinedskin;   as  the 

star-fish,  and  echinus. Class  II,  the  Intestinaux, 

or  intestinal  animals:  as  the  taenia,  ascaris,  and  hyda- 
tid.  Class  HI,  the  Acalephes,  or  sea-nettle:   as 

the    sea-anemony,  and    medusa. Class  IV,  the 

Polypes,  or  many-footed:  as  the  hydra,  corralline, 

and  sponge. Class  V,  the  Infusoires,  found  ia 

animal  and  vegetable  infusions:  as  the  wheel  aniirial, 
and  proteus. 


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